No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Classification of collected trot, passage and piaffe based on temporal variables
Abstract
The objective was to determine whether collected trot, passage and piaffe could be distinguished as separate gaits on the basis of temporal variables. Sagittal plane, 60 Hz videotapes of 10 finalists in the dressage competitions at the 1992 Olympic Games were analysed to measure the temporal variables in absolute terms and as percentages of stride duration. Classification was based on analysis of variance, a graphical method and discriminant analysis. Stride duration was sufficient to distinguish collected trot from passage and piaffe in all horses. The analysis of variance showed that the mean values of most variables differed significantly between passage and piaffe. When hindlimb stance percentage was plotted against diagonal advanced placement percentage, some overlap was found between all 3 movements indicating that individual horses could not be classified reliably in this manner. Using hindlimb stance percentage and diagonal advanced placement percentage as input in a discriminant analysis, 80% of the cases were classified correctly, but at least one horse was misclassified in each movement. When the absolute, rather than percentage, values of the 2 variables were used as input in the discriminant analysis, 90% of the cases were correctly classified and the only misclassifications were between passage and piaffe. However, the 2 horses in which piaffe was misclassified as passage were the gold and silver medallists. In general, higher placed horses tended toward longer diagonal advanced placements, especially in collected trot and passage, and shorter hindlimb stance percentages in passage and piaffe.
... Those various types are distinguished both stylistically and by speed of movement but there are no studies so far that have explored if those could be automatically detected. Moreover, advanced dressage movements such as passage and piaffe account for more than 25% of the overall score in both the Grand Prix and Grand Prix Special tests but have never been before automatically classified [10]. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first study to show automatic detection, based on accelerometer data gathered by an off-the-shelf device, of the majority of jumping and dressage training activities (i.e., walk, trot, canter, jump, flying change, paces, piaffe, passage, shoulder-in, haunches-in, leg yield, half pass and pirouette) based on accelerometer data. ...
... Goal Number of Horses Sensors Classification Approach [5] Detection of walk, trot and canter 2 Accelerometer NN, DT, k-NN and NB [6] Standing, grazing and ambulating 6 Accelerometer Threshold based [11,14] Detection of stand, walk, trot, canter, 6 Accelerometer CNN roll, paw, flank-watching [15] Detection of stand, walk, trot and canter 20 Accelerometer Threshold based [7] Walk, trot, left canter, right canter, tölt, 120 Accelerometer LDA, QDA, DT, RF, pace, trocha and paso fino + gyroscope SVM, NN and LSTM [16] Estimation of speed in canter 58 Accelerometer SVM + gyroscope [17] Estimation of speed in walk, 40 Accelerometer SVM, DT, RF, BT, GPR trot, tölt, pace and canter + gyroscope [18] Presence/absence and degree of lameness 175 Camera NN [4,9,19] Detection of collected, working, 6 Camera Threshold based medium and extended pace [10] Detection of trot, piaffe and passage 10 Camera DA [20] Gait analysis 35 Strain gauge NN [21] Hoof wall deformation to determine 1 Strain gauge NN ground reaction forces [22] Prediction of load in long bone 9 Strain gauge NN [23] Load-displacement in long bone 13 Strain gauge NN This paper 6 jumping and 25 dressage training activities 14 Accelerometer Hybrid CNN ...
... [6,15] use thresholdbased approaches based on accelerometer data which allowed the determination of gaits by definition of distinct acceleration value ranges for stand, walk, trot and canter or differentiation between standing, grazing and ambulating in horses, respectively. In [4,9,10,19] temporal variables such as stride duration, suspension, and stance duration are extracted from video data and then used to determine which variables are sufficient to distinguish various paces (collected, working, and extended) or gait variations (piaffe and passage). As a result, no signal patterns are learned, making this approach less resilient against data from unknown breeds, as seen in [15], where several thresholds are required to detect gaits for different breeds of horses, ponies, and Icelandic horses. ...
Equine training activity detection will help to track and enhance the performance and fitness level of riders and their horses. Currently, the equestrian world is eager for a simple solution that goes beyond detecting basic gaits, yet current technologies fall short on the level of user friendliness and detection of main horse training activities. To this end, we collected leg accelerometer data of 14 well-trained horses during jumping and dressage trainings. For the first time, 6 jumping training and 25 advanced horse dressage activities are classified using specifically developed models based on a neural network. A jumping training could be classified with a high accuracy of 100 %, while a dressage training could be classified with an accuracy of 96.29%. Assigning the dressage movements to 11, 6 or 4 superclasses results in higher accuracies of 98.87%, 99.10% and 100%, respectively. Furthermore, during dressage training, the side of movement could be identified with an accuracy of 97.08%. In addition, a velocity estimation model was developed based on the measured velocities of seven horses performing the collected, working, and extended gaits during a dressage training. For the walk, trot, and canter paces, the velocities could be estimated accurately with a low root mean square error of 0.07 m/s, 0.14 m/s, and 0.42 m/s, respectively.
... Optimal balance between fore-and hindlimbs allows the development of regularity and expressiveness of movements. Different degrees of collection at trot have been characterised using limb kinematics (Holmström et al. 1995) and temporal parameters (Clayton 1994(Clayton , 1997. It is commonly believed that the more the horse is collected, the more the body centre of mass is shifted to the hindquarters. ...
