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Adolescent vegetarians. A behavioral profile of a school-based population in Minnesota
Abstract
To compare a population-based sample of vegetarian and nonvegetarian adolescents regarding food intake patterns, disordered eating, and a range of other non-food-related health-compromising and health-promoting behaviors.
A cross-sectional school-based survey.
Public schools within nonurban areas of Minnesota.
Adolescents (n = 107) aged 12 to 20 years who reported on the Minnesota Adolescent Health Survey that they follow a vegetarian diet and a comparison group of nonvegetarian youth (n = 214) matched for sex, age, and ethnicity. The percentage of self-identified vegetarians in the study population was relatively low (0.6%); most of the vegetarians were female (81%).
Food intake patterns, disordered eating (frequent dieting, binge eating, self-induced vomiting, and laxative use), health-compromising behaviors (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use and suicide attempts), and health-promoting behaviors (seat belt use, physical activity, and brushing teeth regularly).
Vegetarian adolescents were twice as likely to consume fruits and vegetables (P < .001), one third as likely to consume sweets (P < .001), and one fourth as likely to eat salty snack foods (P < .001) more than once a day compared with nonvegetarians. Vegetarians were almost twice as likely to report frequent dieting (P < .001), 4 times as likely to report intentional vomiting (P < .001), and 8 times as likely to report laxative use (P < .001) than nonvegetarians. Overall, associations with other health-compromising and health-promoting behaviors were not apparent.
A vegetarian diet may be beneficial because of increased fruit and vegetable consumption and decreased consumption of foods high in fat, salt, and sugar. However, adolescents following a vegetarian diet need to be screened for adequate food intake and potential disordered eating behaviors.
... In addition, studies have compared vegetarians to non-vegetarians on a number of variables related to weight control and dieting. While some researchers have concluded that vegetarianism is associated with dieting and weight control (43)(44)(45)(46)(47), others have failed to find differences between vegetarians and non-vegetarians on dieting and weight control measures (48), or have found the opposite effect (5). ...
... the research published to date has not differentiated subgroups of vegetarians. Rather this work has either focused only on vegans and lacto-vegetarians [e.g., (5)], or has compared a heterogeneous sample of vegetarian and vegetarian-oriented individuals as a whole to omnivores (36,37,41,42,44,45,47,48). This is often done because of the difficulty in recruiting sufficient numbers of vegetarian subgroups to have enough power for meaningful statistical analysis. ...
... However, if participants are not asked to report the frequency of their meat intake, it is difficult to determine whether their identification as a vegetarian actually reflects their dietary habits. Second, previous research has either included a limited sample of omnivores, including only those who reported eating red meat at least three times a week [e.g., (5)], or has not asked omnivores to indicate how frequently they eat meat (36,(41)(42)(43)(44)(45)(46)(47). Because previous studies have ignored flexitarians, or included them with other omnivores who do not restrict their meat intake, it is unclear what factors motivate their food intake. ...
A carefully planned vegetarian diet meets nutrition recommendations by providing essential nutrients and lowering levels of saturated fat and cholesterol. Because balanced diets that limit or exclude meat tend to be lower in calories than omnivorous diets, it has been suggested that vegetarian eating patterns may be motivated by weight control. This view has been supported by findings demonstrating that vegetarians have a higher rate of disordered and restrained eating than non-vegetarians. Other findings suggest that weight control is a primary reason identified by adolescents and young adults for eliminating items such as meat and other animal products from their diet. Thus, it has been suggested that vegetarianism may provide a socially acceptable means to control body weight. However, this may be an over-generalization. Vegetarians are a heterogeneous group of individuals with radically different eating habits. Moreover, they are often compared to omnivores who eat meat on a regular basis. These omnivorous eating habits do not represent a growing subset of the population, many of whom are adopting a flexitarian diet that involves only the occasional consumption of meat. The goal of the current paper will be to demonstrate that semi-vegetarians and flexitarians are categorically different from vegans, lacto-ovo-vegetarians, and omnivores and describe the motivations as well as the positive and negative health implications that are associated with dietary patterns that limit the intake of meat. It is important for us to understand the motivations and behaviors that are characteristic of flexitarians in order to develop effective evidence-based strategies to address unhealthy eating behaviors.
... Research suggests that vegetarianism can be a healthful dietary option (3). Vegetarians may be more likely than their peers to consume a diet high in fruits and vegetables (4,5) and low in energy density (6), which may put them at decreased risk for obesity and certain chronic diseases, including diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, and some cancers (3). Vegetarians consume a diet consisting primarily of plant sources. ...
... If vegetarian diets, especially vegan diets, are not well-planned, there may be an increased potential for specific nutrient deficiencies, including vitamin B-12, calcium, vitamin D, riboflavin, protein, zinc, and n-3 fatty acids (3). In addition to potential nutrient deficiencies, there is concern about the consistent pattern associating vegetarianism and disordered eating behaviors in adolescents (4,(7)(8)(9). Studies have shown that adolescents who have symptoms of eating disorders may adopt a vegetarian diet as a weight-loss method because it is a socially acceptable way to avoid eating certain food groups (3). ...
... On average, vegetarians from both the younger and older cohorts consumed about five daily servings of fruits and vegetables and Ͻ30% of total calories as fat, while never vegetarians consumed less than four daily servings of fruits and vegetables and slightly Ͼ30% of total calories as fat. These findings are consistent with the previous literature reporting an association between vegetarianism and increased consumption of foods low in fat and high in fiber, such as fruits and vegetables (4)(5)(6). The high water and fiber content, more common in vegetarian diets, may play a role in obesity prevention through mech-anisms associated with reduced energy density and increased satiety (28,29). ...
... Research suggests that vegetarianism can be a healthful dietary option (3). Vegetarians may be more likely than their peers to consume a diet high in fruits and vegetables (4,5) and low in energy density (6), which may put them at decreased risk for obesity and certain chronic diseases, including diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, and some cancers (3). Vegetarians consume a diet consisting primarily of plant sources. ...
... If vegetarian diets, especially vegan diets, are not well-planned, there may be an increased potential for specific nutrient deficiencies, including vitamin B-12, calcium, vitamin D, riboflavin, protein, zinc, and n-3 fatty acids (3). In addition to potential nutrient deficiencies, there is concern about the consistent pattern associating vegetarianism and disordered eating behaviors in adolescents (4,(7)(8)(9). Studies have shown that adolescents who have symptoms of eating disorders may adopt a vegetarian diet as a weight-loss method because it is a socially acceptable way to avoid eating certain food groups (3). ...
... On average, vegetarians from both the younger and older cohorts consumed about five daily servings of fruits and vegetables and Ͻ30% of total calories as fat, while never vegetarians consumed less than four daily servings of fruits and vegetables and slightly Ͼ30% of total calories as fat. These findings are consistent with the previous literature reporting an association between vegetarianism and increased consumption of foods low in fat and high in fiber, such as fruits and vegetables (4)(5)(6). The high water and fiber content, more common in vegetarian diets, may play a role in obesity prevention through mech-anisms associated with reduced energy density and increased satiety (28,29). ...
Examine characteristics of current and former adolescent and young adult vegetarians and investigate the relationships between vegetarianism, weight, dietary intake, and weight-control behaviors.
Cross-sectional analysis using data from a population-based study in Minnesota (Project EAT-II: Eating Among Teens).
Participants completed a mailed survey and food frequency questionnaire in 2004.
Males and females (n=2,516), ages 15-23 years.
Weight status, dietary intake (fruit, vegetables, fat, calories), unhealthful weight-control behaviors.
