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Journal of Applied Psychology Copyright 1998 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
1998, Vol. 83, No. 3, 486-493 0021-9010/98/$3.00
RESEARCH REPORTS
Emotional Exhaustion as a Predictor of Job Performance
and Voluntary Turnover
"l~homas A. Wright
University of Nevada at Reno
Russell Cropanzano
Colorado State University
Recent research suggests that a better understanding of emotional exhaustion requires the
development of new theoretical perspectives. To that end, with the conservation of re-
sources model (COR) as the theoretical framework, the present 1-year longitudinal study
was undertaken. Composed of 52 social welfare workers, this research examined the
relationship of emotional exhaustion to job satisfaction, voluntary turnover, and job
performance. Positive affectivity (PA) and negative affectivity (NA) were used as control
variables. Whereas emotional exhaustion was unrelated to job satisfaction, it was associ-
ated with both performance and subsequent turnover. In addition, the relationship between
emotional exhaustion and performance and also between emotional exhaustion and turn-
over remained significant above and beyond the effects of PA and NA. Future research
directions and implications of the findings are introduced.
Emotional exhaustion is a chronic state of physical and
emotional depletion that results from excessive job de-
mands and continuous hassles (Shirom, 1989; Zohar,
1997). Emotional exhaustion is a significant topic of inter-
est for organizational researchers, as it has important im,
plications both for the quality of work life and also for
optimal organizational functioning (for reviews see Cher-
niss, 1993; Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; Kahill, 1988; Mas-
lach, 1982). From a worker's perspective, emotional ex-
haustion is associated with a host of somatic difficulties,
such as colds, gastro-intestinal problems, headaches, and
sleep disturbances (Belcastro, 1982; Belcastro & Hays,
1984). From the organization's perspective, prior research
has found relationships between emotional exhaustion and
such attitudinal and behavioral correlates as turnover in-
tentions (Jackson, Schwab, & Schuler, 1986), work atti-
tudes (Leiter & Maslach, 1988; Wolpin, Burke, &
Greenglass, 1991), counterproductive work behavior
(Jones, 1981; Quattrochi-Turbin, Jones, & Breedlove,
1983), and job performance (Wright & Bonett, 1997).
Effectively managing emotional exhaustion seems to be
in everyone's interest.
Thomas A. Wright, Managerial Sciences Department, Univer-
sity of Nevada at Reno; Russell Cropanzano, Department of
Psychology, Colorado State University.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed
to Thomas A. Wright, Managerial Sciences Department, Univer-
sity of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0206. Electronic mail may
be sent to taw@scs.unr.edu.
Despite the importance of the emotional exhaustion
phenomenon and the promise of these research findings,
Lee and Ashforth (1996) cautioned that a better under-
standing requires the further development of new theoreti-
cal perspectives. Likewise, Wright and Bonett (1997)
noted that the lack of theoretical development explains
why prior research investigating the relationship between
emotional exhaustion and job performance has produced
inconsistent results. Following Lee and Ashforth's admo-
nition, the present research uses the conservation of re-
sources (COR) model of stress as the theoretical frame-
work for better understanding emotional exhaustion.
Emotional Exhaustion and the COR Model
Historically, most emotional exhaustion research has
been guided by Maslach's (1982) and Maslach and Jack-
son' s (1986) three-component conceptualization of bum-
out. In this model, burnout has three interrelated parts:
emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and diminished
personal accomplishment (Lee & Ashforth, 1990; Pines &
Aronson, 1988). Emotional exhaustion, the subject of the
present study, describes feelings of being emotionally
overextended and exhausted by one's work. It is mani-
fested by both physical fatigue and a sense of feeling
psychologically and emotionally "drained." Depersonal-
ization, also called "dehumanization," is best understood
in reference to the social service occupations in which
burnout has been most frequently examined. Depersonal-
ization refers to a set of callous and insensitive behaviors
486
RESEARCH REPORTS 487
displayed by a worker toward a client. Finally, diminished
personal accomplishment refers to negative evaluations
about the self. A sense of diminished personal accomplish-
ment would be shown when a worker feels ineffective and
incompetent.
Although all three components are potentially im-
portant, a growing research consensus has concluded that
emotional exhaustion is the key dimension of burnout
(Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; Gaines & Jermier, 1983;
Wright & Bonett, 1997; Zohar, 1997). For example, on
the basis of a detailed review of the available literature,
Shirom (1989) maintained that the "core meaning" of
burnout can best be found in the physical and psychologi-
cal depletion that characterizes emotional exhaustion.
Shirom further noted that defining burnout as emotional
exhaustion helps distinguish it from other social science
concepts. Likewise, a field study by Lee and Ashforth
(1993a) determined that emotional exhaustion plays a
central mediating role in the burnout process. In keeping
with this recent work, the present study emphasizes emo-
tional exhaustion. We now provide the necessary theoreti-
cal framework, derived from COR theory, to better under-
stand the role of emotional exhaustion in organizational
behavior.
COR theory provides particularly valuable insights for
the study of prolonged emotional exhaustion. According
to this framework, emotional exhaustion is most likely to
occur when there is an actual resource loss, a perceived
threat of resource loss, a situation in which one's re-
sources are inadequate to meet work demands, or when
the anticipated returns are not obtained on an investment
of resources (Hobfoll, 1988). Hobfoll (1989) defined re-
sources, "as those objects, personal characteristics, condi-
tions, or energies that are valued by the individual or that
serve as a means for attainment of these objects" (p.