... This study investigated the temporal, kinematic and kinetic changes between the trot and the passage. Although the study was conducted on a treadmill, the relative changes of the temporal data between trot and passage were in good agreement with data of kinematic studies conducted on a hard gravel ground (Holmström et al. 1995) or in a dressage arena (Clayton 1994(Clayton , 1997. Certain parameters such as TAP known to differ between overground and treadmill condition (Buchner et al. 1994;Weishaupt et al. 2004) differed as well compared to passage data measured in the overground situation (Holmström et al. 1995;Clayton 1997). ...
... Although the study was conducted on a treadmill, the relative changes of the temporal data between trot and passage were in good agreement with data of kinematic studies conducted on a hard gravel ground (Holmström et al. 1995) or in a dressage arena (Clayton 1994(Clayton , 1997. Certain parameters such as TAP known to differ between overground and treadmill condition (Buchner et al. 1994;Weishaupt et al. 2004) differed as well compared to passage data measured in the overground situation (Holmström et al. 1995;Clayton 1997). Based on the footing sequence and relative timing of the different phases of the stride, the passage can be regarded as a ...
The load acting on the limbs and the load distribution between fore- and hindlimbs while performing specific dressage exercises lack objective assessment.
The greater a horse's level of collection, the more load is shifted to the rear and that during the passage the vertical load on the limbs increases in relation to the accentuated vertical movement of the centre of mass.
Back and limb kinematics, vertical ground reaction force and time parameters of each limb were measured in 6 Grand Prix dressage horses performing on an instrumented treadmill at the trot and the passage. Horses were ridden by their own professional rider.
At the passage, horses moved at a slower speed (-43.2%), with a lower stride frequency (-23.6%) and, therefore, higher stride impulses (+31.0%). Relative stance duration of fore- and hindlimbs and suspension duration remained unchanged. While at the trot the diagonal limbs impacted almost simultaneously, the hindlimbs always impacted first at the passage; the time dissociation between landing and lift-off remained unchanged. Because of the prolonged stride duration, stride impulse and consequently limb impulses were higher at the passage in the fore- as well as in the hindlimbs (+24.8% and +39.9%, respectively). Within the diagonal limb pair, load was shifted from the forehand to the hindquarters (percentage stride impulse carried by the forehand -4.8%). Despite the higher impulses, peak vertical forces in the fore- and hindlimbs remained unchanged because of the prolonged absolute stance durations in fore- and hindlimbs (+28.1% and +32.2%, respectively).
Based on the intralimb timing, the passage closely resembles the trot. Compared to other head-neck positions, the higher degree of collection resulted in a pronounced shift in impulse towards the hindquarters. Despite the higher limb impulses, peak forces acting on the limbs were similar to those observed at the trot.
An understanding of load distribution between fore- and hindlimbs in relation to different riding techniques is crucial to prevent wear-and-tear on the locomotor apparatus.
... Collected movements require a reduction in forward motion without an alteration in cadence, elasticity or impulsion (FEI, 2011), which demands a greater reliance on static rather than dynamic equilibrium. Modifications in foot placement patterns, which enhance centre of mass (COM) stability include prolonging stance durations, increasing overlap durations, and reducing or eliminating suspension phases (Clayton, 1997). Of the collected gaits, piaffe was found to have all of these modifications and therefore considered the closest to static equilibrium (Clayton, 1997). ...
... Modifications in foot placement patterns, which enhance centre of mass (COM) stability include prolonging stance durations, increasing overlap durations, and reducing or eliminating suspension phases (Clayton, 1997). Of the collected gaits, piaffe was found to have all of these modifications and therefore considered the closest to static equilibrium (Clayton, 1997). Compared to trot, passage has a shorter airborne phase and higher flight arc, which is achieved by increasing the vertical impulse in fore and hindlimbs, but not the magnitude of peak force. ...
... Methods to accurately detect gait events are valuable in various applications including performance analysis and lameness quantification. For instance, an increase in positive diagonal advanced placement (in which the hoof-on of the hindlimb precedes that of the contralateral forelimb) has been found to be an indicator of superior gait quality in advanced dressage horses [4] and approved Warmblood stallions [5]. Furthermore, the timing of gait events can be used to calculate the suspension of flying gaits, in which all four hooves are off the ground simultaneously. ...
Detection of hoof-on and -off events are essential to gait classification in horses. Wearable sensors have been endorsed as a convenient alternative to the traditional force plate-based method. The aim of this study was to propose and validate inertial sensor-based methods of gait event detection, reviewing different sensor locations and their performance on different gaits and exercise surfaces. Eleven horses of various breeds and ages were recruited to wear inertial sensors attached to the hooves, pasterns and cannons. Gait events detected by pastern and cannon methods were compared to the reference, hoof-detected events. Walk and trot strides were recorded on asphalt, grass and sand. Pastern-based methods were found to be the most accurate and precise for detecting gait events, incurring mean errors of between 1 and 6ms, depending on the limb and gait, on asphalt. These methods incurred consistent errors when used to measure stance durations on all surfaces, with mean errors of 0.1 to 1.16% of a stride cycle. In conclusion, the methods developed and validated here will enable future studies to reliably detect equine gait events using inertial sensors, under a wide variety of field conditions.