Multiple regression models controlling for socioeconomic status and sex were used to test for significant differences between current, former, and never vegetarians within the younger and older cohort.
Participants were identified as current (4.3%), former (10.8%), and never (84.9%) vegetarians. Current vegetarians in the younger and older cohorts had healthier dietary intakes than nonvegetarians with regard to fruits, vegetables, and fat. Among young adults, current vegetarians were less likely than never vegetarians to be overweight or obese. Adolescent and young adult current vegetarians were more likely to report binge eating with loss of control when compared to nonvegetarians. Among adolescents, former vegetarians were more likely than never vegetarians to engage in extreme unhealthful weight-control behaviors. Among young adults, former vegetarians were more likely than current and never vegetarians to engage in extreme unhealthful weight-control behaviors.
Adolescent and young adult vegetarians may experience the health benefits associated with increased fruit and vegetable intake and young adults may experience the added benefit of decreased risk for overweight and obesity. However, current vegetarians may be at increased risk for binge eating with loss of control, while former vegetarians may be at increased risk for extreme unhealthful weight-control behaviors. It would be beneficial for clinicians to inquire about current and former vegetarian status when assessing risk for disordered eating behaviors.
... In our study, 46% of women perceived that they were more active than others of their age, and 49% reported walking for Ͼ30 minutes/day. Seventy-one percent reported participating in sports or vigorous physical activity "long enough to get sweaty" once or more per week; this compares to 56% of American women in this age range [30]. Taken together, these data suggest that the women who took part in this study were more physically active than were most women of their age. ...
... Cholesterol intakes were significantly lower among vegetarians, but were below 200 mg/day in both diet groups. Finally, dietary fiber intakes were higher among vegetarians, but intakes of both groups were within the recommended range of 20 -35 g/day or 10 -13 g/1000 kcal [32][33][34] and were well above mean intakes of U.S. women in the same age range [30]. ...
To compare relative weight, weight loss efforts and nutrient intakes among similarly health-conscious vegetarian, past vegetarian and nonvegetarian premenopausal women.
Demographic data, lifestyle practices and weight loss efforts (by questionnaire), body mass index (BMI;kg/m2) and dietary intake (via multiple-pass 24-hour diet recall) were compared in a convenience sample of 90 current vegetarians, 35 past vegetarians and 68 nonvegetarians.
Age (31.9 +/- 8.8), educational attainment, smoking status, alcohol use, physical activity and perceived health status were similar among the three groups of women. BMI did not differ by dietary pattern and averaged 23.7 +/- 4.7 for all women combined. Participants had intentionally lost > or = 10 pounds a mean of 2.1 times, and 39% of women perceived themselves to be overweight; again, no differences were observed among dietary groups. Dietary intakes of vegetarians and current nonvegetarians were consistent with current recommendations for macronutrient composition (< 30% fat, < 10% saturates). Compared to current nonvegetarians, current vegetarians had lower intakes of protein, saturated fat, cholesterol, niacin, vitamins B12 and D, and higher fiber and magnesium intakes. Vegetarians' mean vitamin B12 and D intakes were well below recommendations.
Relative weight and weight loss efforts do not differ by dietary pattern among similarly health-conscious vegetarian and nonvegetarian women. The only differences in nutrient intake with potential health implications were vitamins D and B12.
... Notably, across cultures, men consume more meat than women do (Berbesque & Marlowe, 2009;Daniel, Cross, Koebnick, & Sinha, 2011;Prattala et al., 2007). Abstention from meat (i.e., being vegetarian) also differs across the sexes, with women more likely to be vegetarian than men Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Resnick, & Blum, 1997;Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1998). Researchers have forwarded biological arguments to explain sex differences in meat preferences and consumption. ...
People vary in the degree to which they enjoy eating meats versus plants. This paper examines the genetic and environmental roots of this variation, as well as the genetic and environmental roots of meat neophobia, plant neophobia, and vegetarianism/veganism. Using data from 9,319 adult Finnish twins and siblings of twins (551 MZ, 861 DZ complete; 783 MZ, 2,692 DZ incomplete twin pairs), we examine the degree to which recalled childhood exposure to meats and plants relates to adult preferences for the same meats and plants. We also investigate sex differences in the heritability of 1) meat and plant preferences, 2) childhood meat and plant consumption, 3) meat and plant neophobia, and the heritability of 4) vegetarianism/veganism. For both men and women, recalled childhood meat consumption correlated more strongly with current meat preferences than current plant preferences, and recalled childhood plant consumption correlated more strongly with current plant preferences than current meat preferences. We detected sex differences in the heritability of childhood meat consumption (h²men= .31, h²women= .11) and current meat preferences (h² men = .26, h²women =.51), but not childhood plant consumption (h²men= .41, h²women =.17), current plant preferences (h²men = .45, h²women =.53), meat neophobia (h²men = .48, h²women = .55) or plant neophobia (h²men = .56, h²women = .54). Further, different genes undergirded men’s and women’s meat preferences. Abstention from meat (i.e., vegetarianism/veganism) was 75% heritable. These results have implications for hypotheses of the developmental origins of dietary patterns and hypotheses for sex differences in meat consumption.
... Women are also more likely than men to be vegans or vegetarians (Beardsworth & Bryman, 1999;Fessler et al., 2003;Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1997;Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1998). In parallel to the differential preference in meats, women might be more meat neophobic than men, but not necessarily more plant neophobic. ...
People vary in their willingness to try new foods. This variation, which is most frequently measured using the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS; Pliner & Hobden, 1992), has been interpreted as unidimensional. In four studies (N’s = 210, 306, 160, and 161), we 1) demonstrate that food neophobia varies across meat and plant dimensions, 2) explore the validity of a measure of meat and plant neophobia, and 3) test whether these food neophobia dimensions predict decisions to eat a novel food item (i.e., a snack bar that contains insects). Mixed-effects model across the four studies indicated that the two dimensions differentially relate to a number of variables, including disgust sensitivity, animal empathy, and masculinity. Women scored higher on meat neophobia than men, but the sexes did not differ on plant neophobia. Only meat neophobia uniquely predicted eating a novel insect-based snack bar. Overall, these results extend knowledge regarding orientations toward novel foods.
... After eliminating all duplicates, 911 manuscripts were evaluated by reading titles and abstracts, which resulted in the exclusion of 857 records. Fifty-four full-text articles were assessed for eligibility, of which a further 41 were excluded ( Figure 1): 13 because the studies did not include a purely vegetarian or vegan diet (ie, those that included flexitarians or self-reported vegetarians who reported fish consumption) 13,30,[39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49] ; 11 because the studies had a different objective than that of the present meta-analysis 50-60 ; 6 because the studies did not include a control group (omnivorous group) to compare the mental or cognitive outcomes 61-66 ; 4 because eating disorders were included as a mental health outcome [67][68][69][70] ; 3 because the studies were conducted in unhealthy individuals (ie, studies in which participants reported having eating disorders before starting the diet) 71-73 ; 1 because no raw data were provided 60,74 ; 2 because the studies did not employ purely dietary interventions in which individual dietary effects could be separated 75,76 ; and 1 because it was not an original article. 77 The main author was contacted in cases in which the article did not provide raw or adjusted data and to clarify obscure definitions of diets. ...
Context:
Vegetarian and vegan diets are increasing in popularity. Although they provide beneficial health effects, they may also lead to nutritional deficiencies. Cognitive impairment and mental health disorders have a high economic burden.
