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Gender Differences in Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism in 37 Nations
Abstract
Mean gender differences on Eysenck's three personality traits of extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism were collated for 37 nations. Women obtained higher means than men on neuroticism in all countries, and men obtained higher means than women on psychoticism in 34 countries and on extraversion in 30 countries. The relation between the magnitude of the gender differences and per capita incomes was not significant for any of the three traits.
... He concluded that gender differences were generally invariant across six nations. Lynn and Martin (1997) examined gender differences in Eysenck's Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism subscales in 37 countries. They found that women were consistently higher than men in all countries in Neuroticism, whereas men were generally higher on Extraversion and Psychoticism. ...
... This result is consistent with findings in 84.4% of the 32 previous studies summarized in Tables 1 and 2 (see also: Abdel-Khalek, 2013a, 2018a, 2019cAbdel-Khalek & Eysenck, 1983;Escorial & Navas, 2007;Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975). The current result of an elevated neuroticism factor among women is also consistent with important cross-cultural findings and reviews, such as Feingold (1994), Lynn and Martin (1997), as well as Costa et al. (2001). It is noteworthy that the higher mean score of women on Neuroticism was the only significant gender difference in an Arabic, Kuwaiti study (Alansari, 1997). ...
... The previously reported findings regarding extraversion were controversial. For example, Lynn and Martin (1997) indicated that men obtained higher mean scores than women on the Extraversion scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire in 30 out of 37 countries (81%). Some researchers found the opposite, that women had higher mean scores on Extraversion (Cruise et al., 2012;Sharma & Gulati, 2015). ...
... We did not find any gender differences in personality traits between postgraduates of different branches. This in contrast with a study by Lynn and Martin, [19] which was done on a wide sample ranging from 37 different countries and found that women score high in neuroticism and men score high in psychoticism. They felt that their finding is due to the genetic basis and men being more aggressive. ...
Background: Medical postgraduates are exposed to more time in patient care and thereby higher stress. Personality is one of the important factors associated with stress. Studies exist in profiling personality traits and also assessing stress in medical professionals. However, in India, to the best of our knowledge, there are only few studies linking personality traits with stress in different branches of medicine. Aim : The aim of the study was to study the association between big five personality traits and stress among medical postgraduates. Setting and Design This was a cross-sectional study in medical college. Materials and Methods
Big five inventory, perceived stress scale 14. Statistical Analysis Used Chi-square, t-test, analysis of variance, correlation. Results Personality pattern among postgraduates were low on openness (P = 0.000), neuroticism (P = 0.001), and high agreeableness (P = 0.007) compared to general population. Among the different branches pre-paraclinical branches have low openness (P = 0.004), medical branches have high agreeableness (P = 0.000), low openness (P = 0.000), surgical branches have low openness (P = 0.004), and neuroticism (P = 0.003). Married students have high neuroticism (P = 0.007). Perceived stress is high in all variables compared to general population. Among different subjects of medical sciences, it is significantly high in pre-paraclinical (P = 0.001) and clinical branches (P = 0.001). Negative correlation exists between conscientiousness (r = ?0.233, P = 0.025), extraversion (r = ?0.204, P = 0.050), and positive correlation between neuroticism (r = +0.607, P = 0.000) with perceived stress. Conclusions:Medical postgraduates have low openness, neuroticism, and high agreeableness. Perceived stress is high in medical postgraduates in all demographic variables compared to the general population.
... Here a reasonable conclusion would be that the most important sex difference in Egyptian students is in the prevalence of negative emotions (measured mostly by the Neuroticism scale), and that this has effects on the kind of mental health that is measured by the ASMH. The higher mental health score of men and the higher Neuroticism score of women are congruent with many studies (Abdel-Khalek, 2011, 2013, 2018a, 2019cAbdel-Khalek & Eysenck, 1983;Abdel-Khalek & Lester, 2017;Escorial & Navas, 2007;Lynn & Martin, 1997). Furthermore, the higher score for Neuroticism and the lower score for mental health for women are congruent with the sex role of females in a patriarchal, collectivistic society such as Egypt (Fakh-El-Islam, 2000). ...