... However, it should be borne in mind that the event horses were assessed during the preparation for a dressage test on a grass surface, whereas the dressage horses were assessed while performing the competition test on an arena surface. The degree of collection [21][22][23] and the complexity of the movements [24][25][26][27] are higher for the Grand Prix dressage horses compared with the event horses. Advanced diagonal placement [21], or placing the load on a single hindlimb in trot, is relatively unusual in event horses, but is more common in elite dressage horses. ...
The Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) comprising 24 behaviours was developed to facilitate the identification of musculoskeletal discomfort, with scores of ≥8/24 indicating the presence of pain. The median RHpE score for 147 competitors at World Cup Grand Prix events from 2018 to 2020 was three (interquartile range [IQR] 1–4; range 0–7). The aim of the current study was to apply the RHpE to 38 competitors at the Hickstead-Rotterdam Grand Prix Challenge and 26 competitors at the British Dressage Grand Prix National Championship in 2020. The median RHpE scores were four (IQR 3–6; range 0–8) and six (IQR 4–7; range 1–9), respectively, which were both higher (p = 0.0011 and p = 0.0000) than the World Cup competitors’ scores. Ears back ≥ 5 s (p = 0.005), intense stare ≥ 5 s (p = 0.000), repeated tail swishing (p = 0.000), hindlimb toe drag (p = 0.000), repeated tongue-out (p = 0.003) and crooked tail-carriage (p = 0.000) occurred more frequently. These were associated with a higher frequency of lameness, abnormalities of canter, and errors in rein-back, passage and piaffe, canter flying-changes and canter pirouettes compared with World Cup competitors. There was a moderate negative correlation between the dressage judges’ scores and the RHpE scores (Spearman’s rho −0.66, p = 0.0002) at the British Championship. Performance and welfare may be improved by recognition and appropriate treatment of underlying problems.
... Dressage horses are often selected for the quality of their gaits, including advanced diagonal placement (Holmstr€ om et al. 1995). This results in a single hindlimb bearing weight alone in trot and increases load on the hindlimb compared with landing with a hindlimb and the contralateral forelimb simultaneously (Clayton 1997). This is likely to influence loading of the suspensory apparatus. ...
Proximal suspensory desmopathy (PSD) is a common cause of hindlimb lameness in sports horses; anecdotally there is an association with straight hock conformation. The objective of this prospective observational study is to describe hindlimb conformation in horses with and without bilateral PSD. Horses examined over one year with a definitive diagnosis for lameness (based on clinical assessment, response to diagnostic anaesthesia, radiography, ultrasonography ± MRI or scintigraphy), were included (n = 193). Markers were placed on predefined landmarks. Lateral photographs were acquired from the left and right sides with the horse standing squarely, using standardised techniques, with each metatarsus perpendicular to the ground, aligned to the tuber ischii marker. Before data acquisition, repeatability studies for marker placement, horse positioning and angle measurements were performed. The tarsal and metatarsophalangeal angles were measured using Image Measurement. Orthopaedic diagnosis, breed, work discipline, weight, height and age were recorded. Z‐tests, Fisher's exact tests, Chi‐squared tests and multivariable logistic regression were used to determine the associations between diagnosis, tarsal angles and possible confounding variables. Mann Whitney U tests were used to evaluate the relationship between metatarsophalangeal joint angle and suspensory ligament injury. Horses with PSD had larger tarsal angles than controls (P = 0.003). The proportions of Warmblood‐type horses and dressage horses with PSD were different to those of other breeds and work disciplines (P = 0.001, 0.02 respectively). A final logistic regression model demonstrated a significant effect of mean tarsal angle on outcome when breed and weight‐height product were accounted for. There was a an 11% increase in the odds of PSD for every degree increase in tarsal angle (CI 1.006–1.223, P = 0.04). There was no association between suspensory ligament injury and metatarsophalangeal joint angle. Assessment of tarsal angles at prepurchase examinations and prior to surgical treatment of PSD may be advisable.
... Dressage horses are often asked to work in lengthened paces during training and competition, but there is limited information about the biomechanics of dressage specific paces [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. The current literature highlights the high prevalence of injuries of the suspensory apparatus and metacarpophalangeal or metatarsophalangeal (fetlock) joints in dressage horses [8][9][10][11]. ...
Background:
Dressage horses are often asked to work in lengthened paces during training and competition, but to date there is limited information about the biomechanics of dressage-specific paces. Preliminary work has shown increased fetlock extension in extended compared with collected paces, but further investigation of the kinematic differences between collected, medium and extended trot in dressage horses is warranted.
Objectives:
Investigation of the effect of collected versus medium/extended trot on limb kinematics of dressage horses.
Study design:
Prospective kinematic evaluation.