Objective:
A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between vegan or vegetarian diets and cognitive and mental health.
Data sources:
PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Proquest databases were examined from inception to July 2018.
Study selection:
Original observational or interventional human studies of vegan/vegetarian diets were selected independently by 2 authors.
Data extraction:
Raw means and standard deviations were used as continuous outcomes, while numbers of events were used as categorical outcomes.
Results:
Of 1249 publications identified, 13 were included, with 17 809 individuals in total. No significant association was found between diet and the continuous depression score, stress, well-being, or cognitive impairment. Vegans/vegetarians were at increased risk for depression (odds ratio = 2.142; 95%CI, 1.105-4.148) and had lower anxiety scores (mean difference = -0.847; 95%CI, -1.677 to -0.018). Heterogeneity was large, and thus subgroup analyses showed numerous differences.
Conclusions:
Vegan or vegetarian diets were related to a higher risk of depression and lower anxiety scores, but no differences for other outcomes were found. Subgroup analyses of anxiety showed a higher risk of anxiety, mainly in participants under 26 years of age and in studies with a higher quality. More studies with better overall quality are needed to make clear positive or negative associations.
Systematic review registration:
PROSPERO registration no. CRD42018097204.
... With regard to the effect of socio-demographic variables, we found that vegetarians are more often female, younger, and more educated (Studies 1 and 2), and have a higher income (Study 2). These findings are comparable to prior studies that have reported that women are more likely than men to be vegetarians (Allen et al., 2000;Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1997;Tobler et al., 2011), and that younger and more educated people are more likely than older and less educated people, respectively, to follow a vegetarian diet (Aston et al., 2013;Wiig & Smith, 2008). Although income has previously been positively related to a vegetarian diet (Leahy et al., 2010), in the present research we found a relationship between income and diet only when using a laxer definition of a vegetarian diet (Study 2). ...
An increasing proportion of people choose to follow a vegetarian diet. To date, however, little is known about if and how individual differences in personality relate to following a vegetarian diet. In the two studies presented here, we aimed to (1) estimate the prevalence of self-defined vegetarians in two waves of a German representative sample (N = 4496 and 5,125, respectively), (2) analyze the effect of socio-demographic variables on dietary behavior, and (3) examine individual differences between vegetarians and meat eaters in personality traits, political attitudes, and health-related variables. In Study 1, a strict definition of vegetarians was used, while in Study 2 the definition was laxer, to include also individuals who only predominantly followed a vegetarian diet. The prevalence of self-defined vegetarians was 2.74% in Study 1, and 5.97% in Study 2. Participants who were female, younger, and more educated were more likely to report following a vegetarian diet in both studies, and vegetarians had higher income as compared to meat eaters in Study 2. We also found differences between vegetarians and meat eaters with regard to personality traits, political attitudes, and health-related variables. Stepwise logistic regression analyses showed a unique effect beyond socio-demographic variables for openness (Studies 1 and 2), conscientiousness (Study 1), trust (Study 2), conservatism (Studies 1 and 2), and level of interest in politics (Study 1) on diet: Individuals with higher scores in openness and political interest had a higher probability of being vegetarian, whereas people with higher scores in conscientiousness and conservatism had a smaller likelihood of being vegetarian. We conclude that there are individual differences between vegetarians and meat eaters in socio-demographics, personality traits, and political attitudes.
... Findings thus do not necessarily signify that vegans are healthier than omnivores, but rather confirm that they do not experience greater eating-related pathology than their omnivorous counterparts. In practice, clinicians have previously been told to assess for eating pathology in patients who present adhering to a meat-free diet (Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Resnick, & Blum, 1997). This study provides preliminary evidence that specifically regarding veganism, these concerns may be largely unfounded. ...
Studies comparing eating behaviors in individuals avoiding meat and other animal products to omnivores have produced largely inconclusive findings, in part due to a failure to obtain sufficiently large samples of vegan participants to make meaningful comparisons. This study examined eating and health behaviors in a large community sample of dietary vegans (“vegans”), compared to omnivores. Participants (n = 578, 80.4% female) completed an online questionnaire assessing a range of eating- and other health-related attitudes and behaviors. Vegans (62.0%, n = 358) and omnivores (38.1%, n = 220) were comparable in terms of demographics. Vegans scored significantly lower than omnivores the Eating Disorder Examination - Questionnaire (multivariate p < .001), a measure of pathological eating behavior. They also were more likely to consider themselves “healthy” (p < .001) and to prepare food at home (p < .001). Vegans more frequently consumed fruits, vegetables, nuts, beans and grains (all p < .001), and less frequently consumed caffeinated soft drinks (p < .001). There were no significant differences between vegans and omnivores on measures of eating styles, body mass index, smoking or exercise behaviors, or problems related to alcohol consumption. Effect sizes for comparisons on eating-related measures were generally small, with ranging from <0.01 to .05; the size of effects for comparisons on measures of other health behaviors ranged from small to medium (Φ = 0.09 to .33 and < .01 to .42). Taken together, findings suggest that ultimately, vegans do not differ much from omnivores in their eating attitudes and behaviors, and when they do, differences indicate slightly healthier attitudes and behaviors towards food. Similarly, vegans closely resembled omnivores in non-eating related health behaviors.
... Les régimes végétariens comportent certains avantages en matière de vie saine. D'après des données probantes, l'apport de matières grasses totales, de gras saturé, de portions de légumes et de fruits est plus sain chez ces adolescents, qui consomment moins d'alimentsminute, de sel, de boissons gazeuses ordinaires et de boissons aux fruits (6,32,61). Cependant, il faut analyser l'apport de vitamine B 12 , de calcium, de vitamine D et de fer chez chaque adolescent, à qui il faut ensuite offrir des conseils pertinents (7,8,22). ...
... Vegetarian diets do offer some advantages in terms of healthy living. There is evidence of healthier intakes of total fat, saturated fats, servings of vegetables and fruits, as well as fewer intakes of fast foods, salt, and consumption of regular soda and fruit drinks (6,32,61). However, the intake of vitamin B 12 , calcium, vitamin D and iron-containing food needs to be reviewed with each adolescent and appropriate guidance offered (7,8,22). ...
A well-balanced vegetarian diet can provide for the needs of children and adolescents. However, appropriate caloric intake should be ensured and growth monitored. Particular attention should be paid to adequate protein intake and sources of essential fatty acids, iron, zinc, calcium, and vitamins B12 and D. Supplementation may be required in cases of strict vegetarian diets with no intake of any animal products. Pregnant and nursing mothers should also be appropriately advised to ensure that the nutritional needs of the fetus and infant are adequately met. Recommendations are provided. Adolescents on restricted vegetarian or other such diets should be screened for eating disorders.
... Vegetarian diets do offer some advantages in terms of healthy living. There is evidence of healthier intakes of total fat, saturated fats, servings of vegetables and fruits, as well as fewer intakes of fast foods, salt, and consumption of regular soda and fruit drinks (6,32,61). However, the intake of vitamin B 12 , calcium, vitamin D and iron-containing food needs to be reviewed with each adolescent and appropriate guidance offered (7,8,22). ...
A well-balanced vegetarian diet can provide for the needs of children and adolescents. However, appropriate caloric intake should be ensured and growth monitored. Particular attention should be paid to adequate protein intake and sources of essential fatty acids, iron, zinc, calcium, and vitamins B 12 and D. Supplementation may be required in cases of strict vegetarian diets with no intake of any animal products. Pregnant and nursing mothers should also be appropriately advised to ensure that the nutritional needs of the fetus and infant are adequately met. Recommendations are provided. Adolescents on restricted vegetarian or other such diets should be screened for eating disorders.
