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Gender-Related Individual Differences and the Structure of Vocational Interests: The Importance of the People–Things Dimension
Abstract
In 3 studies (respective Ns = 289, 394, and 1,678), males and females were assessed on Big Five traits, masculine instrumentality (M), feminine expressiveness (F), gender diagnosticity (GD), and RIASEC (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional) vocational interest scales. Factor analyses of RIASEC scores consistently showed evidence for D.J. Prediger's (1982) People-Things and Ideas-Data dimensions, and participants' factor scores on these dimensions were computed. In all studies Big Five Openness was related to Ideas-Data but not to People-Things. Gender was strongly related to People-Things but not to Ideas-Data. Within each sex, GD correlated strongly with People-Things but not with Ideas-Data. M, F, and Big Five measures other than Openness tended not to correlate strongly with RIASEC scales or dimensions. The results suggest that gender and gender-related individual differences within the sexes are strongly linked to the People-Things dimension of vocational interests.
... Notes 1. Note that there is little evidence that sex differences in the Big Five personality traits contribute to gender gaps in STEM (Lippa, 1998;Vedel, 2016). For conscientiousness, openness and neuroticism, this is unsurprising; although these traits predict some occupational outcomes, it is not clear why they would predict the decision to go into a maths-intensive or objectsoriented field vs. a non-maths intensive or peopleoriented field. ...
... people-oriented occupations. As it turns out, however, neither variable correlates consistently with people's occupation-relevant interests (Lippa, 1998). Note as well that sex differences in conscientiousness, extraversion and openness are small at best and not always found (Kajonius & Johnson, 2018), and that even the largest personality sex differences -those for agreeableness and neuroticism -are notably smaller than sex differences in occupation-relevant interests (Lippa, 1998). ...
... As it turns out, however, neither variable correlates consistently with people's occupation-relevant interests (Lippa, 1998). Note as well that sex differences in conscientiousness, extraversion and openness are small at best and not always found (Kajonius & Johnson, 2018), and that even the largest personality sex differences -those for agreeableness and neuroticism -are notably smaller than sex differences in occupation-relevant interests (Lippa, 1998). 2. If we adopt a broad definition of STEM, it is actually debatable whether women are less interested in STEM subjects than men are. ...
It is a well-known and widely lamented fact that men outnumber women in a number of fields in STEM (science, technology, engineering and maths). The most commonly discussed explanations for the gender gaps are discrimination and socialization, and the most common policy prescriptions target those ostensible causes. However, a great deal of evidence in the behavioural sciences suggests that discrimination and socialization are only part of the story. The purpose of this paper is to highlight other aspects of the story: aspects that are commonly overlooked or downplayed. More precisely, the paper has two main aims. The first is to examine the evidence that factors other than workplace discrimination contribute to the gender gaps in STEM. These include relatively large average sex differences in career and lifestyle preferences, and relatively small average differences in cognitive aptitudes – some favouring males, others favouring females – which are associated with progressively larger differences the further above the average one looks. The second aim is to examine the evidence suggesting that these sex differences are not purely a product of social factors but also have a substantial biological (i.e. inherited) component. A more complete picture of the causes of the unequal sex ratios in STEM may productively inform policy discussions.
... Some of the largest sex differences observed to date pertains to occupational preferences (Lippa, 1991(Lippa, , 1998(Lippa, , 2005, and a large-scale Internet-based survey suggests that this pattern (differences in People-Things dimension ranging from d = 0.96 to d = 1.40) holds across diverse cultural and ethnic boundaries (Lippa, 2010). A recent very large-scale study suggests that the underrepresentation of girls and women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields may even increase with increases in national gender equality (Stoet & Geary, 2018). ...
... The gender diagnosticity approach allows for the construction of a continuous gender measure based on any variable set. It has been used in the domains of personality (Lippa & Hershberger, 1999;Loehlin et al., 2005), behaviors (Mahalik et al., 2015), political attitudes (Lönnqvist & Ilmarinen, 2021), occupational preferences (Lippa, 1998), and leisure activities (Leversen et al., 2012;Young & Sweeting, 2004). In terms of psychological characteristics, however, there are very few studies on the associations between estimates of gender typicality derived from different psychological domains. ...
... Early studies on gender diagnosticity used the same data set for both constructing and testing the linear models (Lippa, 1998;Lippa & Connelly, 1990). This approach bears the risk of overfitting, which increases performance within that specific data set, but decreases it in similar data sets drawn from the same population (Yarkoni & Westfall, 2017). ...
Some of the most persistently recurring research questions in the fields of personality and social psychology concern sex differences. Although much progress has been made, no research has addressed the basic question of whether there is one general construct of genderedness that runs through various life domains, or whether genderedness is specific to certain domains. In order to determine whether being gender typical in one way goes together with being gender typical also in other ways, we investigated whether 16-year old girls and boys (N = 4106) finishing Finnish elementary school differ in their personality traits, values, cognitive abilities, academic achievement, and educational track. To do this, we updated the gender diagnosticity approach by employing penalized logistic regression to estimate multivariate sex differences based on both binary and continuous variables. The preregistered analysis show that the magnitude of sex differences varies a lot from domain to domain, that narrow measures, such as grade profiles, can be highly accurate in predicting sex, whereas broad measures, such as general cognitive ability, can be useless, and that the correlations between femininity-masculinity scores based on different domains, despite all being positive, are too weak to suggest the existence of a general factor of genderedness. Our more exploratory analyses show that more focus on gender typicality could offer important insights into the role of gender in shaping people’s lives. We discuss how future research could employ the methods we introduce to further our understanding of sex differences and gender typicality in developmental and educational fields.
... We selected Enterprising, Social, and Artistic interests for several reasons. To begin, based on the previously reported gender differences between the "people" and "things" dimensions of the RIA-SEC model (Lippa, 1998;Su et al., 2009;Thorndike, 1911), these interest types, all associated with the RIASEC "people" dimension (Prediger, 1982), should exert the strongest influence on the relationship between Investigative interest and STEM career choice, especially for women. Indeed, several researchers have linked a gender-related individual difference-masculinity-femininity-to the people-things dimension, suggesting a parallel between gender and the people-things dimension that might explain gender differences in occupational interests (e.g., Lippa, 1998). ...
... To begin, based on the previously reported gender differences between the "people" and "things" dimensions of the RIA-SEC model (Lippa, 1998;Su et al., 2009;Thorndike, 1911), these interest types, all associated with the RIASEC "people" dimension (Prediger, 1982), should exert the strongest influence on the relationship between Investigative interest and STEM career choice, especially for women. Indeed, several researchers have linked a gender-related individual difference-masculinity-femininity-to the people-things dimension, suggesting a parallel between gender and the people-things dimension that might explain gender differences in occupational interests (e.g., Lippa, 1998). In accordance with this distinction, the people-things dimension has been used to explain sex differences in occupational membership in general and the gender gap in STEM in particular (Browne, 2006;Su et al., 2009). ...
... However, there are several reasons to question this assumption. First, as noted above, Artistic interest lies on the "people" dimension of the RIASEC structure (Prediger, 1982), which has been shown to be both less predictive of STEM entry, and is an interest type that shows large sex differences-favoring women-in prior research (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987;Lippa, 1998;Su et al., 2009). Second, and consistently, evidence suggests that women pursue art and design majors at a higher rate than men (College Factual, 2017;Humanities Indicators, 2017), suggesting that women with strong Artistic interest may be more likely than men with similar Artistic interest to pursue artistic careers. ...
The persistent gender gap in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) career choice represents a perplexing problem for researchers and policy makers alike. We contribute to the body of research on the gender gap in STEM careers by testing a “surplus model” of vocational interests as a predictor of STEM career choice. The model suggests that, controlling for ability, female adolescents with strong STEM-related interest should be less likely to pursue STEM careers when they also have strong interests in other areas, due to wider career options. We tested the surplus model in a large national longitudinal data set and translated the results into differences in annual wages. Our findings illuminate the predictive validity of a surplus model of interests on STEM career choice across gender, provide insight into the gender gap in STEM, and suggest opportunities for future research.
... There is sound empirical evidence for the validity of these underlying dimensions and their relevance for research on vocational interests. For example, the People-Things dimension is often considered as the central construct to explain gender differences in vocational interests (Lippa, 1998;Su, Rounds, & Armstrong, 2009 (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997). Consequently, the two dimensions are often viewed as a constituting and organizing element of the interest circumplex (Armstrong et al., 2008), while the six RIASEC types can be seen as different blends of the dimensions' poles. ...
... There is sound empirical evidence for the existence of systematic gender differences in vocational interests and educational choices across all age groups. Specifically, research has shown that women typically score higher on scales close to People, while men usually score higher on scales close to Things (Lippa, 1998;Su et al., 2009). In the framework of the SCCT, this finding is typically attributed to gender role socialization processes. ...