Methods:
Twenty clinically sound horses in active dressage training were used: Group 1) 10 young horses (≤6 years) were assessed at collected and medium trot; Group 2) 10 mature horses (≥9 years) were assessed at collected and extended trot. All horses were evaluated on two different surfaces. High-speed motion-capture (240 Hz) was used to determine kinematic variables. Forelimb and hindlimb angles were measured at midstance. Descriptive statistics and mixed-effect multilevel-regression analyses were performed.
Results:
Speed and stride length were reduced and stride duration increased at collected compared with medium/extended trot. Lengthened trot (medium/extended trot) was associated with increased fetlock extension in both the forelimbs and hindlimbs in both groups of horses. Changes were greater in mature horses compared with young horses. Shoulder and carpus angles were associated with forelimb fetlock angle. Hock angle was not significantly influenced by pace. Surface had no effect on fetlock or hock angles.
Main limitations:
Only 2D motion analysis was carried out. Results may have differed in horses with more extreme gait characteristics.
Conclusions:
Medium/extended trot increases extension of the forelimb and the hindlimb fetlock joints compared with collected trot in both young and mature dressage horses, respectively.
... For example, Deuel and Park(1990) showed a correlation between the speed of the extended trot and the stride length for the elite dressage horses in the Seoul olympics. Clayton(1997) described collected trot, passage and piaffe at the Barcelona Olympics. These video recorded during competition was considered as references to study the movement of the best dressage horses. ...
The purpose of this study was to describe the relationship between the scores of dressage horses in competition and gait characteristics. During twenty five dressage tests, eighteen horses were tested with a gait analysis system. According to the level of the dressage test, two groups of horses were used : a group of ten young horses (4, 5 and 6 year old) and a group of eight experienced horses (7, 8, 9, 11 and 13 year old). An accelerometric device fixed at the sternum measured the dorsoventral and longitudinal accelerations. Stride frequency, symmetry, regularity, dorsoventral displacement, longitudinal activity, dorsoventral activity, vector of propulsion and vector of braking were calculated from horse accelerations for each figure of dressage test. At the same time, the judges marked all the figures. Judges' sheets were collected to calculate correlations between marks, total score, and gait variables measured during the test. The results showed that specific characteristics of the walk and trot were required in young horses. The trot should be slow with a large dorsoventral displacement and a large longitudinal activity. The walk should be slow, regular, symmetric, with a large dorsoventral activity and dorsoventral displacement. A good movement performed at the canter was indicated by high longitudinal and dorsoventral activities. Few correlations for the group of experienced horses were observed.
... Dressage horses are often asked to work in lengthened paces during training and competition, but there is limited information about the biomechanics of dressage specific paces [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. The current literature highlights the high prevalence of injuries of the suspensory apparatus and metacarpophalangeal or metatarsophalangeal (fetlock) joints in dressage horses [8][9][10][11]. ...
Metacarpophalangeal joint hyperextension overload is increasingly being recognised in dressage horses and, like forelimb suspensory ligament injury, tends to be seen in horses with extravagant trot steps. However, there is limited understanding of the effects of different paces within the trot on forelimb movement, therefore it is difficult to advise rationally on prevention or management of these types of injury. To compare forelimb kinematics of collected and medium or extended trot in dressage horses. Prospective study. Twenty mixed-breed dressage horses (age 9 ± 4 years; height 168 ± 6 cm; weight 600 ± 63 kg; median competition level = advanced medium) were tested at collected and medium/extended trot (age and training level dependent) in a straight line on an artificial surface ridden by their own rider at sitting trot. Four strides of each pace were recorded using high speed motion capture (240 Hz). Markers were placed on the horses' forelimbs at predetermined anatomical sites. Fetlock, carpus, elbow and shoulder angles were derived at midstance. Descriptive statistics and mixed effect multilevel regression analyses were performed on the data. Fetlock extension angle was significantly increased at medium compared with collected trot (coefficient: 5.70; CI 2.58–8.82; P<0.01) and extended compared with collected trot (coefficient: 8.59; CI 5.16–12.02; P<0.01). Fetlock extension angle was significantly increased when carpus extension angle (coefficient: 0.61; CI = 0.4–0.82; P<0.01) and shoulder flexion angle were increased (coefficient: 0.18; CI 0.01–0.33; P<0.05). Fetlock extension increased when the horses performed lengthened trot paces, more in extended than medium trot. The loading of the carpus and shoulder were related to fetlock extension, suggesting that lengthened paces affect the loading of the entire forelimb. Lengthened paces may be contraindicated in horses with fetlock hyperextension or suspensory ligament injury; they may be a potential risk factor for these injuries. Interaction with the surface could also have a role that could be further investigated. Ethical animal research: The study was approved by the Animal Health Trust ethical review committee. Owners gave informed consent for their horses' inclusion in the study. Sources of funding: Elise Pilkington Charitable Trust, Dr Wilfrid Bechtolsheimer, British Dressage. Competing interests: None declared.
... Sideways gaits in dressage horses, limb obliquity and asymmetric weight bearing due to bad conformation of the hoof (45,46), may lead to stress on the branches of the SL. Despite this, a high scoring trot is characterised by diagonal placement of the hind limbs (47), which may predispose to injury of the medial SL branch. As speculated in jumping horses, anatomical differences between the SL branches may play an important role. ...