... In contrast to the positive lifestyle behaviors referred to above, some weight-conscious young women may adopt a vegetarian diet because of concerns about body weight, in essence using vegetarianism as a socially acceptable way of limiting food intake [34][35][36]. To the extent that dieting or weight concerns can compromise nutrient intake, increase cortisol levels, and/or interfere with menstrual function, the potential for adverse effects on bone exists [37,38]. ...
In recent years there has been an increased interest in possible health benefits of plant-based diets. Although vegetarians comprise a small percentage of the population, some data suggest that the prevalence may be increasing, particularly among young women (1). Whether vegetarianism has an impact on bone health has not been studied extensively to date. Accordingly, the purpose of this chapter is to review possible mechanisms whereby dietary and lifestyle factors associated with vegetarianism could influence bone health, and to review the available literature comparing bone health between vegetarians and omnivores. Because very few studies have been conducted with men, this review will be confined primarily to women.
... For many men, a meat-free meal is not a "real" meal (Diehl, 1983). The consumption of fruits, vegetables and grains is generally associated with femininity and weakness, and in fact women also nourish themselves on a meat-free basis more often than men (Allen et al., 2000;Beardsworth and Bryman, 1999;Fraser et al., 2000;Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1997;Santos and Booth, 1996;Worsley and Skrzypiec, 1998). In comparison to omnivores, vegetarians are younger and have a higher level of education (Aston et al., 2013;Mitte and Kämpfe-Hargrave, 2007), consume less alcohol and tobacco and do more sports (Thefeld and Rottka, 1986), are more concerned with environmental problems (Worsley and Skrzypiec, 1998), favour unusual social structures (Allen et al., 2000), and show more empathy in neuropsychological experiments (Filippi et al., 2010). ...
Purpose
– The purpose of the paper is to examine whether reported food habits (vegan, vegetarian, or carnivore diet) are associated with right-wing authoritarianism, prejudices against minorities and acceptance of social dominance.
Design/methodology/approach
– In total, 1,381 individuals completed validated questionnaires on dietary habits and attitudes. Associations were analysed using analyses of covariance on attitudes, adjusted for age with gender and diet as factors.
Findings
– Of the respondents, 35 per cent reported eating mixed food (including meat and fish), 31 per cent vegetarian food (excluding meat and fish) and 34 per cent vegan food (excluding animal products entirely). Authoritarianism was more frequent in carnivores compared to vegetarians and vegans; this difference was more distinctive in men (mean 2.4 vs 1.9 vs 1.7) than in women (2.2 vs 1.9 vs 1.8). Women with a mixed diet were more inclined to social dominance than vegetarians and vegans (1.8 vs 1.6 vs 1.6). Men with a mixed diet had a stronger tendency to dominance (2.0 vs 1.7 vs 1.5) and prejudices (2.5 vs 2.3 vs 2.1); this difference was less distinct among women (2.2 vs 2.1 vs 2.1).
Originality/value
– This research is of academic value and of value to policy makers and practitioners in the food supply chain. The results show that individuals with vegetarian or vegan diets less frequently report having prejudices against minorities, supporting social dominance and accepting authoritarian structures than individuals with a mixed diet.
... Meat, a principal source of foodborne illness is also a source of potential teratogens, agents that cause abnormal infant development, like Toxoplasmi Gondii; Meat is the subject of most food taboos and women may be predisposed to be disgusted by it (for a review see Fessler & Navarrete, 2003a). Four times as many women are vegetarians than men (Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Resnick, & Blum, 1997) and disgust sensitivity is higher in moral vegetarians than meat eaters (Fessler, Arguello AP, Mekdara JM, & Macias R, 2003). ...
It is well accepted that disgust is an emotion whose main function is to motivate away from cues of disease or potential contamination. Although this adaptive problem is one that both men and women face, women tend to have heightened disgust sensitivity and higher frequency of psychopathologies like obsessive-compulsive disorder that have heightened disgust sensitivity as a core symptom. Women have faced unique selection pressures such as pregnancy, changes in immunity over the menstrual cycle, higher obligate parental investment, and heavier disease burden from sexually transmitted infection that have contributed to their increased disgust sensitivity compared to men. First, this chapter outlines the development of a theoretical framework around the evolution and function of disgust. Next, it reviews sex differences in disgust sensitivity as well as the modulation of disgust sensitivity. Finally, sexual disgust and recent work investigating how disgust and sexual arousal reciprocally influence one another are reviewed including the contribution of disgust to sexual disorders and expression.
... L'association entre les comportements extrêmes pour perdre du poids et les idéations suicidaires a déjà été observée dans des études antérieures (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1996 ;Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1998). L'étude de Perry et al. (2001) est la première à montrer que les adolescents végétariens ont plus de pensées suicidaires et commettent plus de tentatives (même si une tendance avait déjà été observée par Neumark-Sztainer et Story (1997). Notons que ces résultats ne sont pas valables pour la population adulte végétarienne, chez qui le fait d'être végétarien est associé à un mode de vie sain (Knutsen, 1994 ;White et Frank, 1994). ...
Cet article propose un éclairage biopsychosocial des liens entre la santé mentale, plus particulièrement le suicide, et l’alimentation. Premièrement, nous développons les liens entre l’alimentation, son rôle social et le suicide. L’acte alimentaire est étudié en tant qu’intégrateur et régulateur social, à la lumière de la théorisation de Durkheim. L’alimentation est également envisagée comme autodestruction, avec le cas particulier du « suicide alimentaire ». La déstructuration des repas et les aliments aliénants sont identifiés comme facteurs contribuant à la déstructuration des « modèles alimentaires ». Ensuite, nous évoquons la place de l’alimentation dans la psychopathologie et enfin, les liens entre les paramètres biologiques reflétant l’alimentation et le risque de suicide. Des pistes de recherche et d’intervention découlant de l’approche biopsychosociale proposée dans cet article sont également proposées.
... The low energy supply of vegetarians' diet is related to the predominance of vegetables, which usually contain large amounts of dietary fiber and a low lipid contents, which means low energy density [5,58]. As a matter of fact, a larger percentage of vegetarians ate fruit and vegetables daily, while fewer ate sweets, margarine, soft drinks and chocolate, characterized by the high energy value, similar to the findings of Neumark-Sztainer et al. [59]. Furthermore, it is believed that the underreporting food intake could be a plausible explanation for the lower energy intakes, particularly with the vegetarians subjects who may have been trying to give an impression of following a healthier diet [57]. ...
This study compared the dietary and anthropometric profile of 24 ovo-lacto-vegetarian and 36 omnivorous female adolescents, between 15 and 18 years old. Weight, height and skinfolds were measured. Food frequency questionnaires and a three day food record were used for dietary assessment. Vegetarians presented subscapular, suprailiac and midaxillary skinfolds statistically higher than omnivores, but the percent body fat was not different. The vegetarian diet provided smaller amounts of energy than that of the omnivores (p < 0.05) and only 17% of the vegetarians was able to reach the recommended allowance for protein. Regarding calcium, 83% of the vegetarians and 69% of the omnivores ate less than 2/3 of the recommended allowances and a significantly higher percentage of vegetarians presented low ingestion of iron, riboflavin, and niacin than omnivores (p < 0.05). It was concluded that the intake of vegetarians was lower in fat and cholesterol, and less adequate in micronutrients than the omnivores ones.