The present study examined three different sources of evidence for the validity of the Personal Globe Inventory (PGI; Tracey, 2002) with regard to its ability to assess the dimensions underlying the spherical model of vocational interests: People-Things, Ideas-Data, and Prestige. Specifically, we analyzed 1) evidence based on the internal structure of the eight basic interest scales, 2) convergent evidence of the PGI dimensions across different item types, and 3) evidence based on relations to plausible correlates of vocational interests, namely, gender, academic achievement, and the socioeconomic status associated with the desired profession. Moreover, we analyzed the extent to which these sources of evidence were invariant between the PGI and its associated short version – the PGI-S (Tracey, 2010). Relying on a sample of N = 688 university students in Germany, we were able to show that 1) the circular order of the basic interest scales was confirmed across item types and that it was invariant across PGI versions, 2) both the relationships between corresponding dimensions across item types as well as the relationships with the validity markers were, as far as the circumplex dimensions were concerned, in line with theoretical expectations and invariant across PGI versions, and 3) there were notable differences between the respective relationships with the Prestige dimensions across item types and PGI versions. We conclude by weighing up the pros and cons of the two PGI versions and suggesting specific situations in which the use of either version is advised.
... Literature has interesting debate on this issue. Based on Prediger (1982) and Holland (1997), gender specific profiles of RIASEC personality types had been of uniform finding (Bergmann & Eder, 2005;Lippa, 1998). Men scored higher on the things end T/P dimension, i.e. realistic occupation, whereas women got higher scores on People end, i.e. socialistic occupation (Deng et al., 2007). ...
... In the table and figure above, since the p-value is 0.000<.05, in all cases than our chosen significance level (p-value = 0.05), we found support for the assertion that the association between occupational identity, gender and occupational preferences had been found to be significant. Unlike Prediger (1982), Holland (1997), (Bergmann &Eder, 2005 andLippa (1998) gender specific profiles of RIASEC personality types did not have uniform findings. Rather, results strongly supported (Deng et al., 2007;Guntern et al., 2016) as males did score higher on realistic, enterprising and conventional occupations, whereas females got higher scores on social, artistic and investigative occupations. ...
Current Study investigated how RIASEC personality traits impact the crystallization of
occupational preferences among young adolescents via theoretical lens of vocational
choice theory. A sample of 1147 students ranging from 13 to 21 years was used to test
RIASEC model. Results using Holland’s RIASEC Scale test (1997) depicted a significant
impact of RIASEC personality traits in occupational preferences. Gender appeared to be
a strong determinant in variation pattern of vocational choice. Understanding these
patterns can help students, parents, policy makers and academic institutions in helping
young adolescents in making better career choices and in turn will direct human resource
to most optimal productive path in an economy.
... L'objectif de cette Théorie des rôles sociaux est de démontrer que les différences de comportement des hommes et des femmes sont dues aux rôles assignés à ces hommes et à ces femmes dans la société. C'est pourquoi les hommes ont le plus souvent des rôles ou des métiers centrés sur les choses, tandis que les femmes font des métiers plus sociaux, en lien avec d'autres personnes (Lippa, 1998). Les hommes occupent alors plus de postes à responsabilité par rapport aux femmes, dans une société qui fournit différents modèles de comportements selon que l'on soit une fille ou un garçon. ...
... Indeed, these authors propose that within Western societies, women tend to develop a self-concept as interdependent and relational, while men tend to construct Dynamiques identitaires : quand l'auto-catégorisation explique les perceptions et conduites scolaires a self-concept as independent and agentic. A large quantity of research, using a variety of methods and instruments, suggests that women valorize relations with others (with friends, family, etc.) more than men do and often define themselves by these relations (Clancy & Dollinger, 1993;Eagly, 2009;Lippa, 1998;McGuire & McGuire, 1988). Men, on the other hand, are more self-centered and their personal objectives, and define themselves as autonomous agents, independent and distinct from others (Conway, Pizzamiglio & Mount, 1996). ...
Fondée sur les Théories de la Comparaison sociale (Festinger, 1954), de l'Identité Sociale (Tajfel, 1970) et de l'Auto-Catégorisation (Turner, 1987), cette Thèse défend l'idée de l'influence du contexte de comparaison dans la construction des perceptions et des conduites scolaires. Particulièrement, et selon le genre, le niveau d'auto-catégorisation (intergroupe vs intragroupe) modifie le concept de soi scolaire, scientifique et littéraire, le rappel de notes mais aussi les choix d'orientation (Article 1). Les filles s'évaluent comme plus douées en lettres que les garçons et les garçons comme plus doués en sciences que les filles dans un contexte intergroupe par rapport à un contexte intragroupe. Avec des mesures plus « objectives », ce pattern de résultats est identique pour les notes et s'inverse pour les choix d'orientation. Ces différences de genre se retrouvent également pour les sois agentique et relationnel dans un contexte collectif et s'estompent là aussi dans un contexte plus individuel (Article 2). Ainsi, pour des élèves en France, les différences de genre ne sont pas amoindries (Eagly & Wood, 1999), mais perdurent lorsqu'une identité collective est induite. L'auto-stéréotypie ou l'adhésion au stéréotype de l'endogroupe explique alors ces différences de genre sur les concepts de soi agentique et relationnel. De plus, dans cette étude réalisée en école d'ingénieur, la position sociale modifie les auto-perceptions des filles sur un soi scientifique dans un contexte collectif, illustrant des effets de contraste par rapport au groupe d'appartenance. Le soi collectif et non le soi individuel est guide des attitudes d'inégalités envers les groupes sociaux, mesurées par la dominance sociale et le sexisme moderne (Article 2). Les liens entre comparaison sociale et buts d'accomplissement sont alors étudiés et précisent qu'une comparaison intergroupe implique plus l'adoption de buts de performance-approche qu'une comparaison intragroupe alors que l'inverse se produit pour des buts de maîtrise (Article 3). Ces résultats seront enfin discutés au regard des questions entourant l'existence de réelles différences de genre liées au contexte, et d'identités multiples influençant différemment les cognitions et attitudes.
... It is widely acknowledged that girls tend to show higher vocational interests in social and artistic tasks, while boys tend to show higher vocational interests in scientific, technical, and mechanical tasks (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987). In addition, girls tend to prefer people-oriented jobs involving interpersonal tasks (e.g., teaching and helping with people) while boys tend to prefer things-oriented occupations involving impersonal tasks such as dealing with tools and machines (Lippa, 1998;Su et al., 2009). Based on their meta-analytic review, Su et al. (2009) found that girls tend to show significantly higher social, artistic, and conventional interests, whereas boys tend to show substantially higher realistic and investigative interests regardless of their age. ...
... Based on their meta-analytic review, Su et al. (2009) found that girls tend to show significantly higher social, artistic, and conventional interests, whereas boys tend to show substantially higher realistic and investigative interests regardless of their age. Similarly, Lippa (1998) also found generally higher social interests for girls and higher realistic interests for boys. Another meta-analysis (Pässler et al., 2015) found that realistic interests were positively related to mechanical skills (i.e., ability to deal with tools and machines manually), whereas social and artistic interests were found to be negatively associated with mechanical skills. ...
Previous research suggests that girls have higher occupational aspirations than boys before entering the labor market. We investigate whether this gender gap in occupational aspirations generalizes to secondary school students in Germany and illuminate the possible mechanisms behind these purported gender differences. For this purpose, we used a large and representative sample of ninth graders (N=10,743) from the German National Educational Panel Study (NEPS). Adolescents’ occupational aspirations were coded on the International Socio-Economic Index of Occupational Status (ISEI) according to the socio-economic status of the aspired occupation. Results showed that girls’ occupational aspirations were 6.5 ISEI points higher than boys’ (Cohen’s d = 0.36). Mediation analyses further revealed that gender differences in vocational interest could explain one-half of the gender gap in occupational aspirations. This suggests that girls’ higher occupational aspirations reflect their specific vocational interests, rather than a general striving for higher status and prestige compared to boys.
... Consistent with this notion, males and females show abilities and preference for things and people, respectively (Lippa, 1998). Meta-analytic studies revealed sex differences in terms of occupational preferences where females show preferences for people oriented jobs, while males for object oriented jobs (Su et al., 2009), and these sex-specific preferences were observed in all 53 nations of a review study where the size of the sex differences were uncorrelated with global variation in gender equity (Lippa, 2010). ...
... The people-thing dimension highlights that males and females possess innate abilities and preferences (Lippa, 1998), and may manifest in specific care tasks that people adopt. For instance, males and females tend to focus on different aspects of a problem (e.g., an illness) and use different methods to solve the same problem (e.g., treatment method) in formal care settings. ...