This study investigated the prevalence of injuries to the suspensory ligament (SL), the digital flexor tendons and associated structures in relation to the type of athletic use of the horse. The medical records of 1,527 horses referred to the Equine Department, University of Zurich, from 1992 to 2009 because of non-septic tendinitis, desmitis or tendovaginitis were reviewed. The majority of the horses in the study population were used for pleasure riding (23.3%), show jumping (20.4%) and dressage (10.5%). Eventing (3.4 %), driving (2.8%) and endurance horses (1.4%) were less common. The suspensory ligament was the most
frequently affected structure in the overall study population (31.2%); the frequency of SL injuries was 41.6% in dressage horses, 28.6% in show jumpers and 28.1% in pleasure horses. The superficial digital flexor tendon was the most frequently affected structure in eventing horses (50%) and the digital flexor tendon sheath (27.9%) was the most commonly affected structure in driving horses. Injured show jumpers (p<0.001), dressage (p<0.001) and eventing horses (p=0.007) were significantly younger than injured pleasure horses. The type of athletic use of a horse has a direct impact on the prevalence of injuries to the suspensory ligament, flexor tendons and associated structures. This knowledge can be used to improve the veterinary care for horses with different athletic occupations.
... Previous overground studies on dressage included kinematic and temporal characteristics of walk, trot and canter (Clayton, 1994a(Clayton, ,b, 1995. Piaffe (Clayton, 1997;Holmström et al., 1995), canter lead changes (Deuel and Park (1990), canter pirouettes (Burns and Clayton, 1997), walk-trot and trot-canter transitions (Argue and Clayton, 1993a,b), and transitions between trot and halt (Tans et al., 2009). None of the previous studies have directly addressed the composition of the riding sessions. ...
The aim of this study was to document and categorise riding sessions, carried out by professional riders, by describing the riding sessions according to gait, ridden track, lateral movements, rider position in the saddle and rein length. These data were then analysed relative to horse and rider characteristics, e.g. educational level of horse and rider, time in training and laterality of the horse. Eight professional riders riding 3 familiar horses each participated in the study and the riders were asked to demonstrate their normal routine for flatwork/dressage with each horse. The whole training session was video recorded. Video recordings were scrutinised and data were categorised and analysed. Mixed models were used for the statistical analysis, including rider as random effect. The median length of the riding sessions were 31 min. The riders spent 38% of the riding session at the walk, 39% at the trot, 8% at left lead canter and 9% at the right lead canter. The riders devoted 28-29% of the riding sess...
... If the force falls to zero, the foot has left the ground and is hence in swing. Despite the advantages of footfall event detection using forceplates, this technology is not always suitable in the wider context of a study: force plates may not be used due to venue restrictions such as during competitions (Deuel & Park, 1991; Clayton, Colborne & Burns, 1995; Clayton, 1997; Hodson, Clayton & Lanovaz, 1999) or due to unfavourable environments such as during hydrotherapy (Hunt, 2001; Mooij et al., 2013). Further, the limited capture area of force plates would prohibit research utilising large numbers of consecutive strides on racetracks (Witte, Hirst & Wilson, 2006; Parsons, Pfau & Wilson, 2008b; Pfau et al., 2009) or on turns and circles (Clayton & Sha, 2006; Hobbs, Licka & Polman, 2011; Starke et al., 2012a). ...
OPEN ACCESS!
In this study, we developed and validate kinematic stride segmentation methods applicable to movement on straight line and circle at walk and trot, which exclusively rely on a single, dorsal hoof marker. The advantage of such marker placement is the robustness to marker loss and occlusion. Eight horses walked and trotted on a straight line and in a circle over an array of multiple forceplates. Kinetic events were detected based on the vertical force profile and used as the reference values. Kinematic events were detected based on displacement, velocity or acceleration signals of the dorsal hoof marker depending on the algorithm using (i) defined thresholds associated with derived movement signals and (ii) specific events in the derived movement signals. Method comparison was performed by calculating limits of agreement, accuracy, between-horse precision and within-horse precision based on differences between kinetic and kinematic event. In addition, we examined the effect of force thresholds ranging from 50 to 150 N on the timings of kinetic events. The two approaches resulted in very good and comparable performance: of the 3,074 processed footfall events, 95% of individual foot on and foot off events differed by no more than 26 ms from the kinetic event, with average accuracy between −11 and 10 ms and average within- and between horse precision ≤8 ms. While the event-based method may be less likely to suffer from scaling effects, on soft ground the threshold-based method may prove more valuable. While we found that use of velocity thresholds for foot on detection results in biased event estimates for the foot on the inside of the circle at trot, adjusting thresholds for this condition negated the effect. For the final four algorithms, we found no noteworthy bias between conditions or between front- and hind-foot timings. Different force thresholds in the range of 50 to 150 N had the greatest systematic effect on foot-off estimates in the hind limbs.
... Sagittal plane video recordings were made during the Grand Prix Special (FEI, 1992) at the OG 1992 in Barcelona, Spain (Clayton, 1997) and during the Grand Prix B (FEI, 2003) at the WC 2008 in 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands. A camcorder, placed 20 m behind the entrance, was orientated perpendicular to the short side of the rectangular (20 m × 60 m) dressage arena and was levelled horizontally. ...