... From these dietary screeners, summary variables (i.e., percent of calories from fat, and dietary fiber (grams), calcium (mg), added sugar (teaspoons), fruits and vegetables (servings), and dairy (servings)) were calculated. Participants also self-reported whether or not they followed a vegetarian diet (14) and how many times per week they consumed fast food (including any restaurant where food is ordered at a counter or drive-through window; (15)). ...
Individuals who frequently read nutrition labels tend to both value healthy eating and engage in healthy dietary practices more than individuals who read labels infrequently. However, the relationship between label use, attitude toward healthy eating, and dietary quality remains unclear, particularly among young adults, about whom little is known with regard to nutrition label use. Our study investigated whether nutrition label use mediates the relationship between eating-related attitudes and dietary behaviors among young adult college students. Using cross-sectional online survey data collected in 2010 from a convenience sample in Minneapolis/St Paul, MN (598 attending a 2-year community college; 603 attending a public 4-year university; mean age 21.5 years; 53.4% nonwhite; 52.5% women), study findings indicate that students who reported frequently reading nutrition labels were more likely to have healthier dietary intakes (eg, less fast food and added sugar; more fiber, fruits, and vegetables) compared to those who read labels sometimes or rarely (P<0.001). Further, frequent nutrition label use was a significant partial mediator of the relationship between eating-related attitude (ie, feeling that it is important to prepare healthy meals) and dietary quality, indicating that label use may be one means by which individuals who value healthy eating translate their attitude into healthy eating behaviors. Even among those who did not believe it was important to prepare healthy meals, frequent nutrition label use was significantly associated with healthier dietary intake, suggesting that label use may operate independently of nutrition-related attitude in contributing to healthful diet.
... Vegetarianism is particularly common in adolescent girls, with a prevalence of between 8% and 37% (Worsley & Skrzypiec 1998). In addition, vegetarian teenagers are also more likely to exhibit health-compromising dietary behaviours that could further compound the nutritional challenge of lactation in this particularly vulnerable population, such as frequent dieting, binging, purging and laxative use for weight control (Neumark-Sztainer et al. 1997;Perry et al. 2001;Bas et al. 2005) and alcohol use (Greene-Finestone et al. 2008). Studies have yet to be conducted on the particular influence of vegetarian diets on the nutritional status of lactating adolescents. ...
There is considerable variation in reference values for micronutrient intake during lactation across Europe. The European Micronutrients Recommendations Aligned project aims to harmonize dietary recommendations throughout Europe. Recommended nutrient intakes during lactation are based on limited data and are often extrapolated from known secretion of the nutrient in milk with adjustments for bioavailability, so that differences between values can be partly ascribed to differences in methodological approaches and how these approaches were applied. Few studies have considered the impact of lactation on the mother's nutritional status. Rather, focus has been placed on the influence of maternal nutritional status on the composition of her breast milk. Most common nutritional deficits in breast milk are the result of maternal deficiencies of the water-soluble vitamins, thiamine, riboflavin and vitamins B6 and B12. Other than maternal vitamin A status, which to some extent is reflected in breast milk, concentrations of fat-soluble vitamins and most minerals in breast milk are less affected by maternal status. Factors relating to suboptimal maternal nutritional status during lactation include maternal age, diet and lifestyle factors and spacing of consecutive births. Recent research is providing new knowledge on the micronutrient requirements of lactating women. Identifying needs for research and improving understanding of the differences in values that have been derived by various committees and groups across Europe will enhance transparency and facilitate the application of dietary recommendations in policy-making decision and their translation into recommendations for lactating women. Given the wide variation in breastfeeding practices across Europe, making nutritional recommendations for lactating women is complex and challenging. Thus, it is crucial to first examine the cultural practices within and across European populations and to assess its relevance before making recommendations.
... In a Finnish nationwide school health survey, loosely defined bulimic-type eating behavior was reported by 16.5% of girls and 12.3% of boys, although discrepancies in how the study subjects understood the concept bingeing may possibly have inflated these prevalence estimates (Beglin & Fairburn 1992). The prevalences of these behaviors may be higher still in some particularly vulnerable subgroups, such as dancers (Abraham 1996), athletes (Johnson 1994 ), vegetarians (Sztainer et al. 1997b), and patients with juvenile-onset diabetes (Neumark-Sztainer et al. 1996b; Rydall et al. 1997). ...
... Vegetarian and semivegetarian women generally consume legumes as their main source of proteins. Whether the current findings are relevant to previous studies (35)(36)(37)(38) , showing that vegetarians had a poor mental health, needs to be further examined. Numerous studies have linked low serum cholesterol and depressed mood (39,40) , and total serum cholesterol was significantly lower among women who ate legumes frequently. ...
Legumes have been recommended as staple foods in the anticipation of disease prevention. However, the scientific evidence of their benefits, particularly on mental well-being, remains preliminary. We longitudinally assessed the association between legume consumption and the risk of severe depressed mood (SDM) among a national cohort.
The study included adults aged 25-74 years who were examined in 1971-1975 as a part of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Legume consumption at baseline was obtained from a 3-month FFQ and categorised as infrequent (<1 time/week), moderate (1-2 times/week) and frequent (> or = 3 times/week). SDM was defined as Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale score > or = 22 or taking anti-depression medication after an average of 10.6 years of follow-up (from 8.0 to 12.5 years).
Among women, the proportion of individuals with SDM was 17.75 %. For premenopausal women (n 1778), a significant linear trend of deleterious effect from legume consumption was observed (P for trend = 0.0148). The relative risks (RR) for infrequent, moderate and frequent consumptions were 1 (reference), 1.24 (95 % CI = 0.91, 1.70) and 1.75 (1.12, 2.75), respectively. However, moderate consumption showed a significant protective effect (RR = 0.52 (0.27, 1.00)) among women undergoing the menopausal transition (n 454). No association was obtained from either postmenopausal women (n 601) or men (n 2036).
These findings suggest that gender and menopausal status were effect modifiers of the association between legume consumption and SDM. Detrimental effects of frequent consumption of legumes may exist among premenopausal women; moderate consumption, however, may protect perimenopausal women against SDM.
... Much concern has been raised about the possible relationship between vegetarian diets among teenage girls and eating disorders. A survey conducted in 1986-1987 among Minnesota teenagers showed that vegetarians were much more likely than nonvegetarians to engage in disordered eating behaviors (77). Martins et al (78) found that vegetarianism was associated with disordered eating only among certain groups. ...
This article reviews research on the growth and nutrient intake of vegan children and provides guidelines for counselling parents of vegan children. Although diets of vegan children meet or exceed recommendations for most nutrients, and vegan children have higher intakes of fiber and lower intakes of total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol than omnivore children, some studies indicate that they may be low in calcium. In addition, bioavailability of zinc and iron from plant foods can be low. Protein needs are slightly higher for vegan children but are easily met with a varied diet that provides adequate energy. Special attention should be given to dietary practices that enhance absorption of zinc and iron from plant foods. Further, good sources of the omega-3 fatty acid linolenic acid should be emphasized to enhance synthesis of the long-chain fatty acid docosahexanoic acid. Dietetics professionals who counsel vegan families should help parents identify good sources of vitamin B-12, riboflavin, zinc, calcium and, if sun exposure is not adequate, vitamin D. This should not be problematic, due to the growing number and availability of fortified vegan foods that can help children meet all nutrient needs. Therefore, with appropriate food choices, vegan diets can be adequate for children at all ages.