Men and women exhibit clear differences in occupational choices. The present article elucidates sex differences in terms of formal care occupational choices and care styles based on evolutionary psychological perspectives. Broadly (1) the motivation to attain social status drives male preference for occupations that signals prestige and the desire to form interpersonal affiliation underlies female preference for occupations that involve psychosocial care for people in need; (2) ancestral sex roles leading to sexually differentiated cognitive and behavioral phenotypic profiles underlie present day sex differences in care styles where men are things-oriented, focusing on disease management while women are people-oriented, focusing on psychosocial management. The implications for healthcare and social care are discussed and recommendations for future studies are presented.
... This RIASEC typology takes the form of a clockwise hexagonal pattern containing six interest types or dimensions: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional (Lippa, 1998). After decades of model development and evolution, this base concept still remains highly influential, not in the least in the field of (higher) education . ...
... Lippa, R. (1998). Gender-related individual differences and the structure of vocational interests: the importance of the people-things dimension. ...
De overgang naar hoger onderwijs is een beproeving voor elke Vlaamse student. Inderdaad, omdat Vlaanderen een open toegang heeft tot hoger onderwijs, kan elke student met een diploma secundair onderwijs aan bijna elke opleiding beginnen. Om het vooropgestelde diploma te halen van de gekozen opleiding, dient een student twee taken tot een goed einde te brengen. De student dient een haalbare studiekeuze te maken. En de student dient te slagen in examens om op schema te blijven om het begeerde diploma te halen. Deze taken zijn niet zo eenvoudig als ze lijken. De data in deze dissertatie geven aan dat slechts 36% van de eerstejaarsstudenten erin slaagt om alle opleidingsonderdelen tot een goed einde te brengen om zo op schema te blijven om tijdig het beoogde diploma te behalen. Om dit onrustwekkende cijfer te verbeteren heeft de Universiteit Gent het SIMON-project (Study Skills and Interest MONitor) gestart. SIMON is erop gericht om studenten die dreigen te falen te (her)oriënteren naar een meer haalbaar studieprogramma vooraleer ze hun examens effectief falen, met verlies van tijd en middelen tot gevolg. In deze dissertatie worden de PAKSOC (praktisch, analytisch, kunstzinnig, sociaal, ondernemend en conventioneel) studie interesses van een student gebruikt om de impact van het SIMON project te vergroten door in de literatuur een aantal openstaande vragen te onderzoeken omtrent studiekeuze en studiesucces. Om dit te bewerkstelligen heb ik in deze dissertatie de uitvoering en resultaten besproken van vier empirische studies. Zo heb ik onder meer gevonden dat de fit tussen de interesses van een student en een set van studieprogramma’s kan worden benaderd via een uniforme distributie. Deze distributie kan dan worden gebruikt als de basis voor een Empirische Advies Set Engine, of ook wel EASE. EASE verstrekt gepersonaliseerde studieoriëntatie voor elke student, gebaseerd op een objectief criterium dat toelaat de lengte en de fit van de set met voorgestelde programma’s te balanceren. Deze balans is superieur aan deze die wordt gegenereerd door meer klassieke indices van interessefit, die trouwens ook worden gebruikt in SIMON. Dergelijke studieoriëntatie kan van cruciaal belang zijn in bepaalde gespecialiseerde gebieden. Als dusdanig heb ik ook onderzocht hoe de interessefit van studenten en studieprogramma’s kan bijdragen tot een economisch belangrijke STEM (wetenschap, technologie, ingenieur en wiskunde) studiekeuze. De resultaten hiervan laten duidelijk zien dat vrouwelijke studenten een betere interessefit hadden met hun gekozen (STEM en niet-STEM) programma in vergelijk met mannelijke studenten. Vrouwelijke STEM - studenten hadden ook een betere interessefit met het STEM veld in vergelijking met hun mannelijke collega’s. STEM studiekeuze en de genderkloof (mannelijke meerderheid) in het STEM veld werden verklaard door een model dat alle PAKSOC dimensies bevatte, naast wekelijkse uren wiskunde in het secundair onderwijs, en de fit met het STEM veld. Een mannelijke STEM keuze was meer gerelateerd aan uren wiskunde in het secundair, terwijl een vrouwelijke STEM keuze meer gerelateerd was aan de fit met het STEM veld. Naast studiekeuze behandelt de huidige dissertatie ook studiesucces. Omtrent dit studiesucces, heb ik ook een verandering voorgesteld in methodologie. Als dusdanig spitst de huidige dissertatie zich toe op identificeren van studenten die dreigen te falen in hun gekozen studieprogramma. Hiertoe heb ik mij vooral gericht op het voorspellen van resultaten van individuele studenten, en niet op het verklaren van populatievarantie in studiesucces, zoals het meestal gebeurt in de literatuur. Deze methodologie valideert ook een set (niet-) cognitieve predictoren voor identificatie van falende studenten. Wat betreft deze identificatie, heb ik ook de mogelijkheid onderzocht om minder strenge vals-positieve (succesvolle studenten die worden geïdentificeerd als falend) ratio’s te gebruiken. Specifiek voor studie-interesses heb ik een aanwezigheidsgraad gevonden van 24% in de identificatiemodellen. Dit betekent dat studie interesses voorkwamen in 24% van de (programma-) specifieke modellen om studiesucces te voorspellen. Dit was de derde meest impactvolle predictor, na studieantecedenten en cognitief vermogen. De relatie tussen studie-interesses en studiesucces wordt ook beïnvloed door de omgeving. Resultaten laten zien dat programma’s een lage diversiteit hebben in de studie interesses van studenten die het programma hebben gekozen. Populaties met een hogere diversiteit werden trouwens gelinkt aan hogere gemiddelde gecontroleerde motivatie en lagere gemiddelde autonome motivatie. In het algemeen was een hogere diversiteit over programma’s ook gelinkt aan betere gemiddelde studieresultaten. Bij een aantal programma’s met een zeer specifiek interessepatroon (hoge sociale dimensie, lage praktische dimensie) observeerde ik echter het omgekeerde effect. Ik vond ook dat de interessediversiteit in programma’s een sterkere invloed had op studiesucces dan individuele interessefit. Om te besluiten, stel ik dat in deze dissertatie, de empirische resultaten en de specifieke operationalisatie van de PAKSOC dimensies en interessefit een uniek perspectief (open toegang) bieden op studie-interesses en hun effect op studiekeuze en studiesucces. Oriëntatie naar een interessante studiekeuze wordt gebaseerd op een objectief criterium: hoe goed moet de fit zijn tussen de interesses van een student en het profiel van een programma? Oriëntatie naar haalbare studiekeuzes wordt gebaseerd op het identificeren van falende studenten door het voorspellen van studiesucces, terwijl er nog altijd wordt rekening gehouden met de specifieke set up van het onderwijssysteem met open toegang. Deze dissertatie stelt studieadviseurs ook in staat deze bevindingen onmiddellijk in de praktijk te brengen.
... This flaw reflects the fallacy that researchers believe they can safely ignore the degree to which the stimuli used in experimental studies match the distributional properties of the real-world groups they represent. One reason for this disregard may be the belief that all groups have roughly identical distributions on important underlying causal characteristics. 1 Yet this assumption is incorrect, as groups differ (and often markedly so) on important personality, motivational, and cognitive dimensions -in other words, on the interest and ability factors that relate to nearly all outcomes (see, e.g., ACT 2017; Andreoni et al. 2019;Beaver et al. 2013;Benbow & Stanley 1980;Byrnes et al. 1999;Ceci & Williams 2010;Cesario et al. 2019;Diekman et al. 2017;Gottfredson 1998;Halpern et al. 2007;Hsia 1988;Hsin & Xie 2014;Jussim et al. 2009Jussim et al. , 2015aJussim et al. , 2015cLee & Ashton 2020;Lippa 1998;Lu et al. 2020;Lubinski & Benbow 1992;Lynn 2004;Lynn & Irwing 2004;McLanahan & Percheski 2008;Roth et al. 2001;Sowell 2005Sowell , 2008Su et al. 2009;Tregle et al. 2019;Wright et al. 2014). 2 In understanding the role of decision-maker bias in producing disparate outcomes, it is necessary to compare and interpret the size of categorical bias effects with the size of these behavioral differences across groups. ...
This article questions the widespread use of experimental social psychology to understand real-world group disparities. Standard experimental practice is to design studies in which participants make judgments of targets who vary only on the social categories to which they belong. This is typically done under simplified decision landscapes and with untrained decision makers. For example, to understand racial disparities in police shootings, researchers show pictures of armed and unarmed Black and White men to undergraduates and have them press "shoot" and "don't shoot" buttons. Having demonstrated categorical bias under these conditions, researchers then use such findings to claim that real-world disparities are also due to decision-maker bias. I describe three flaws inherent in this approach, flaws which undermine any direct contribution of experimental studies to explaining group disparities. First, the decision landscapes used in experimental studies lack crucial components present in actual decisions (Missing Information Flaw). Second, categorical effects in experimental studies are not interpreted in light of other effects on outcomes, including behavioral differences across groups (Missing Forces Flaw). Third, there is no systematic testing of whether the contingencies required to produce experimental effects are present in real-world decisions (Missing Contingencies Flaw). I apply this analysis to three research topics to illustrate the scope of the problem. I discuss how this research tradition has skewed our understanding of the human mind within and beyond the discipline and how results from experimental studies of bias are generally misunderstood. I conclude by arguing that the current research tradition should be abandoned.
... Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional (Lippa, 1998). After decades of model development and evolution, this base concept still remains highly influential, not in the least in the field of (higher) education (Nauta, 2010). ...
Each student faces the challenge of choosing a study program that matches his or her vocational interest. A good person-environment fit (PE fit) between student and study program influences study success and persistence, prerequisites to obtaining the desired degree. But which criterion should be used when presenting advice sets of study options to orient students toward study programs that match their vocational interests? And how long should such a list of study options be? Moving beyond existing, non-evidence-based approaches, present study sets out to develop an empirical advice set engine (EASE) to optimize the process of matching future students to fitting study options. Compared to existing, non-evidence-based alternatives, EASE shows a better balance between the number and PE fit of the options presented. EASE may be a promising way to rethink how student PE fit information can be used in student orientation and higher education research.
... Other studies have focused on actual moral behavior of women and men, providing mixed evidence. On the one hand, women tend to give more weight to others' interests in their decisions, score higher on personality traits such as sincerity and fairness, and show higher vocational interests in taking care of others (Franke et al. 1997;Lippa 1998; see also Crocetti et al. 2019). On the other hand, women appear to behave more ethically in groups, but not in individual decision making (Muehlheusser et al. 2015). ...
The present research investigated whether evaluations of female and male job candidates rely on different dimensions. Going beyond previous studies on the role of gender stereotypes, we examined the relative importance of competence, morality, and sociability in employment decisions. In Study 1, we content-analyzed 68 archival reports of professionals to explore the extent to which they spontaneously referred to the three dimensions in evaluations of women and men. In Study 2, 259 Italian student participants rated the importance of different traits in hiring a female or male candidate for a job position. Additionally, we tested the relative influence of specific information about candidate competence and morality in predicting hiring (Study 3; n = 123 Italian students) and contract renewal (Study 4; n = 109 Italian students) decisions. Findings consistently showed that competence was the most important dimension in evaluations and decisions concerning male candidates, whereas all dimensions were important for female candidates. Moreover, decisions concerning women were influenced by the dimension on which they appeared to be relatively weak. Overall, findings suggest that women are evaluated against multiple criteria and might therefore be asked to meet more requirements than men to be selected and make a career. These findings can help evaluators and decision makers adopt assessment strategies that prevent more critical evaluations of women, such as establishing specific evaluation criteria before the disclosure of a candidate’s gender.
... He found important differences in the way of socialization of both males and females. Lippa (1998), in his study state that both males and females differentiate distinctively on many factors. The factors based on which those individuals differs are abilities, upbringing, education, personality characteristics and social class. ...
Since ages retailers are providing their customers with the daily basic needs. Trust has an indispensable role in creation of positive relationship between customers and their retailers. Retailing ethics is an existing role of retailers which they perform while interacting with their consumers and predominantly customers has an everlasting impact of it. But this extended role of retailers can be visualized as a differentiation strategy by marketers. Retailers can employ and customize the strategy based on the ethical parameters of the specific genders that is going to primarily affect them and hence can stay ahead in this highly competitive retailing world. Based on the various dimensions of retail ethics (Sarma, N. 2007) and its other constructs (Bodh, R. 2012), perceived gender differences is being presented and tested and further analyzed. This survey was performed on 200 consumers (100 males and 100 females) in Mumbai city shopping for FMCG goods. The study further specifies that females perceived significantly higher ethics in retailing than their male equivalent. The study can help the retailers and organizations to consider the outcome in their strategies to delight the customers and stay ahead to their competitors.
... Over time, differences in functions performed within a group or between groups within larger societies might become privileged which incidentally gives rise to status differences that are associated with sex (Ridgeway, 2009). For instance, sex differences are evidenced in terms of preference for things (men) and people (women; Achter, Lubinski, & Benbow, 1996;Lippa, 1998;Lubinski & Humphreys, 1990;Su, Rounds, & Armstrong, 2009;Webb, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2002) as well as in leadership (Eagly & Johnson, 1990), and interpersonal conflict styles (e.g., Aquino & Byron, 2002;Bjorkqvist, Österman, & Kaukiainen, 1992). Additionally, men are more likely to seek out hierarchy-enhancing occupations than women (e.g., Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) which might lead them toward high-status areas of research and practice. ...
In the present study, we sought to explain changes in the proportion of men and women working within North American psychological science in terms of a heterarchical social organization defined by norms and conventions of society, the structure of higher-education institutions, as well as scientific communities. Using archival records from psychology within the U.S., we found that the demographic shift from male-dominated to female-dominated reflects an asymptotic relationship that has been established in the last two decades. An examination of three potential indicators of status (PhD department appointments, general science awards, and scientific awards in psychology) did not indicate a similar trend compared to the ascension of women within psychological science. We believe that this reflects a heterarchical structure: disparate criteria were used to assign women’s status in the social networks of academic institutions and scientific research. Moreover, we also claim that the increase in the number of women and “female-associated” topics has resulted in a general change in the status of psychology.
... На ова досега многупати е укажано во литературата врз основа на добиените емпириски податоци (пр:Lippa, 1998, Monleon-Moscardo et. al, 2003, Danziger & Eden, 2007. ...
... Durumsal ilgi, odaklanmış dikkat, artan bilişsel işlev, merak, duygusal katılım içeren ve bağlama özgü, kısa vadeli psikolojik bir durumdur (Hidi ve Renninger, 2006;Schiefele, 2009). Bireysel ilgi ise zaman içinde devam eden belirli bir konuyu anlamaya yönelik görece istikrarlı ve içsel istek olarak tanımlanmaktadır (Schraw ve Lehman, 2001 Graziano ve ark., 2011;Groen ve ark., 2018;Lippa, 1998;Lippa, 2010;Su ve ark., 2009;Su ve Rounds, 2015;Varella ve ark., 2016;Woodcock ve ark., 2013;Yang ve Barth, 2015). Cinsiyetin, kişilikle birlikte alan seçimindeki varyansın önemli bir kısmını açıkladığı görülmektedir (Lakhal ve ark., 2012). ...
... Die Autoren kommen zu dem Schluss, dass Frauen über alle untersuchten Fächer hinweg Themen mit einer sozialen Wirkrichtung bevorzugen, während die Publikationen von Männern sich häufiger mit physischen Objekten oder abstrakten Entitäten beschäftigen. Damit gehen die Autoren über eine prominente Hypothese aus der Berufswahlforschung hinaus, die besagt, dass sich Frauen und Männer hinsichtlich einer postulierten "people-things dimension" (Prediger, 1982) unterscheiden: Frauen weisen demnach ein stärkeres Interesse für interpersonelle Tätigkeiten auf, Männer präferieren hingegen objektbezogene Berufe (Lippa, 1998;Su, Rounds & Armstrong, 2009). Im Hinblick auf die Entstehung solcher geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede gibt es eine Vielzahl an theo-retischen Ansätzen 2 . ...
Zusammenfassung. Auf die Mitte der 1990er Jahre angestoßene Debatte über den steigenden Frauenanteil unter den Psychologiestudierenden folgte eine Reihe von Studien, welche unter anderem geschlechtsspezifische Interessenschwerpunkte untersuchten. Bis heute zeigt sich zu solchen Präferenzen ein insgesamt gemischtes Bild und es liegt noch keine umfassende Untersuchung über einen größeren Zeitraum vor. Daher wurde untersucht, (1) ob sich die Forschungsinteressen von promovierenden Frauen und Männern in der Psychologie unterscheiden und (2) welche zeitlichen Trends hierbei ausgemacht werden können. Analysiert wurden 17 971 in der psychologischen Referenzdatenbank PSYNDEX nachgewiesene Dissertationen aus dem deutschen Sprachraum der Jahre 1968 bis 2017. Die individuellen Forschungsinteressen wurden anhand standardisierter Schlagwörter der Dissertationen mit Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) identifiziert. Zeitliche Trends wurden mit Multilayer Perceptrons (MLP) untersucht. Es konnten 48 Interessenbereiche identifiziert werden, wobei sich nur in zwei Bereichen zeitlich konstant größere Unterschiede zwischen Frauen und Männern zeigten: „Mutter-Kind-Beziehung und Entwicklung im Kleinkindalter“ wurde mit einer höheren Wahrscheinlichkeit von Frauen, „Statistik und Methoden“ stärker von Männern adressiert. Weitere Unterschiede unterlagen zeitlichen Schwankungen. Die Befunde stützen insgesamt die Annahme, dass die Ähnlichkeiten zwischen Frauen und Männern überwiegen.
... Importantto describe for later summaryoffresh empirical findings is the people versus things dimension within Holland's hexagon (Lippa, 1998;Lubinski, 2000), which runs from Social (contact with people) ...