... Sagittal plane video recordings were made during the Grand Prix Special (FEI, 1992) at the OG 1992 in Barcelona, Spain (Clayton, 1997) and during the Grand Prix B (FEI, 2003) at the WC 2008 in 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands. A camcorder, placed 20 m behind the entrance, was orientated perpendicular to the short side of the rectangular (20 m × 60 m) dressage arena and was levelled horizontally. ...
... Dressage horses are often asked to work in lengthened paces during training and competition, but there is limited information about the biomechanics of dressage specific paces [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. The current literature highlights the high prevalence of injuries of the suspensory apparatus and metacarpophalangeal or metatarsophalangeal (fetlock) joints in dressage horses [8][9][10][11]. ...
A recent epidemiological study indicated that various factors may be related to injury in dressage horses, but the mechanism by which these injuries occur has yet to be determined. The suspensory ligament (SL) is a frequent site of injury, and it is assumed that greatest strain is placed on this structure in collected trot; this has yet to be proved conclusively. The study aimed to investigate the effect of collected and extended trot on the hindlimb movement pattern. Four dressage horses were fitted with markers and inertial motion sensors (IMS). High-speed video was obtained for 2 strides on each rein in collected and extended trot on 3 different surfaces: waxed outdoor; sand/plastic granules; and waxed indoor. Maximal tarsal flexion during stance and distal metatarsal coronary band ratio (MTCR), representing fetlock extension, were determined. Inertial motion sensor data determined stride duration, speed and stride length. Data were compared between collection and extension within horses on each surface, and compared between surfaces. Collected trot had significantly lower speed and stride length but longer stride duration than extended trot on all surfaces. All horses had less tarsal flexion and fetlock extension in collected compared with extended trot (P<0.05), which is likely to increase SL loading. The study findings indicate that extended trot may increase SL strain, providing a possible explanation for the high incidence of SL injury in horses trained for extravagant movement. It is possible that substantial use of extended trot could be a risk factor for development of suspensory desmitis, which might be one contributory factor in the prevalence of suspensory desmitis in young horses repeatedly undertaking extravagant movement.
... A high scoring trot is often characterised by advanced diagonal placement (Clayton, 1997) in which only one hindlimb is load bearing. This can result in a longer stance duration and greater extension of the metatarsophalangeal joint (Holmstrom et al., 1994(Holmstrom et al., , 1995, with subsequent increased load on the suspensory apparatus. ...
The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence of illness and lameness at different anatomical sites in registered United Kingdom dressage horses and to identify risk factors for lameness. A questionnaire was sent to all 11,363 registered members of British Dressage in 2005, with one questionnaire assigned per horse. Four multivariable logistic regression models were developed for each section of the questionnaire. A final mixed effects logistic regression model was developed which combined the results from all prior models. Owners reported that 33% of horses had been lame at some time during their career, with 24% of these within the previous 2 years. A number of factors were associated with the occurrence of lameness in the last 2 years, including age, height, indoor arenas, horse-walkers, lunging (as protective), back problems, arenas that become deeper in wet conditions and sand-based arenas. These factors were included as variables in a final model to provide information for selection of horses, development of safer arenas and more effective training regimens to minimise the onset of lameness.
There is considerable debate about the social license to compete with horses and controversy about training methods for dressage horses. The objectives were to: 1. apply the Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) to dressage horses competing at elite Grand Prix level; 2. compare RHpE and judges’ scores; and 3. document deviations in gaits from Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) guidelines. Video recordings of 147 competitors from nine World Cup competitions were assessed. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient tested the correlation between RHpE and judges’ scores. The median RHpE score was 3 (IQR 1, 4; range 0, 7). There was a moderate negative correlation (Spearman rho −0.40, p < 0.001) between the RHpE scores and the judges’ scores. Mouth open with separation of the teeth for ≥10 s (68%), head behind vertical ≥10° ≥ 10 s (67%), an intense stare for ≥5 s (30%) and repeated tail swishing (29%) were the most frequent RHpE behaviours. Deviations from FEI guidelines were most frequent in passage, piaffe, canter flying-changes, canter pirouettes and “halt-immobility-rein back five steps-collected trot”. In conclusion, most horses appeared to work comfortably for the majority of the test. Further investigation of the influence of a double bridle compared with a snaffle bridle on head position and mouth opening is merited.