Objective
Previous research has suggested a link between vegetarianism, broadly defined, and symptoms of eating disorders (ED). However, the literature supporting this link is mixed and limited by possible measurement artifacts. Using data from a national sample of college students, the present study examines ED symptomatology among three groups: (a) vegetarians whose meat avoidance is motivated by weight concerns; (b) non‐weight motivated vegetarians; and (c) nonvegetarians.
Method
Participants include 9,910 students from 12 colleges and universities across the United States who participated in the web‐based Healthy Bodies Study. ED symptomatology was measured using the Short‐Eating Disorder Examination‐Questionnaire (S‐EDE‐Q). First, multi‐group confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to test measurement invariance (MI) of the S‐EDE‐Q across weight‐motivated vegetarians, non‐weight‐motivated vegetarians, and nonvegetarians. Gender‐ and BMI‐adjusted ANCOVA was used to compare S‐EDE‐Q scores across groups.
Results
9.3% of participants were vegetarian. Cis‐women and gender minority students were more likely to be vegetarian; those who became vegetarians after entering college were more likely to report weight‐related motivations. Strict MI was supported for the S‐EDE‐Q global and subscale scores. Weight‐motivated vegetarians reported higher levels of restraint, shape/weight overvaluation, body dissatisfaction, and global ED psychopathology relative to other participants.
Discussion
To our knowledge, this is the first to explicitly link weight motivations for vegetarianism to ED psychopathology in a large, representative sample of young adults. Results suggest that students presenting with ED symptoms should be assessed for their motivations for adopting a vegetarian diet, and this information should be considered in treatment decisions.
Objective: To examine health behavior and environmental perception differences among vegetarian and nonvegetarian students. Participants: First-year university students (n = 1078) from eight United States universities. Methods: Data were obtained from base 2015 and followup 2016 assessments. Vegetarians and nonvegetarians were compared for anthropometrics, lifestyle behaviors, and campus environmental perceptions (CEPS). Results: Vegetarians had smaller waist circumference, lower systolic blood pressure, higher fruit and vegetable consumption, lower percentage of energy obtained from fat, and higher perceived stress. Vegetarians expressed a lower rating of perceptions of health policies on campus. Conclusion: A clear difference in indicators of physical health does not appear, however, vegetarian students show positive dietary patterns which can promote positive health outcomes. Further, vegetarians had lower perceptions of health policies on campus. Results can be used by administrators to ensure policies are in place to support health of students as currently vegetarian students see limitations in the environmental health policies.
The Clinical Case Report entitled “Severe iodine deficiency from dietary restriction and subsequent iodine excess from seaweed snack overuse in an adolescent with disordered eating” has been retracted and subsequently withdrawn by agreement between the author, the Editor‐in‐Chief, and the publisher due to non‐adherence with the journal policy on patient consent for such articles.
REFERENCE
Kumar, M. M. (2018). Severe iodine deficiency from dietary restriction and subsequent iodine excess from seaweed snack overuse in an adolescent with disordered eating. International Journal of Eating Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22940
La Società Italiana di Pediatria Preventiva e Sociale (SIPPS), insieme alla Federazione Italiana Medici Pediatri (FIMP) ed alla Società Italiana di Medicina Perinatale (SIMP) ha quindi deciso di approfondire il problema dell’adeguatezza delle diete vegetariane relativamente alla crescita ed allo sviluppo neurocognitivo dei bambini, nonché dei loro effetti come fattori di esposizione (sia di rischio che di prevenzione) per le patologie trasmissibili e non trasmissibili e per i disturbi della condotta alimentare, sulla base della ricerca e della valutazione delle evidenze scientifiche ad oggi disponibili, condotte secondo criteri metodologici validati.
In questo position paper vengono quindi riportate, per ogni quesito, le raccomandazioni delle LG e tutte le altre pubblicazioni rilevanti. Il documento potrà quindi sembrare, in alcuni punti, ripetitivo e ridondante, ma gli autori, con consapevolezza, hanno preferito consentire al lettore di avere il massimo delle informazioni e dei riferimenti bibliografici anche se interessato solo ad alcuni aspetti dell’argomento.
The initial encounter with an adolescent with an eating disorder and his or her family represents an opportunity to begin to understand the patient's problem, establish a therapeutic relationship, and determine a diagnosis. In this article we provide the basic principles of interviewing an adolescent with an eating disorder: how to approach the interview, how to engage the patient, the types of questions to ask, how to ask these questions, and, finally, how to pull the information together to establish a diagnosis and treatment plan. We use examples throughout the article to high- light the unique nature and complexities of interviewing an ado- lescent with an eating disorder. A successful interview can be a rewarding experience. Interviewing the adolescent with an eating disorder is the first step toward recovery.
It is the position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada that appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases. Approximately 2.5% of adults in the United States and 4% of adults in Canada follow vegetarian diets. A vegetarian diet is defined as one that does not include meat, fish, or fowl. Interest in vegetarianism appears to be increasing, with many restaurants and college foodservices offering vegetarian meals routinely. Substantial growth in sales of foods attractive to vegetarians has occurred, and these foods appear in many supermarkets. This position paper reviews the current scientific data related to key nutrients for vegetarians, including protein, iron, zinc, calcium, vitamin D, riboflavin, vitamin B-12, vitamin A, n-3 fatty acids, and iodine. A vegetarian, including vegan, diet can meet current recommendations for all of these nutrients. In some cases, use of fortified foods or supplements can be helpful in meeting recommendations for individual nutrients. Well-planned vegan and other types of vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Vegetarian diets offer a number of nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals. Vegetarians have been reported to have lower body mass indices than nonvegetarians, as well as lower rates of death from ischemic heart disease; vegetarians also show lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer. Although a number of federally funded and institutional feeding programs can accommodate vegetarians, few have foods suitable for vegans at this time. Because of the variability of dietary practices among vegetarians, individual assessment of dietary intakes of vegetarians is required. Dietetics professionals have a responsibility to support and encourage those who express an interest in consuming a vegetarian diet. They can play key roles in educating vegetarian clients about food sources of specific nutrients, food purchase and preparation, and any dietary modifications that may be necessary to meet individual needs. Menu planning for vegetarians can be simplified by use of a food guide that specifies food groups and serving sizes. J Am Diet Assoc. 2003;103:748-765.
It is well accepted that disgust is an emotion whose main function is to motivate away from cues of disease or potential contamination. Although this adaptive problem is one that both men and women face, women tend to have heightened disgust sensitivity and higher frequency of psychopathologies like obsessive-compulsive disorder that have heightened disgust sensitivity as a core symptom. Women have faced unique selection pressures such as pregnancy, changes in immunity over the menstrual cycle, higher obligate parental investment, and heavier disease burden from sexually transmitted infection that have contributed to their increased disgust sensitivity compared to men. First, this chapter outlines the development of a theoretical framework around the evolution and function of disgust. Next, it reviews sex differences in disgust sensitivity as well as the modulation of disgust sensitivity. Finally, sexual disgust and recent work investigating how disgust and sexual arousal reciprocally influence one another are reviewed including the contribution of disgust to sexual disorders and expression.