For effective interventions and programs for the intellectually talented to be optimally developed and implemented, educators first need to realize what is important to understand for all students, namely, the nature and scope of their psychological diversity—or, their Individuality, the title of E. L. Thorndike’s (1911) landmark essay, from which an appreciation of individual differences was ushered into American psychology (Dawis, 1992). In essence, program design should align opportunities to learn with each student's individual characteristics (Lubinski & Benbow, 2000, 2006).
... Qualitative differences of male-and female-typical play may contribute to the development of differential personal characteristics and skills associated with male-and female-typical occupations. Male-typical occupations tend to be realistic, risky, and things-oriented and female-typical occupations tend to involve fashion, children, and helping others (Lippa, 1998(Lippa, , 2005. Similarly, male-typical play is perceived as more competitive, risky, and involving more construction and female-typical play is perceived as having a stronger focus on physical appearance, nurturance, and domestic skills (Blakemore & Centers, 2005). ...
There are significant gender differences in both play behavior and occupational interests. Play has been regarded as an important medium for development of skills and personal characteristics. Play may also influence subsequent preferences through social and cognitive processes involved in gender development. The present study investigated the association between gender-typed play behavior in early childhood and gender-typed occupational interests in early adolescence. Participants were drawn from a British longitudinal population study, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Participants were recruited based on their parent-reported gender-typed play behavior assessed at age 3.5 years. There were 66 masculine boys and 61 masculine girls, 82 feminine boys and 69 feminine girls, and 55 randomly selected control boys and 67 randomly selected control girls. At age 13 years, the participants were administered a questionnaire assessing their interest in gender-typed occupations. It was found that masculine children showed significantly more interest in male-typical occupations than did control or feminine children. Compared with control children, feminine children had marginally significantly lower interest in male-typical jobs. Masculine children also had significantly lower interest in female-typical jobs than did control or feminine children. The associations were not moderated by gender and were observed after taking into account sociodemographic background, parental occupations, and academic performance. The degree of gender-typed play shown by preschoolers can predict their occupational interests 10 years later following transition into adolescence. Childhood gender-typed play has occupational implications that transcend developmental stages.
... If true, this would explain many gender differences in vocational (e.g. male carpenters vs. female nurses) (Lippa, 1998), and academic (Su & Rounds, 2015) interests, although there are exceptions (e.g. cell biology is a female majority interest). ...
Purpose
Although gender identities influence how people present themselves on social media, previous studies have tested pre-specified dimensions of difference, potentially overlooking other differences and ignoring nonbinary users.
Design/methodology/approach
Word association thematic analysis was used to systematically check for fine-grained statistically significant gender differences in Twitter profile descriptions between 409,487 UK-based female, male, and nonbinary users in 2020. A series of statistical tests systematically identified 1,474 differences at the individual word level, and a follow up thematic analysis grouped these words into themes.
Findings
The results reflect offline variations in interests and in jobs. They also show differences in personal disclosures, as reflected by words, with females mentioning qualifications, relationships, pets, and illnesses much more, nonbinaries discussing sexuality more, and males declaring political and sports affiliations more. Other themes were internally imbalanced, including personal appearance (e.g. male: beardy; female: redhead), self-evaluations (e.g. male: legend; nonbinary: witch; female: feisty), and gender identity (e.g. male: dude; nonbinary: enby; female: queen).
Research limitations
The methods are affected by linguistic styles and probably under-report nonbinary differences.
Practical implications
The gender differences found may inform gender theory, and aid social web communicators and marketers.
Originality/value
The results show a much wider range of gender expression differences than previously acknowledged for any social media site.
... Izostanak spolnih razlika u interesima na skali Prirodopis može se objasniti činjenicom da je ovaj tip interesa odmaknut od pola "Stvari" te je bliže polu "Ideje". To je važno s obzirom na to da su spolne razlike u profesionalnim interesima u najvećoj mjeri povezane s dimenzijom Ljudi -Stvari, a ne toliko s dimenzijom Podaci -Ideje (Lippa, 1998). ...
... Empirically, it appears that this dimension can best discriminate between tasks men and women prefer, respectively (e.g. Lippa, 1998). Interestingly, this specific dimension of vocational interests may also explain a substantive part of the gender segregation within relatively narrow groups of occupations, such as within STEM occupations (e.g. ...
Occupational choices remain strongly segregated by gender, for reasons not yet fully understood. In this paper, we use detailed information on the cognitive requirements in 130 distinct learnable occupations in the Swiss apprenticeship system to describe the broad job content in these occupations along the things-versus-people dimension. We first show that our occupational classification along this dimension closely aligns with actual job tasks, taken from an independent data source on employers' job advertisements. We then document that female apprentices tend to choose occupations that are oriented towards working with people, while male apprentices tend to favor occupations that involve working with things. In fact, our analysis suggests that this variable is by any statistical measure among the most important proximate predictors of occupational gender segregation. In a further step, we replicate this finding using individual-level data on both occupational aspirations and actual occupational choices for a sample of adolescents at the start of 8th grade and the end of 9th grade, respectively. Using these additional data, we finally also show that the gender difference in occupational preferences is largely independent of individual, parental, and regional controls.
... Such gender differences, especially for the Realistic, Investigative, and Social type, are frequently reported in the literature (e.g., cf. Lippa, 1998). ...
... Physical aggression to partners has been viewed as equivalent to male mate-guarding in non-human animals (Wilson & Daly, 1992a); sexual jealousy has been viewed similarly to mate-guarding, i.e. the emotional consequence of paternity uncertainty (Wilson & Daly, 1992a, 1998 and thus as a male characteristic. An alternative view (Buss et al., 1992) involves the different circumstances evoking sexual jealousy in the two sexes: whereas men (as a result of paternity uncertainty) show more jealousy when their partners are sexually unfaithful, women show more when their partners are emotionally unfaithful (and hence likely to divert time and resources to another woman). ...
The aims of this article are: (i) to provide a quantitative overview of sex differences in human psychological attributes; and (ii) to consider evidence for their possible evolutionary origins. Sex differences were identified from a systematic literature search of meta‐analyses and large‐sample studies. These were organized in terms of evolutionary significance as follows: (i) characteristics arising from inter‐male competition (within‐sex aggression; impulsiveness and sensation‐seeking; fearfulness; visuospatial and object‐location memory; object‐centred orientations); (ii) those concerning social relations that are likely to have arisen from women's adaptations for small‐group interactions and men's for larger co‐operative groups (person‐centred orientation and social skills; language; depression and anxiety); (iii) those arising from female choice (sexuality; mate choice; sexual conflict). There were sex differences in all categories, whose magnitudes ranged from (i) small (object location memory; negative emotions), to (ii) medium (mental rotation; anxiety disorders; impulsivity; sex drive; interest in casual sex), to (iii) large (social interests and abilities; sociosexuality); and (iv) very large (escalated aggression; systemizing; sexual violence). Evolutionary explanations were evaluated according to whether: (i) similar differences occur in other mammals; (ii) there is cross‐cultural consistency; (iii) the origin was early in life or at puberty; (iv) there was evidence for hormonal influences; and (v), where possible, whether there was evidence for evolutionarily derived design features. The evidence was positive for most features in most categories, suggesting evolutionary origins for a broad range of sex differences. Attributes for which there was no sex difference are also noted. Within‐sex variations are discussed as limitations to the emphasis on sex differences.
... Gender role identity is a result of interaction between an individual's self-cognition associated with masculine and feminine traits and social context (Lips, 2017;Dean and Tate, 2017). Some scholars believed that masculinity and femininity of gender role identity were not only used for classification of individual traits but they also played an important role in gender-related interests and preferences (Lippa, 1998(Lippa, , 2010. In addition, researchers argued that it is gender role identity rather than gender that determines career attainment, including career advancement and career aspiration (O'Reilly and O 'Neill, 2004, Powell and Butterfield, 2003, 2013. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to explore how gender and gender role identity separately and jointly affect managerial aspirations.
Design/methodology/approach
The study was cross-sectional in nature. Survey data were collected from Chinese Government sectors. Two-way analysis of variance was used to test the research hypotheses.
Findings
The results showed that gender role identity and combination of gender and gender role identity predict management aspirations while gender alone does not affect management aspirations. Androgynous individuals self-reported higher scores of managerial aspirations. Female managers who perceive themselves as androgynous and masculine tend to possess higher management aspirations. However, when they perceive themselves to exhibit feminine traits, they are more likely to hold lower management aspirations. Moreover, male managers with androgynous and feminine traits are inclined to have higher management aspirations.
Research limitations/implications
Due to cross-sectional survey data, research results may be biased by common method variance. In addition, because of a convenient sample, the research results may lack generalizability. Moreover, with participants from different organizations, the percentage of men and women in the organization and participants’ role conflicts between work and family life would impact the gender role identity of individuals. Future research should control for the gender composition of the workplace and participants’ role conflicts between work and family life.