One of the goals of the neuromotor control system is to minimize the cost of locomotion by reducing mechanical energy losses. Collisional mechanics, which studies the redirection of the downwards motion of the center of mass (COM) by ground reaction forces (GRF) generated by the limbs, represents an important source of energy loss. The primary objective of this study was to compare collisional mechanics and the associated mechanical energy losses in horses performing diagonally-synchronized gaits over a range of speeds. It is to be expected that collisional energy losses will be high when the COM velocity vector is closely aligned with the GRF vector. This condition is achieved in piaffe, an artificial gait performed in dressage competitions that has a diagonal limb coordination pattern similar to trot but performed with little or no forward velocity. Therefore, we hypothesized that collisional energy losses would be higher in piaffe than in trot. Synchronized kinematic and GRF data were collected from three highly-trained horses performing piaffe, passage and trot at a range of speeds. Derived variables were vertical excursion and velocity of the trunk COM, fore and hind limb compression expressed as percentage reduction of standing limb lengths, range of limb pro-retraction, GRF vector magnitude and vector angle, collision angle (Φ), and mechanical cost of motion (CoMotmech). Linear regression was used to investigate the relationship between CoMotmech and speed for each gait. Partial correlation was used to seek relationships between COM excursion and limb mechanics for each gait. Piaffe, passage and trot were clearly separated on the basis of speed. In all gaits the trunk was high at contact and lift off and descended to its lowest point in midstance following the pattern typical of spring mass mechanics. Mechanical cost was significantly (p
Kinematic studies of western pleasure horses are limited and were performed before current changes in the stock breed association judging standards on the western pleasure gaits. The objective was to measure the kinematics of the jog and lope of the stock breed western pleasure horse. Reflective markers attached along palpation points of the joint centres of the left forelimb and hind limb of four stock breed western pleasure horses were tracked for five strides for each gait for each horse. Both the jog and lope were determined to be four-beat stepping gaits. During the jogging stance, the elbow (159.7 ± 6.6°), carpal (179.9 ± 1.1°), fore (227.6 ± 2.7°) and hind fetlocks (227.4 ± 6.9°), stifle (159.5 ± 6.5°) and tarsal (166.5 ± 6.5°) joints demonstrated peak extension. The same joints demonstrated during swing peak flexion with the hind fetlock joint having double peaks of flexion (195.7 ± 3.2°, 182.3 ± 2.1°). During loping stance, the elbow (153.4 ± 4.2°), carpal (179.7+0.4°), and fore (228.3 ± 9.7°, 229.8 ± 10.0°) and hind fetlock (232.1 ± 2.6°) joints of the leading limbs demonstrated peak extension with tarsal peak extension (157.0 ± 9.6°) occurring at lift-off. Peak flexion occurred during swing for the elbow (105.1 ± 3.1°), carpus (119.8 ± 6.1°), hip (83.5 ± 5.4°), stifle (129.8 ± 9.6°) and tarsus (127.5 ± 6.1°). Kinematic measurements will assist in objectively defining the stock breed western pleasure gaits.
Although anecdotal reports of increased orthopaedic injury risk in equine sports exist, there is little scientific evidence to support this.
To test whether horses undertaking a single competitive sport have increased risk of specific injuries compared to those used for general purpose riding (GP); and whether injury type varies with sport category and performance level.
Data from 1069 records of horses undergoing orthopaedic evaluation (1998-2003) and meeting inclusion criteria were reviewed. Sport category (GP, showjumping, dressage, eventing, racing), level (nonelite or elite) and diagnosis were recorded. Effects of sport category and level on probability of a specific diagnosis were assessed using chi-squared tests. Logistic regression was used to determine which competitive sports and levels increased risk of injury compared with GP.
Overall there was a significant effect of sport category and level on diagnosis (P<0.0001). There was significant difference between anatomical site injured and sport category (P<0.0001); a high risk of forelimb superficial digital flexor tendon injury in elite eventing (P<0.0001) and elite showjumping (P = 0.02); distal deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) injury in elite showjumping (P = 0.002); and hindlimb suspensory ligament injury in elite (P<0.0001) and nonelite (P = 0.001) dressage. There was a low risk of tarsal injury in elite eventing (P = 0.01) and proximal DDFT injury in dressage (P = 0.01).
Horses competing in different sports are predisposed to specific injuries; particular sports may increase the risk of injury at certain anatomical sites; and the type and site of injury may reflect the type and level of performance.
These findings could guide clinicians in the diagnosis of sport related injuries.
Over the last 30 years, the increase in interest in horses for racing and riding activities has stimulated scientific research in equine locomotion. This paper presents a review of the measurement methods and their applications used to assess equine locomotion. After describing gaits and velocity-related changes in stride variables, the current applications of gait analysis are presented. The economic consequences of lameness justifies the great effort now being put into lameness quantification and prevention. To improve breeding and reduce the costs of training, early performance evaluation tests for each discipline are proposed. After extensive fundamental and methodological research on the various aspects of equine locomotion, the horse industry should benefit from the applications of gait analysis by improving the profitability of racing and riding activities.
Highly-trained dressage horses were studied to test the hypothesis that stride length is altered independently of stride duration in the transitions between the collected, working, medium and extended trot. Six well-trained dressage horses were filmed at a frame rate of 150 frames/s performing the collected, working, medium and extended trots in a sand arena. Temporal, linear and angular data were extracted from the films, with 4 strides being analysed for each horse and gait type. There were no significant asymmetries between the left and rights limbs or diagonals when data from the whole group were pooled, but 3 horses showed asymmetries in one or more variables (P < 0.01). Analysis of variance and post-hoc tests indicated that the speed increased significantly (P < 0.01) from the collected (3.20 m/s) to the working (3.61 m/s) to the medium (4.47 m/s) to the extended (4.93 m/s) trot. The increases in speed were associated with a significant increase in stride length from 250 cm in the collected trot, to 273 cm in the working trot, 326 cm in the medium trot and 355 cm in the extended trot (P < 0.01). The lengthening of the stride was a result of increases between each gait type in the over-reach distance, whereas the diagonal distance was significantly longer in the extended than the collected trot only (P < 0.01). The stride duration tended to decrease as speed increased, and the difference became significant between the collected and extended trots (P < 0.01).