Whether vegetarian for health, religion or for ethics, research exists about the benefits of a plant-based diet. Recent research also shows that a growing number of people, especially women in their late teens, are adopting vegetarian and vegan diets in order to lose weight, maintain low body weight, and mask restrictive eating patterns. A study from the University of Minnesota 1 found teen vegetarians are more likely to have eating disorders than non-vegetarians. In this study, vegetarians were more likely to contemplate and attempt suicide, and vegetarian males were noted as an especially high risk group for unhealthy weight control practices. The research indicated that teens who were already susceptible to emotional difficulties were drawn to vegetarianism as a means to lose weight and fit in, but that vegetarianism itself had no correlation with emotional difficulties. In another study, conducted at California State University-Northridge 2 , researchers found college women who claimed to be vegetarians had a significantly greater risk of developing eating disorders than their meat-eating peers. The overlap between eating disorders and vegetarianism occurs because vegetarianism is a way for men and women to openly control their food choices, without attracting negative attention to their behaviour. Also, many believe that restricting meat from their diet will lead to weight loss, believes Michelle Morand, founder of The CEDRIC Centre, an eating disorder counselling centre in Victoria, B.C. "Family, friends, clinicians, and vegetarians themselves, need to know that the potential exists for vegetarianism and veganism to mask an eating disorder," Morand said. This doesn't mean vegetarianism is the cause of an eating disorder, or that people shouldn't adopt a vegetarian lifestyle, but it may be a way for the individual who is struggling with food and weight issues to justify her or his restrictive eating behaviours. Carol Tickner, R.D. Nutrition Therapist with the Eating Disorders Program in the Capital Region, cites two possibilities for the increase in popularity of vegetarianism. "Vegetarianism has been promoted as a healthy way of managing weight. With weight being such a focus in our society, it makes sense to some as a way of managing weight, and health, at the same time," she says. "For those teenagers who have disordered eating tendencies, becoming vegetarian can be a way of trying to respond to a changing body, (weight gain due to puberty), in a healthy way, vs. dieting like their friends." However, this is just dieting for weight-loss in another form.
The paper deals with the history of Hungarian vegetarianism and its three main periods. The three periods are formed by sociological and historical events. Thematically the periods are bound to personalities, publications, events, periodicals, and social communities. In the introduction the basic definitions, health and economical approaches are reviewed.
Approximately 200,000 women currently serve on active duty in the U.S. Armed forces (with an additional 150,000 serving in the Reserves), representing approximately 15 percent of all active-duty personnel. As a result of the downsizing of the military, the opening of more positions to women, and the increasing frequency of sudden deployment, more women in the military must be "ready," that is, prepared to perform a variety of tasks under conditions that can be extremely adverse. Military readiness encompasses optimum health, fitness, and performance. As pan of the Defense Women's Health Research Program, a new report from the Committee on Body Composition, Nutrition, and Health of Military Women of the Institute of the Institute of Medicine examines issues of body composition, fitness, and appearance standards and their impact on the health, nutritional status, and performance of active-duty women.
Objetivo: Evaluar el riesgo de trastornos alimentarios y conductas no saludables de control del peso entre adolescentes que afirman ser vegetarianos y los que afirman ser omnívoros.
Métodos: Estudio transversal realizado en 12 escuelas técnicas de la ciudad de São Paulo, Brasil. La muestra incluyó a 1.167 adolescentes (el 51% mujeres) entre 14 y 19 años de edad (media, 16). Los adolescentes declaraban si eran vegetarianos en aquel momento, por lo que la muestra se dividió en vegetarianos y no vegetarianos. Se compararon los dos grupos en cuanto a peso, trastornos alimentarios, métodos no saludables de control del peso y la percepción de alimentación saludable.
Resultados: Cerca del 4% de la muestra declaró ser vegetariana, la mayoría eran mujeres (70,8%) y para las mujeres ser vegetarianas era 2,89 veces más probable que para los varones. No se encontró asociación entre ser vegetariano y los comportamientos no saludables de control del peso. Sin embargo, el grupo de vegetarianos considera que su alimentación es más saludable que la del grupo de no vegetarianos (p = 0,04).
Conclusiones: La frecuencia del vegetarianismo y la frecuencia de trastornos alimentarios fueron menores en esta muestra de adolescentes de São Paulo, Brasil.
Simple Summary
We surveyed university students in 11 Eurasian countries for their attitudes to animals, using an internet-based questionnaire to which 1,902 female and 1,530 male student responded from 102 universities. Across countries female students had greater concern for animal welfare and rights than males, but especially so in more gender empowered countries. One contributing factor appeared to be the greater association of females than males with pets, and a possible outcome was greater female avoidance of meat consumption, especially red meat.
Abstract
Previous research has demonstrated that in households where the male partner is more dominant, there is convergence in male and female attitudes towards animals, whereas if the female partner is empowered they exhibit greater empathy towards animals than the male partner. We tested this theory of ‘female empowered empathy’ internationally in a survey of female and male students' attitudes towards use of animals, conducted in 11 Eurasian countries: China, Czech Republic, Great Britain, Iran, Ireland, South Korea, Macedonia, Norway, Serbia, Spain and Sweden. Gender empowerment was estimated for each country using the Gender Empowerment Measure designed by the United Nations. The survey was administered via the internet in universities within countries, and 1,902 female and 1,530 male student responses from 102 universities were received. Respondents rated the acceptability of 43 major concerns about human use of animals, and the importance of 13 world social issues, including animal protection, environmental protection and sustainable development. Females had greater concern for animal welfare and rights than males. There was a positive correlation between the Gender Empowerment Measure and the ratio of female to male concern for animal welfare and rights, but not for other world issues. Thus in countries where females were more empowered, principally Sweden, Norway and Great Britain, females had much greater concern than males for animal issues, whereas in other countries the responses of males and females were more similar. Across countries female students were more likely to avoid meat and less likely to avoid eggs, milk and seafood than male students, and were more likely to have kept pets than males. Females rated cats as more sentient than males did. The results demonstrate that females have greater concern for animal welfare and rights than males, and that this is more likely to be expressed in countries where females are relatively empowered, suggesting that ‘emancipated female empathy’ operates across countries as well as at a local level.
The present study investigated associations between vegetarian diet and mental disorders.
Participants were drawn from the representative sample of the German Health Interview and Examination Survey and its Mental Health Supplement (GHS-MHS). Completely vegetarian (N = 54) and predominantly vegetarian (N = 190) participants were compared with non-vegetarian participants (N = 3872) and with a non-vegetarian socio-demographically matched subsample (N = 242).
Vegetarians displayed elevated prevalence rates for depressive disorders, anxiety disorders and somatoform disorders. Due to the matching procedure, the findings cannot be explained by socio-demographic characteristics of vegetarians (e.g. higher rates of females, predominant residency in urban areas, high proportion of singles). The analysis of the respective ages at adoption of a vegetarian diet and onset of a mental disorder showed that the adoption of the vegetarian diet tends to follow the onset of mental disorders.
Vegetarian diet is associated with an elevated risk of mental disorders. However, there was no evidence for a causal role of vegetarian diet in the etiology of mental disorders.
Vegetarianism, the practice of abstaining from eating meat, has a recorded history dating back to ancient Greece. Despite this, it is only in recent years that researchers have begun conducting empirical investigations of the practices and beliefs associated with vegetarianism. The present article reviews the extant literature, exploring variants of and motivations for vegetarianism, differences in attitudes, values and worldviews between omnivores and vegetarians, as well as the pronounced gender differences in meat consumption and vegetarianism. Furthermore, the review highlights the extremely limited cultural scope of the present data, and calls for a broader investigation across non-Western cultures.
Physically active adolescent girls and young women may eliminate meat from their diets to achieve or maintain low body weight. By doing so, they risk developing protein, iron, and zinc deficiencies. Further, meatless diets in this population may signal the possibility of amenorrhea and/or disordered eating, with the attendant risk of osteoporosis. Educating young women and their parents and coaches regarding the risks of a meatless diet and using the preparticipation exam to screen for these problems can promote preventive measures.