... Differences on openness and conscientiousness were negligibly small. These findings have since been replicated many times over across multiple cultures (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001;Lynn & Martin, 1997) as well as in other-ratings (McCrae,Terracciano,& 78 Members of the Personality Profiles of Cultures Project, 2005). Furthermore, it appears that larger gender differences are found at the aspect and facet levels of the Big Five than for the global Big Five factors (Weisberg, DeYoung, & Hirsh, 2011). ...
... Pokud se týče zjištěných signifikantních rozdílů mezi muži a ženami v dimenzi neuroticismu byla tato skutečnost rovněž již vícekrát potvrzena (Djudiyah, Sulastiana, Harding & Sumantri, 2016). Lynn & Martin (1997) zveřejnili studii, v níž porovnávají dimenze extroverze, neuroticismu a psychoticismu u 37 národností. U všech národů vykazovaly ženy vyšší neuroticismus než muži. ...
This aim of the presented publication is to describe human movement in the context of ongoing cognitive processes, and to highlight some relatively simple options how to influence the motor performance of the individual in the process of physical education, or how to influence the motor learning process.
Human performance has many forms. In general, performance is perceived as something tangible, observable, and measurable. However, it is always necessary to be aware of the fact that human performance reflects a wide variety of human personality aspects that have more or less impact on the performance, and we cannot affect these aspects. Human movement is an apparent and highly individual manifestation of every individual. The fact that we inter-individually differ when performing physical performance is caused partly by our anatomy, somatotype, degree of development of motor skills, training status, acquired experience and skills, but also by the quality of perception, manner of evaluation of perception, method of finding an adequate answer to a given perceptual situation, level of imagination, ability to concentrate, and the like. In addition to internal intervening factors, there are also external factors which can affect the current mental state of the individual, thus change their current possibilities of motor performance.
The first part of our publication contains chapters addressing the summary of knowledge related to the interconnection between neural control of movements and exhibition of external movement. These chapters discuss the basic theoretical background used in the formation of design of the research work described in the second part of the publication. The research work highlights the fact that the most probands responded to the applied external intervention according to its focus, which was applied once, or repeatedly. The intervention measures related to body postures, movement imagination, or external information about the expected follow-up performance of probands.
In conclusion, it should be noted that it is always necessary to be aware of the fact that knowledge cannot be completely generalised, but particular needs of individuals should be taken into account in the pedagogical process, which should be adapted according to these needs.
... Descriptive statistics and gender comparisons are presented in Table 1. The majority of the scales had no gender differences with the exception of significantly higher scores with the neuroticism and emotionality scales in the case of the females, which is consistent with previous literature (e.g., Weisberg et al., 2011;Lynn and Martin, 1997). Males had slightly higher scores on the Revised Materialism Scale (REV) which is has been found in a previous study by Watson (2020). ...
The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between, neuroticism, emotionality well-being and materialism. A series of mediation analyses were conducted with data obtained from a set of questionnaires completed by University students. The results indicated that neuroticism and emotionality were mediators in the well-being-materialism relationship. However, this relationship is dependent upon whether neuroticism or emotionality is measured as the three neuroticism measures utilized were significant mediators whereas the HEXACO emotionality scale was not. A facet-level analysis was conducted with the IPIP-NEO facets of volatility and withdrawal and with the HEXACO facets of sentimentality/dependence and withdrawal. In either case, withdrawal was a significant mediator in the materialism well-being relationship, whereas volatility or sentimentality/dependence was not. The results highlight the differences between neuroticism and HEXACO emotionality and add additional insight into the relationship between materialism and lower well-being. These findings suggest possible methods of decreasing materialistic tendencies and increasing subjective well-being.