Practical implications
The findings can help narrow the gender gap of managerial aspirations through focusing on gender role identity in selecting managers and designing the leadership training program, ultimately resulting in diminishing disparity in top leadership positions between men and women.
Originality/value
This study examines how gender and gender role identity separately and jointly affects managerial aspirations in the Chinese context.
... Second, research suggests that there might be differences between men and women in terms of the types of activities that attract them and there is ample evidence in psychology showing that women's idealised jobs involve "people" and are "problem oriented" whereas men's idealised jobs focus on "things" and fundamental theories [25,26]. Underlying these differences, are the structural positions of men and women in society, which are reproduced through education systems that associate male students to STEM fields [26,27]. ...
This paper examines the role of gender in the formation of research collaboration networks, by investigating the composition of networks through connections to diverse professional communities. Drawing on an ego network approach, we examine gender differences among researchers’ networks in terms of partner diversity, openness and brokerage roles. We use data from 897 valid responses to a questionnaire administered to biomedical scientists in Spain, which enquired into multiple aspects of personal research networks. Our findings show that women form more diverse networks and brokerage triads than men. This result is reinforced if we consider the most heterogeneous brokerage triads in terms of professional differences among network partners (i.e., consultant and liaison). Our results suggest that women are more likely to access non-redundant knowledge and richer research perspectives via their knowledge-flow intermediary roles. This research suggests the need for analyses of gender and networks that go beyond a gender-to-gender approach.
... A third explanation appeals to differences among academic fields in the extent to which they focus on inanimate objects vs. living things, including people. Prior work has suggested that men tend to prefer occupations that focus on inanimate objects more than women do, whereas women tend to prefer occupations that deal with living things and people more than men do [37,38]. A more recent formulation of this idea appeals to the concepts of systemizing (i.e., analyzing the world as a system of inputs and outputs; see also the notion of systematic self-concepts [2,39]), which is claimed to be more common in men, and empathizing (i.e., intuitively understanding others mental states), which is claimed to be more common in women [40]. ...
Academic fields exhibit substantial levels of gender segregation. To date, most attempts to explain this persistent global phenomenon have relied on limited cross-sections of data from specific countries, fields, or career stages. Here we used a global longitudinal dataset assembled from profiles on ORCID.org to investigate which characteristics of a field predict gender differences among the academics who leave and join that field. Only two field characteristics consistently predicted such differences: (1) the extent to which a field values raw intellectual talent ("brilliance") and (2) whether a field is in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). Women more than men moved away from brilliance-oriented and STEM fields, and men more than women moved toward these fields. Our findings suggest that stereotypes associating brilliance and other STEM-relevant traits with men more than women play a key role in maintaining gender segregation across academia.
... We conducted a preregistered replication of our Study 1a scale-based agency and communion findings, while also assessing the attribution of gendered interests (interests in things and interests in people, Lippa, 1998;Su et al., 2009). This gendered pattern of interests maps onto well-documented gender-based vocational stereotypes, such as viewing engineering as a domain for men and elementary education as a domain for women (e.g., Matheus & Quinn, 2017;White & White, 2006). ...
The growing visibility of transgender women and men in the US challenges a dominant cultural model of gender in which dichotomous sex assigned at birth gives rise to dichotomous gender identity in adulthood. How are these groups – verbally marked as atypical relative to their cisgender counterparts – stereotyped? Moreover, how do gender essentialist beliefs predict the content of such stereotypes? Across four studies with diverse methods of stereotype measurement, we assessed characteristics that cisgender people associate with transgender women and men, comparing these to their stereotypes of cisgender women and men. In our final study, we directly assessed how cisgender people mentally position transgender groups relative to cisgender groups. Across these studies, transgender categories were characterized in less positive ways than cisgender ones, and there was as a lower level of consensus about transgender than cisgender stereotypes. On average, transgender groups were de-gendered relative to cisgender groups, such that transgender women and men were not strongly differentiated on traditionally-gendered stereotype dimensions. Finally, we showed that participants higher in gender essentialism (relative to participants lower in gender essentialism) evaluated cisgender groups more positively and were more likely to stereotype transgender groups based on their sex assigned at birth.
... One of the key gender differences is the people-things difference between men and women. Indeed, of all psychological constructs, this is the one where there are the greatest mean differences between the sexes (Lippa, 1998;Lubinski, 2000;Su, Rounds, & Armstrong, 2009). The presence of this difference creates concern with the application of interest tests. ...
Technology holds the promise of greatly altering the conduct of interest assessment. I review five technological advances that currently exist and present how they can be incorporated into our interest measures and procedures: (a) dynamic assessment using item response theory, (b) adapting interpretations to individual users, (c) incorporating response latency, (d) gamification of interest measures, and (e) incorporating big data and machine learning. Using these advances in our assessments and procedures can structurally change what we do and enhance the precision of our measures.
... Proportion of familial gay/bisexual men among participants' male relatives was calculated by dividing the number of gay and bisexual men (uncles and male cousins) reported in the maternal and paternal line by the total number of biological male family members (uncles and male cousins) reported in both maternal and paternal lines. All gender (non)conformity and personality scales are described in the SI Appendix (73,(75)(76)(77)(78). ...
Several biological mechanisms have been proposed to influence male sexual orientation, but the extent to which these mechanisms cooccur is unclear. Putative markers of biological processes are often used to evaluate the biological basis of male sexual orientation, including fraternal birth order, handedness, and fam-iliality of same-sex sexual orientation; these biomarkers are proxies for immunological, endocrine, and genetic mechanisms. Here, we used latent profile analysis (LPA) to assess whether these biomarkers cluster within the same individuals or are present in different subgroups of nonheterosexual men. LPA defined four profiles of men based on these biomarkers: 1) A subgroup who did not have these biomarkers, 2) fraternal birth order, 3) handedness, and 4) familiality. While the majority of both heterosexual and nonheter-osexual men were grouped in the profile that did not have any biomarker, the three profiles associated with a biomarker were composed primarily of nonheterosexual men. We then evaluated whether these subgroups differed on measures of gender non-conformity and personality that reliably show male sexual orientation differences. The subgroup without biomarkers was the most gender-conforming whereas the fraternal birth order subgroup was the most female-typical and agreeable, compared with the other profiles. Together, these findings suggest there are multiple distinct biodeve-lopmental pathways influencing same-sex sexual orientation in men.
... It is thus possible that the vertical effects for power observed in this study are confounded with, or moderated by, gender. This is especially likely given the fact that a large number of Schubert's stimuli include labels for professions, and it is known that women and men often have different vocational preferences (Berings & Adriaenssens, 2012;Ferriman, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2009;Garnham, Doehren, & Gygax, 2015;Lippa, 1998;Teig & Susskind, 2008). In addition to actual differences in vocational preferences, both men and women also have stereotypes about which activities or professions are considered more male or female (Garnham et al., 2015;Misersky et al., 2014;Ramaci et al., 2017). ...
English speakers use vertical language to talk about power, such as when speaking of people being “at the bottom of the social hierarchy” or “rising to the top.” Experimental research has shown that people automatically associate higher spatial positions with more powerful social groups, such as doctors and army generals, compared to lower spatial positions, which are associated with relatively less powerful groups, such as nurses and soldiers. However, power as a social dimension is also associated with gender. Here, by means of a reaction-time study and a corpus study, we show that professions that display greater gender asymmetries, such as doctor/nurse, exhibit stronger vertical associations. Moreover, we show that people’s perception of vertical metaphors for power depends on their own gender, with male participants having stronger vertical biases than female participants, which we propose is due to the fact that men are more prone to thinking about power in bodily terms, and to associate it with physical dominance. Our results provide clear evidence for individual differences in metaphor comprehension, thus demonstrating empirically that the same metaphor is understood differently by different people.
... Nonetheless, it is preferable that students are interested in their schoolwork, both because they are likely to experience more satisfaction in school and because they are likely to achieve better (e.g., Artelt et al., 2003). Given these benefits of having high levels of interest, it is problematic that a large body of research has found that girls tend to have less interest in mathematics than boys do (Hyde et al., 1990;Lippa, 1998;Preckel et al., 2008;Su et al., 2009;Frenzel et al., 2010). However, this gender gap in mathematics interest does not seem to be universal. ...
Although much research has found girls to be less interested in mathematics than boys are, there are many countries in which the opposite holds. I hypothesize that variation in gender differences in interest are driven by a complex process in which national culture promoting high math achievement drives down interest in math schoolwork, with the effect being amplified among girls due to their higher conformity to peer influence. Predictions from this theory were tested in a study of data on more than 500,000 grade 8 students in 50 countries from the 2011 and 2015 waves of TIMSS. Consistent with predictions, national achievement levels were strongly negatively correlated with national levels of math schoolwork interest and this variation was larger among girls: girls in low-achievement, high-interest countries had especially high interest in math schoolwork, whereas girls in high-achievement, low-interest countries had especially low interest in math schoolwork. Gender differences in math schoolwork interest were also found to be related to gender differences in math achievement, emphasizing the importance of understanding them better.