Vegetarian diets can provide appropriate and adequate nutrition for all stages of life. The key to success is accurate information and understanding of the subject matter. Because vegetarianism is a complex issue influenced by many different factors, it can be difficult to stay well informed. Numerous studies have shown several important health benefits for adult vegetarians. The job of pediatricians is to ensure that their pediatric patients reap the same health benefits as adults. • Based on strong research evidence, breastfeeding vegetarians should ensure that they are consuming adequate amounts of vitamin B12, folate, and omega 3 fatty acids. (4)(5)(6) • Based on strong research evidence, vegetarian children raised on a varied diet have normal growth and development measures. (7)(8)(9)(10)(11) (12)(16) • Based on strong research evidence, adolescent vegetarians choose vegetarianism for very different reasons than their adult counterparts, and their decision often is impulsive and without much forethought. (13)(14) • Based on strong research evidence, a food guide pyramid that is specific to vegetarians and takes into account the many subtleties of vegetarianism is important when counseling vegetarian patients. (15) • Based on strong research evidence, vegetarianism in adolescents can be a means of concealing an underlying eating disorder. (13) Copyright © 2009 by the American Academy of Pediatrics. All rights reserved.
Increased evidence indicates an association between psychiatric disorders and dietary pattern. The objective of this study is to describe the differences in food consumption between suicide attempters and non-attempters. We analyzed the dietary information retrospectively collected from 6803 adults, aged 17 to 39 years, who also completed a mental disorder diagnostic interview as a part of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. The Healthy Eating Index score was used to measure the degree of compliance with the national diet guidelines. In men, attempters (n=92) had a high odds of low consumption of vegetables (OR=2.47, 95%CI=1.19, 5.15). In women, attempters (n=275) had a high odds of insufficient fruit consumption (OR=2.36, 95%CI=1.15, 4.85). For both men and women, the component scores for meat were lower in non-attempters compared with attempters. On a scale of zero (no serving) to 10 (meeting the serving recommendations), the scores were 6.74 (SE: 0.39) and 7.76 (0.10), respectively, for attempters and non-attempters among men, and 5.81 (0.33) and 6.43 (0.07), respectively, for attempters and non-attempters among women. It was further observed that female attempters ate significantly less fish and seafood. These results were obtained after adjustment for various factors, including the history of medical and psychiatric illnesses. The data suggest that fruits, vegetables and meat were significantly under-consumed in adults who had ever attempted suicide. The deleterious contribution of insufficient consumption of these foods to physical and psychiatric status in attempters merits investigation. In clinical practice, psychiatrists should pay more attention to what patients eat.
The bioavailability of a number of minerals may be altered by the special characteristics of vegetarian diets. Concern has centered on both inadequate and high dietary levels of specific minerals as well as reduced bioavailability because of a variety of dietary components. The possibility that plant-based diets may compromise mineral status is briefly reviewed for the following minerals: zinc, calcium, iron, manganese, selenium, and copper.
Health practices, attitudes, and beliefs were studied in 150 vegetarians and 150 nonvegetarians matched for age and sex. A questionnaire was administered that included a medical history and questions concerning use of medications, recreational drugs, nutrition supplements, and alcohol; smoking habits; exercise; and relaxation activities. The questionnaire also included Likert scales on which the subjects rated themselves according to their knowledge and practice of nutrition and diet and their agreement or disagreement with statements concerning health. Vegetarians believed in visiting a physician when they were ill but were more willing to try alternative or unusual therapies and/or preventive treatments. Substances that are potentially harmful to the body, such as alcohol, tobacco, or prescription drugs, were used less frequently by vegetarians. Conversely, greater use was seen of substances that are thought to improve health. The area of greatest difference between the groups was in their attitudes and beliefs concerning health. Although the vegetarians believed that they as a group were healthier than nonvegetarians, the lack of differences in self-ratings of health and incidence of health problems suggest that that perception may not be true.
A demographic and social profile was compiled for 150 vegetarians and 150 nonvegetarians who were matched for age and sex. A 328-item questionnaire containing both closed- and open-ended questions was administered. Information collected included personal and demographic data, personal habits, social activities, and possible influences of vegetarianism. No differences were observed in the cultural, ethnic, or familial background of the groups. Vegetarians were less influenced by parents and traditional religions, were slightly less well educated, and were employed in less-skilled occupations. However, vegetarians socialized more than nonvegetarians, as evidenced by their greater frequency of entertaining, going out with friends, and joining organizations. The commitment to vegetarianism was strong and appeared to be reinforced by an extensive network of family and friends who were also vegetarians. This strong support network was particularly evident for those who practiced the more restrictive forms of vegetarianism, the only major difference observed within the types of vegetarians studied.
Food and other avoidances and attitudes toward health services of 100 young vegetarians are reported.
Demographic and socioeconomic variables were quite similar between the groups with few exceptions. The study group consisted entirely of volunteers. It is thought that subject selection is representative of the large population of SV, SNV, and NV living in this university community area. As groups, SV, SNV, and NV were similar anthropometrically, and no group was considered to be more obese than another according to Quetelet index comparisons. Energy and nutrient consumption was analyzed on the basis of three-day food intake records of male and female SV, SNV, and NV. Adequate intakes of cereals, legumes, dairy products, fruits, vegetables, and meat products (nonvegetarians only) among the vegetarians and nonvegetarians resulted in adequate nutrient intakes in most instances. Particularly high levels of protein, vitamin A, ascorbic acid, thiamin, and riboflavin were consumed by men and women alike. The nonvegetarians consumed more energy, protein, fat, total saturated fat, oleic acid, cholesterol, calcium, riboflavin, and niacin than the SV. The data showed that there were no significant differences between the dietary vitamin B6 intakes or vitamin B6 to protein ratios for comparable aged male or female SV, SNV, and NV groups. A significant contribution to the women's dietary iron and vitamin B6 intakes could be made if they would increase their consumption of cereals, legumes, and nuts (and meat products for NV and SNV). It may be suggested that foods high in iron be ingested in conjunction with foods containing ascorbic acid in order to maximize iron stores. Iron and vitamin B6 intakes exceeded 100% and 90% of the allowances for all men; however, 26% and 19% of the women were consuming below 60% of the allowances for these two nutrients.
The zinc status of seventy-nine vegetarians and forty-one non-vegetarians was investigated. The subjects provided 24-hr. dietary recalls and donated samples of blood, hair, and saliva that were subsequently analyzed for zinc content. Avoidance of animal products in the diet was associated with decreased intakes of energy, protein, fat, calcium, and zinc and increased consumption of crude fiber, potassium, vitamin A, and ascorbic acid. The low dietary intake of zinc by vegetarian women was believed to result from liberal use of foods low in zinc such as fruits and vegetables, whereas vegetarian men primarily consumed zinc-rich food such as legumes and cheeses Lacto-ovo-vegetarians consumed twice the amount of crude fiber consumed by non-vegetarians and vegans four times as much. The zinc content of salivary sediment was significantly lower in vegetarians than in non-vegetarians; vegans had the lowest mean level. The observed decrease in salivary zinc was inversely proportional to the amount of crude fiber in the diet. Zinc levels in the hair of vegetarians were significantly lower than those in the hair of non-vegetarians, while serum levels were also lower, but not significantly so. The increased crude fiber intake of vegetarians coupled with the decreased levels of zinc found in saliva and hair seem to indicate that some vegetarians, particularly women, have less than satisfactory zinc status.