... Regarding our main objective, our findings revealed a statistically significant sex difference in Neuroticism, in which women obtained higher ratings than men. These results are in line with a vast literature reporting that women are prone to negative emotionality including anxiety, depression and in general low emotional stability (Costa, Terracciano & McCrae, 2001;de Bolle et al., 2015;Fernández & Castro, 2004;Gülgöz, 2002;Kajonius & Johnson, 2018;Lynn & Martin, 1997;Rubinstein, 2005;Soto et al., 2011). ...
Empirical research in the personality field, most of it done in developed countries, supports the notion of sex differences. Much less research has been done in developing countries. The purpose of the present research study was to examine sex differences in personality traits in a Peruvian general population sample. Additionally, we explore acquiescence response bias. The sample consisted of 557 Peruvian residents in Metropolitan Lima, with ages ranging from 16 to 79 years (Mage = 29.7, SD = 10.9). Most respondents were women (333, 60%). Participants filled out the adapted version of the Big Five Personality Inventory. Consistent with previous empirical research done worldwide, results showed higher female than male scores on the Neuroticism personality trait. Moreover, removing acquiescent responders increased the reliability in all dimensions of the BFI. These results contribute to the body of empirical research on sex differences in personality.
... The logistic regression model showed that males were less likely to buy anxiety medication than females. This effect replicates previous findings showing that females are higher in trait N (Lynn and Martin, 1997), and more prone to anxiety disorders (Lewinsohn et al., 1998;Angst and Dobler-Mikola, 1985;Bruce et al., 2005;Regier et al., 1990;Kessler et al., 1994). ...
This thesis investigates what big data can add to the psychological study of human behaviour; and how Psychological theory can inform developments in machine learning models predicting human behaviour. It works through the difficulties that arise when the fields of machine learning and psychology meet. While machine learning models deal well with big datasets, they are designed for prediction, neglecting psychologists' desire to, not just predict, but understand behaviour. Psychology does well at using theory to specify models and explain the variance within a sample, yet can fail to consider how transferable the findings are to new samples. This research harnesses over a million loyalty card transaction records from a high-street health and beauty retailer linked to 12,968 questionnaire responses measuring demographics, shopping motivations, and individual differences. Equipped with real world behavioural records, and information on potential psychological and demographic drivers of behaviour, this thesis explores the ways in which psychological research can be undergone using big data to better understand three main areas: well-being, environmental behaviours, and anxiety symptoms. This thesis has the goal of marrying the strengths of traditional psychological methodology (utilising theoretical knowledge, quantifying uncertainty, and building interpretable models) with the exciting possibilities afforded by big data, all whilst ensuring that the models are generalisable and do not overfit. The following chapters discuss and evaluate novel research in this space, as well as the difficulties encountered, and compromises made, in undertaking `Big Data Psychology’.
Background:
Greater neuroticism has been associated with higher risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD) dementia. However, the directionality of this association is unclear. We examined whether personality traits differ between cognitively-unimpaired carriers of autosomal-dominant AD (ADAD) and non-carriers, and are associated with in vivo AD pathology.
Objective:
To determine whether personality traits differ between cognitively unimpaired ADAD mutation carriers and non-carriers, and whether the traits are related to age and AD biomarkers.
Methods:
A total of 33 cognitively-unimpaired Presenilin-1 E280A mutation carriers and 41 non-carriers (ages 27-46) completed neuropsychological testing and the NEO Five-Factor Personality Inventory. A subsample (n = 46; 20 carriers) also underwent tau and amyloid PET imaging.
Results:
Carriers reported higher neuroticism relative to non-carriers, although this difference was not significant after controlling for sex. Neuroticism was positively correlated with entorhinal tau levels only in carriers, but not with amyloid levels.
Conclusion:
The finding of higher neuroticism in carriers and the association of this trait with tau pathology in preclinical stages of AD highlights the importance of including personality measures in the evaluation of individuals at increased risk for cognitive impairment and dementia. Further research is needed to characterize the mechanisms of these relationships.