... Communal goals encompass an orientation toward caring about and working with other people (Bakan, 1966). Women, on average, more strongly endorse communal goals than do men (Lippa, 1998;Su & Rounds, 2015). In a meta-analysis, Konrad et al. (2000) showed communal goals to have the largest gender difference among job attribute preferences. ...
other members of our team for their dedicated work. We also thank all the participating English professors and their students for making this work possible. Abstract Two national datasets of first-year college students, collected a decade apart, asking the same questions about career interests and life goal endorsement, allowed us to investigate the extent to which the life goals and career interests had converged among young men and women. We compared the gender differences in four types of goal endorsement (communal, material, intellectual, and free-time goals) by career interest groups (science, engineering, medicine, health, and other professions) between the two cohorts (2007 vs. 2017). Conversely, we compared the gender differences in career interests by goal endorsement between the two cohorts. Our specific focus was on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) career interests. We found that significant differences have stubbornly persisted between male and female students preparing for STEM careers, particularly in the area of communal goals, whereas gender differences in communal, material, and intellectual goals have narrowed or disappeared for those interested in many non-STEM careers.
... On one hand, women were found to have more stable own-sex bias than men which made them especially good at perceiving female faces (Lewin & Herlitz, 2002). On the other hand, work of "people-dimension" could lead to women's higher level of interest ( (Lippa, 1998). As a result, in the current study, female participants were found to be more "sensitive", that is to say, they rate masculine/feminine faces as matching competence/warmth in a higher degree. ...
Previous research on non-facial features demonstrated that masculinity and femininity correlated highly with perceived competence and warmth, respectively. Several studies focused on dimorphic facial cues and found an association between masculine faces and competence. However, there’s no study exploring the association between facial dimorphism and social judgment both using explicit and implicit experimental paradigms, i.e. Triad Classification Task, Implicit Associate Task. This study examined the association of masculinity/femininity and competence/warmth via explicit and implicit measures in three experiments. The results showed that participants saw feminine/masculine faces as more consistent with warmth/competence for both male and female faces. Besides, it was found that the above associations were more obvious in female participants. The current studies extended research of effects of dimorphic facial cue in social judgment and provided direct evidence linking facial masculinity with perceived competence, and facial femininity with perceived warmth.
... Consistent with this pattern, many STEM occupations have a disproportionate number of men (National Science Foundation, 2017). The prevalence of gender differences in interests across career fields is well-documented (Cheryan et al., 2017;Lippa, 1998;Su & Rounds, 2015;Yang & Barth, 2015), but the causes of these interest differences are less straightforward. Domain-general interests are one piece in a complex puzzle; many intersecting factors contribute to the gender imbalance in STEM careers. ...
Interests are an essential part of the learning process, yet no previous work has examined the relationship between learning and individual differences in domain-general interests. Across a pilot study and a confirmatory follow-up study, we tested whether the broad interest traits of person orientation and thing orientation predict memory for STEM-related topics. In both studies (total N = 624), college student participants read brief educational texts on a randomly assigned STEM topic. The topics included artificial limb design, self-driving automobiles, and the anatomy of vision. Recall performance was measured using open-ended factual questions from the readings. Participants with stronger thing-oriented interests recalled more information from the texts, while person orientation was unrelated to recall. Thing orientation also predicted performance beyond the variance explained by gender and previous knowledge. The findings from these studies highlight the cognitive consequences of interests and present implications for STEM education.
... When placing a direct focus on women in particular, research has found that women tend to have a general interest in subject matters or fields that are people-oriented by nature [19,5], and likewise pursue careers that exhibit more social interaction and interpersonal qualities [10,16]. This observed trend could reflect the notion that the field of computing needs to showcase more of its interpersonal and social capabilities as a way to attract more women into the practice. ...
Promoting inclusion and increasing the representation of women in the field of Computer Science (CS) has been an ongoing initiative. When it comes to Black/African-American (AA) women, their under-representation in CS is even more disproportionate. CS is ever-evolving, but its ability to be perceived as a field with a breadth of spaces that reflects its potential to be inclusive-to-all has been a continuing challenge. Using course content to provide spaces for under-represented groups, like Black/AA women, to express their personal interests as they develop their computational competencies can help in addressing such potential in CS. This article discusses a two-year study conducted on 51 Black-/AA female students enrolled in an introductory and/or intermediate CS course at a historically black university in the mid-Atlantic United States. A final project was administered in both courses to allow these * 151 students to choose their own original problem to solve while showcas-ing their learned computational knowledge and developed programming competencies. The results revealed that 93% of the project topics chosen by these students exhibited people-centered orientations in nature. Furthermore, these outcomes reflect the potential nature for CS to be a field that can provide a breadth of spaces that reflect one's interest while also promoting inclusion.
... A large number of studies have shown that women to a greater extent than men value work that helps and interacts with people, contributes to society, has a clear social purpose, and contributes to communal goals. 5,7,[11][12][13][14][15][16][17]19 This affinity may be due to female gender role 4,6,8,14 or other factors. Studies have also shown that women are less willing to enter careers that they perceive will not allow them to fulfill these helping goals, such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics careers. ...
Diversity and inclusion are a key goal in 21st century society, but people continue to self‐segregate in occupations, communities, and everyday interactions. Are people's choices to separate by groups into these different spaces truly “free?” In this paper, we review and extend a new framework for understanding how social identities contextually and automatically constrain the choices people make. We consider how situations subtly cue a sense of fit to one's identity, automatically eliciting state authenticity and a desire to return to those settings that afford authenticity and avoid those that do not. Actors and observers alike often explain these behaviors after the fact as freely chosen. We discuss how the SAFE model can clarify and expand what it means to feel a sense of belonging and explain why those who are advantaged in a setting are often less aware of the way in which their identity advantages them. We end by highlighting how environments can be shaped to foster fit and authenticity among members of underrepresented groups as a means to facilitate diversity.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to understand the similarities and differences between the Twitter users who tweeted on journal articles in psychology and political science disciplines.
Design/methodology/approach
The data were collected from Web of Science, Altmetric.com, and Twitter. A total of 91,826 tweets with 22,541 distinct Twitter user profiles for psychology discipline and 29,958 tweets with 10,478 distinct Twitter user profiles for political science discipline were used for analysis. The demographics analysis includes gender, geographic location, individual or organization user, academic or non-academic background, and psychology/political science domain knowledge background. A machine learning approach using support vector machine (SVM) was used for user classification based on the Twitter user profile information. Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) topic modeling was used to discover the topics that the users discussed from the tweets.
Findings
Results showed that the demographics of Twitter users who tweeted on psychology and political science are significantly different. Tweets on journal articles in psychology reflected more the impact of scientific research finding on the general public and attracted more attention from the general public than the ones in political science. Disciplinary difference in term of user demographics exists, and thus it is important to take the discipline into consideration for future altmetrics studies.
Originality/value
From this study, researchers or research organizations may have a better idea on who their audiences are, and hence more effective strategies can be taken by researchers or organizations to reach a wider audience and enhance their influence.
This study examined sex differences in tech tilt, based on within-subject differences in technical abilities (e.g., mechanical and electrical) and academic abilities (math or verbal) on the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB). The within-subject differences produced two types of tilt: tech tilt (tech > academic), indicating stronger technical abilities, and academic tilt (academic > tech), indicating stronger academic abilities. Tech tilt was correlated with math and verbal abilities on college aptitude tests (SAT, ACT, PSAT) and with jobs and college majors in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) and humanities. Males showed a tech tilt bias, and females showed an academic tilt bias. The tilt biases persisted after controlling for general intelligence (g). Tech tilt correlated negatively with academic abilities on the college aptitude tests (SAT, ACT, PSAT), with larger effects for females. In addition, relations of tech tilt with STEM jobs and majors were generally larger (and more often significant) for males, but only for tech tilt based on technical and verbal abilities. The negative relations of tech tilt with academic abilities on the college aptitude tests are consistent with investment theories, which predict that investment in one ability (technical) comes at the expense of competing abilities (academic). The sex differences in tech tilt and STEM support trait complexes involving abilities, interests, and vocational preferences (e.g., people versus things). Future research should examine whether spatial abilities and vocational interests mediate relations of tech tilt with sex and STEM criteria.
The provision of all-female computer science outreach programmes is a common strategy used to foster greater interest in the subject for high school aged girls. Based on key factors that affect girls’ interest in computer science (CS), outreach programmes often share much in their approach. Nonetheless, there is criticism from a research perspective concerning how programmes evaluate their efficacy, and how the role of pedagogy is under-explored. This article describes the design of CodePlus, a non-formal CS outreach programme based in an Irish University, Trinity College Dublin, and the methods by which the programme is evaluated. This article aims to contribute to this area by reporting on a social constructivist pedagogical model for all-female CS outreach activities, evaluated with a structured research approach. The results from the large sample size ( n =856) are positive, with participants showing statistically significant changes in key attitudinal and intentional variables concerning girls’ interest in studying computer science.