Limb contact variables of the gaits of dressage horses were determined for competitors at the 1988 Seoul Summer Olympic Games in the team and individual dressage competitions. Two 16-mm motion picture cameras filming at 100 fps were aimed perpendicular to the plane of equestrian motion along the HXF and MXK diagonals of the standard dressage arena. Eighteen competitors in team dressage were filmed during the Grand Prix test while executing the extended walk, extended trot, and left lead extended canter. Fifteen horses selected as finalists for individual dressage medals were filmed during the Grand Prix Special test executing the extended trot, one-stride canter lead changes, two-stride canter lead changes, and the left lead extended canter. Velocities of the extended walk, extended trot, and extended canter were positively related to stride length. Velocities of the Grand Prix extended walk and Grand Prix Special extended trot were positively related to stride frequency. Limb contact patterns of the extended walk stride appeared to have relatively little importance in scoring. Certain characteristics of the extended trot and extended canter were strongly related to scores attained in Grand Prix Special dressage tests, with highest scores achieved by horses with the longest, fastest strides. For canter strides involving lead changes, no limb contact variables were detected that were significantly related to scores. This study provided the first objective documentation of the limb contact patterns of the walk, trot, and canter of world-class dressage horses.
The relative timing of the cyclic contacts that the feet of tetrapods make with the ground in terrestrial locomotion determines the gaits of the animals. This chapter reports on a comprehensive and integrative study that establishes a system for analyzing gaits. The model facilitates description, identifies all possible gaits, permits the simultaneous study of hundreds of locomotor performances, and helps to interpret the selection of gaits by the various animals.
A high-speed cinematographic analysis of interlimb time and linear gait characteristics was carried out at racing speed (12.0 m/sec; 1:23.6 min/km) in 30 clinically sound Standard-bred trotters. In respect of the whole group of horses the racing trot was found to be a very regular and symmetric gait. The variation coefficient between different horses ranged from 8 to 21 per cent depending on the particular characteristic being investigated. The variations recorded in individual animals were about 60 per cent less than those found for the whole group. The most stable characteristics were the duration and length of the step. Some horses exhibited striking gait asymmetries and the possible causes are considered. It is also observed that some trotters adopt a transition of gait that cannot be classified as a trot.
Trot in hand, working trot, collected trot, passage and piaffe of 6 Grand Prix dressage horses were recorded by high speed film (250 frames/s). Angular patterns and hoof trajectories of the left fore- and hindlimbs were analysed and presented as mean and standard deviation (s.d.) curves. Speed and stride length decreased and fore- and hind stance phase durations increased with collection resulting in no suspension in piaffe. The diagonal advanced placement was positive in all gaits except for piaffe. Most of the changes in forelimb angular patterns were effects of reduction in forelimb pendulation. The horses did not step under themselves more in collected trot, passage and piaffe than in trot in hand. The stifle and hock joints were more flexed at the start of the stance phase in piaffe and passage than in the other gaits. Flexion of the hock joint at the middle of the stance phase was largest in passage and piaffe. In spite of the limited number of horses the present study confirmed earlier observations of conformation and gaits in dressage horses. Hindlimb pendulation, femur and pelvis inclinations and elbow, carpal, stifle and hock joint angles seem to be the most significant angular measurements for dressage performance.
The trotting gait of 4 approved Swedish Warmblood stallions with a mean gait score > or = 8.67 (maximum score = 10) at official performance tests was recorded by high speed film (approximately 250 frames/sec). Angular patterns and hoof trajectories of the left fore and hind limbs were analysed, and presented as mean and standard deviation curves. The horses had a mean stride duration of 794.0 msec (sd 13.7) and the mean diagonal advanced placement was +29.8 msec (sd 7.6). The variation in angular patterns between the horses was greatest during the swing phase. The trajectory of the hind hoof reference point and the shoulder joint angle showed the largest maximum variation (44 and 29% of the total range, respectively). The swing phase retraction was much longer in the forelimbs than the hind limbs. The shoulder joint angle, fore and hind fetlock joint angles, hock joint angle and pelvis inclination decreased during the first part of the stance phase and are assumed to be important for weight absorption and storage of elastic strain. Kinematic gait analyses have potential in the selection of performance horses.
Rules for Dressage Events
Anon (1991) Rules for Dressage Events.. 18th edn. FCdCration Equestre
Internationale, Switzerland.
In: Fvsisch Experimenteren
- G L Squires
Squires, G.L. (1972) In: Fvsisch Experimenteren. McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd., London. pp 44-58.
The Kinematics of Piaffe, Passage and Collected Trot of Dressage Horses
- C K Argue
Argue, C.K. (1994) The Kinematics of Piaffe, Passage and Collecred Trot of
Dressage Horses. MSc Thesis, University of Saskatchewan.