Summary: 401 men and 475 women completed the Dutch version of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. Factor comparisons all exceeded 0.97 so that the factors of Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Social Desirability are deemed to be identical in the two countries, England and The Netherlands. Sex differences conform with those in most other cross-cultural studies, namely, men score higher than women on Psychoticism and Extraversion, but lower on Neuroticism and Social Desirability. Reliabilities (alpha coefficients) are satisfactorily high for all factors, although the lowest value (O.62) for the Psychoticism dimension for Dutch men appears somewhat weak. National differences on personality variables were only significant for the Neuroticism scale and Social Desirability; Dutch men and women scored lower on the Neuroticism scale than their English counterparts but higher on Social Desirability
The EPQ translated into Finnish was completed by 501 males and 448 females. Factor comparisons, on the EPQ, all exceeded 0.96, so that factors Psychoticism (P), Extraversion (E), Neuroticism (N) and Social Desirability (L) were deemed to be identical in Finland and England. Sex differences were in line with the usual results, i.e. males scoring higher than females on P and E but lower on N and Social Desirability. Reliabilities (alpha coefficients) were satisfactorily high, except perhaps that for females on Psychoticism. National differences on these personality variables were barely significant for P (Finnish Ss scoring slightly higher than the English). Both sexes in Finland scored higher on E than their English counterparts, Finnish females scored lower on N and Finnish males lower on Social Desirability.The same Ss also completed the Zuckerman Sensation Seeking (SS) Scales (form V). Factor comparisons between Finnish males and females were high for Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Experience Seeking, but low for Disinhibition and Boredom Susceptibility. Reliabilities (alpha coefficients) were high for Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Disinhibition but low for the other two scales.Intercorelations of EPQ and SS scales are presented, and were, in the expected direction, i.e. total SS scale was highly correlated with P,E and negatively with L (Social Desirability) but not at all with N. Disinhibition aligned with P and E and Thrill and Adventure Seeking mainly with E.
538 males and 529 females completed the translated Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) in Russia. Factor comparisons all exceeded 0.95 except that for Psychoticism (P) for females which was 0.92. We may, therefore, assume that the factors of Extraversion (E), Neuroticism (N) and Social Desirability or Lie scale (L) are measuring the same in Russia as in England, with a somewhat weaker concomitance for females on P. Sex differences were the usual, i.e. males scored higher on P and E but lower on N and L. Cross-cultural comparison of norms, obtained by comparing only items Russian and English scoring keys have in common, revealed that Russian females scored lower on E than their English counterparts, Russian males scored higher on N than their English counterparts and social desirability was somewhat higher for the Russian subjects, this however only reaching the 0.5 significance level for the males. In short, no obvious or general cross-cultural differences were found. The Russian form of the EPQ can be used confidently in Russia, with caution as far as the interpretation of the P score is concerned since reliabilities (alpha coefficients) were lower for P, those for E, N and L being totally satisfactory.
The means for each scale score from the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire were compared individually and conjointly across 25 countries. Comparisons were carried out using coded difference scores, Pearson correlations, Euclidean distances, cluster analyses and non-metric multidimensional scaling. It was possible to compare the personality (as defined by the scale scores on E, N, P and L) of each country with all other countries, culminating in a one-dimensional non-metric scale of distances for both the male and female data from each country. The assumptions underlying the rationale of the measures used and the comparisons undertaken are briefly discussed.
Two large-scale applications of the EPQ were carried out on U.S. samples and the dimensions of personality resulting from factor analyses of the resulting matrices of intercorrelations compared with similar data obtained from the original standardization groups of the EPQ in England. It is concluded that very similar factor structures obtained in the two countries, but that quota samples obtained by polling agencies may be less reliable than less representative samples obtained in more usual ways. U.S. Ss are lower on P and higher on E than the U.K. Ss.