This research documents systematic gender performance differences (GPD) at a top business school using a unique administrative dataset and survey of students. The findings show that women’s grades are 11% of a standard deviation lower in quantitative courses than those of men with similar academic aptitude and demographics, and men’s grades are 23% of a standard deviation lower in nonquantitative courses than those of comparable women. The authors discuss and test for different reasons for this finding. They show that a female instructor significantly cuts down GPD for quantitative courses by raising the grades of women. In addition, female instructors increase women’s interest and performance expectations in these courses and are perceived as role models by their female students. These results provide support for a gender stereotype process for GPD and show that faculty can serve as powerful exemplars to challenge gender stereotypes and increase student achievement. The authors discuss several important implications of these findings for business schools and for society.
Zusammenfassung. Der niedrige Frauenanteil in Informatik ist Anlass für die vorliegende Studie. Hierbei sollen erstmalig in Deutschland mögliche Besonderheiten speziell im Promotionsprozess von Informatikerinnen und Informatikern untersucht werden. Dazu nahmen 690 Doktorandinnen und Doktoranden an einer online-Befragung teil, von denen 254 Personen die Befragung zu unterschiedlichen Zeitpunkten abbrachen. Die Auswertung basiert auf den 436 Personen (113 Doktorandinnen, 320 Doktoranden, 3 divers), die bis zum Schluss Fragen beantworteten (Alter: M = 30.74 Jahre, SD = 4.16). Die Hauptziele der Studie sind zum einen ein Geschlechtervergleich in den untersuchten Merkmalen der Befragten (Berufliche Motive, Geschlechtsrollenselbstkonzept, berufliche Selbstwirksamkeit, soziale Unterstützung) und im wahrgenommenen Verlauf der Promotion (Themenfindung, Zufriedenheit mit Betreuung, geschätzte Zeitdauer der Promotion, wahrgenommene Belastungen). Zum zweiten wird untersucht, ob im Verlauf der Promotion Schwierigkeiten auftraten, die zu einer Krise führten. Erwartet werden geringe Geschlechterunterschiede und deutliche Unterschiede zwischen Personen mit und ohne erlebte Krise. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen die Erwartungen. Es finden sich keine bis geringe Geschlechterunterschiede in den untersuchten Variablen, was mit der vorliegenden Literatur übereinstimmt. Demgegenüber finden sich mittlere bis große Unterschiede zwischen Personen mit und ohne erlebte Krise. Doktorandinnen und Doktoranden, die eine Krise erlebten, berichten häufiger von Abbruchgedanken, schätzen ihre berufliche Selbstwirksamkeit signifikant niedriger ein, sind unzufriedener mit der Betreuung, brauchen länger für ihre Dissertation und schätzen die erfragten psychischen Belastungen signifikant höher ein als die ohne Krise. Diese Ergebnisse werden im Hinblick auf vorliegende Literatur zur psychischen Belastung von Promovendinnen und Promovenden diskutiert und es werden Vorschläge für eine verbesserte Betreuung und Unterstützung an Universitäten gemacht.
Tilt refers to an ability bias and is based on within subject differences between two abilities, indicating strength in one ability (e.g., math) and weakness in another ability (e.g., verbal). The current study examined tech tilt for Whites and Blacks, two groups with an average ability difference (favoring Whites) of about one standard deviation on tests of general intelligence (g). Tech tilt was based on differences in technical (mechanical, electronic) and academic (math or verbal) abilities on the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery. These differences produced tech tilt (tech > academic) and academic tilt (academic > tech). Tech tilt correlated negatively with math and verbal abilities on college tests (SAT, ACT, PSAT), with weaker effects for Whites. White-Black differences in relations of tech tilt with the college tests were neutralized after removing g. In addition, tech tilt predicted jobs and college majors in STEM (science, technology, engineering, math). Relations of tech tilt with STEM criteria were generally larger (and more often significant) for Whites, but only for tech tilt based on technical and verbal abilities. The results are consistent with Spearman's Law of Diminishing Returns (SLODR). SLODR assumes that relations among tests should be weaker for higher ability groups (Whites compared to Blacks) and that non-g variance (related to non-ability factors such as vocational choice) should be more pronounced for higher ability groups. The negative relations of tech tilt with college tests support investment theories, which assume that investment in one ability (technical) comes at the expense of competing abilities (academic).
Teachers are motivated by extrinsic, intrinsic, and altruistic values, but little is known about what might convince other students to become educators. Conducted in two stages, the present study uses a survey to show education majors and non-education majors have different impressions of how careers in education satisfy intrinsic, extrinsic, and altruistic motivations. Then, a randomized experiment shows that prompts concerning extrinsic, intrinsic, and altruistic values increased the interest in teaching among non-education majors. But important differences appeared along lines of gender and academic achievement. Female participants responded positively to intrinsic values but males responded to extrinsic values. High achieving students responded more to altruistic prompts.
Nonliteral language represents a complex form of communication that can be interpreted in numerous different ways. Our study explored how individual differences in personality and communication styles affect the evaluation of literal and nonliteral language in the context of assumptions made by the Tinge Hypothesis (Dews & Winner, 1995). Participants watched videos of social interactions focusing on positive, negative, sarcastic, and jocular statements. They evaluated speaker intentions and social impressions and completed several personality and communication style questionnaires. Individual differences in empathy, defense style, and sarcasm use correlated with the accuracy of identifying speaker intent. Additionally, positive statements were rated as friendlier when compared to jocular statements, thereby supporting the Tinge Hypothesis. However, literal negative statements were rated as more friendly than sarcastic statements, which is inconsistent with the Tinge Hypothesis. The current results provide novel evidence for the Tinge Hypothesis using multimodal, dynamic stimuli and highlight the role of the individual personality of the recipient in evaluating sarcasm and jocularity.
Zusammenfassung
Trotz der seit mehreren Jahrzehnten bestehenden geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede in der Studienfachwahl, ist es der bisherigen Forschung nur zum Teil gelungen, die zugrundeliegenden Ursachen empirisch herauszuarbeiten und die geschlechtsspezifische Studienfachwahl vollständig zu erklären. Der vorliegende Beitrag geht daher aus verschiedenen interdisziplinären Blickwinkeln der Frage nach, warum Männer und Frauen unterschiedliche Studienfächer wählen und betrachtet hierbei fünf Fächergruppen.
Die Ergebnisse der multinominalen logistischen Regressions- und Dekompositionsanalysen zeigen, dass die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede hauptsächlich aus vorgelagerten Bildungsentscheidungen und den damit zusammenhängenden Interessen- und Leistungsprofilen resultieren. Die kulturelle Zuschreibung von geschlechterkonformen Verhaltensweisen zeigt sich hierbei nicht in antizipierten Diskriminierungsprozessen, sondern in einer geschlechtsspezifischen Wahrnehmung der eigenen Fähigkeiten und der Entwicklung unterschiedlicher Berufsinteressen. Die Geschlechterunterschiede in den verschiedenen Fächergruppen sind jedoch teilweise auf unterschiedliche Ursachen zurückzuführen.
The Tracey and Rounds (this issue) proposals for extending Holland's hexagon have promise for advancing the field of vocational psychology far beyond the 25-year status quo exemplified by “The Holyhex” (Prediger & Vansickle, 1992b). This comment explains why Tracey and Rounds’ “interest” sphere reflects occupational attribute preference (job value) dimensions, a more encompassing structure than vocational interest dimensions. Their prestige dimension is reinterpreted as occupational aspiration level. Tracey and Rounds’ claim that the hexagon's dimensions are indeterminate and unimportant is addressed through a review of external research (12,000 occupations, 1,000 career groups, 100,000 persons) supporting the Data/Ideas and People/Things Work Task Dimensions on which they build their spherical model.
Thirty-seven college men and 57 college women assessed on Gender Diagnosticity (GD), Masculinity (M), and Femininity (F) created self-descriptive photo essays, which were then rated by six judges on 38 personality characteristics, including masculinity and femininity. Lay judges reliably rated men and women's masculinity and femininity from photo essay information. Men's GD strongly correlated with their judged masculinity and femininity, M with judged extraversion, and F with judged warmth and nurturance. However, women's GD correlated most strongly with their judged maladjustment and athleticism, M with dominance and extraversion, and F with adjustment and physical attractiveness. Naive judgments of men and women's masculinity-femininity were strongly linked to other judged personality characteristics, and physical attractiveness was correlated with judgments of women's but not men's masculinity and femininity. The results show that masculinity and femininity make sense to laypeople, are readily judged from multidimensional information, and that for men, GD predicts lay judgments of masculinity and femininity better than M and F do.