516). Examples of resources include social support, job
enhancement opportunities, degree of participation in de-
cision making, level of autonomy and established behav-
ior-outcome (i.e., reward) contingencies (Lee & Ashforth,
1996). Workload level, role ambiguity, role conflict, and
stressful events in general are examples of work demands.
For many workers, the key decision becomes one of ac-
quiring and" stockpiling" the resources necessary to meet
current work demands and protect themselves from fur-
ther resource depletion. Proionged strain or emotional ex-
haustion occurs when individuals feel they no longer have
sufficient emotional resources to handle the stressors con-
fronting them (Hobfoll, 1989; Lee & Ashforth, 1996).
Hobfoll (1989) noted the similarity between COR the-
ory and the popular management concept of person-envi-
ronment (P-E) fit (French, Caplan, & Harrison, 1982).
Like COR theory, P-E fit theory posits that an incongruent
relationship between organizational demands and an indi-
vidual's resources to meet those demands leads initially
to job stress and, if left unattended over time, to emotional
exhaustion and other potentially maladaptive outcomes.
However, COR theory goes beyond P-E fit theory and
makes specific predictions regarding what individuals will
do and why they do it when confronted with stress. More
specifically, COR theory predicts that individuals will ex-
perience a sense of discomfort and will attempt to mini-
mize losses. This affords researchers a great deal of preci-
sion in predicting the outcomes of emotional exhaustion
(Lee & Ashforth, 1996). Leiter (1991; 1993) proposed
that emotionally exhausted individuals overemphasize
avoidance or withdrawal coping mechanisms. The most
costly of these employee withdrawal-related correlates of
emotional exhaustion are diminished job satisfaction, vol-
untary turnover, and diminished job performance (Lee &
Ashforth, 1996). Thus, on the basis of COR theory, we
expected that each of these outcomes would be signifi-
cantly correlated with emotional exhaustion.
Emotional Exhaustion and Affective Dispositions
In keeping with COR theory, we have thus far discussed
the situational correlates of emotional exhaustion, such
as job resources and demands. However, though less atten-
tion has been given to personality factors, there is some
evidence that affective-based or dispositional correlates
are related to emotional exhaustion (Cordes & Dougherty,
1993). Consequently, it might be that affective personality
dispositions are accounting for the relationship between
emotional exhaustion and various work outcomes. Lee
and Ashforth (1996) noted the need for research provid-
ing additional clarification of these proposed rela-
tionships.
The measurement of affect is frequently divided into
positive and negative dimensions (Cropanzano, James, &
Konovsky, 1993; Watson & Tellegen, 1985). The first di-
mension is negative affectivity (NA). High NA is charac-
terized by the experience of negative emotion; low NA,
by its lack. The second dimension is positive affectivity
(PA). High PAs experience a good deal of positive emo-
tion; low PAs experience less. The Positive and Negative
Affectivity Schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson and
his colleagues (Watson, 1988; Watson & Clark, 1984;
Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) is probably the most
widely used measure of NA and PA.
Because emotional exhaustion involves negatively
toned feelings of being emotionally overextended and ex-
hausted by one's work, we predicted that NA is positively
and PA negatively related to emotional exhaustion. If these
relationshiPs are found, it raises the possibility that emo-
tional exhaustion is only spuriously associated with job
satisfaction and work behavior. The actual "driver" of
these outcomes might be affective personality disposi-
tions. For example, Brief, Burke, George, Robinson, and
488 RESEARCH REPORTS
Webster (1988; see also Burke, Brief, & George, 1993)
maintained that NA may influence the relationship be-
tween self-reported situational demands and self-reported
strain. In an analogous fashion, NA and PA might influ-
ence emotional exhaustion, turnover, performance, and
satisfaction. Consequently, an observed relationship be-
tween emotional exhaustion and these outcome variables
would be spurious. We controlled for this possibility in
the present study.
Summary
The present research builds on the pioneering work of
Hobfoll ( 1988; 1989) and Lee and Ashforth (1996). With
the COR model as the theoretical framework, this 1-year
longitudinal study tested the relationships among emo-
tional exhaustion, affectivity, job satisfaction, voluntary
employee turnover, and job performance. In particular, we
formulated the following five research hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1.
Job satisfaction will be negatively related to
emotional exhaustion.
Hypothesis 2.
Job performance will be negatively related
to emotional exhaustion.
Hypothesis 3.
Emotional exhaustion will be positively re-
lated to subsequent voluntary employee turnover.
Hypothesis 4.
NA will be positively related to emotional
exhaustion. PA will be negatively related to emotional
exhaustion.
Hypothesis 5.
All of the relationships predicted in Hypothe-
ses 1-3 will remain significant even after controlling for
the effects of NA and PA.
Method
Research Participants
The present 1-year longitudinal study was specifically de-
signed to investigate the contribution of affectivity, job satisfac-
tion, voluntary turnover, and job performance to emotional ex-
haustion. Thomas A. Wright asked social welfare workers em-
ployed by a large city on the West Coast of the United States
(N = 64) to participate in the study by means of a direct
contact procedure. The actual sample included 52 employees,
representing a response rate of 81%. All respondents had com-
pleted their bachelor's degree, were employed within the same
department, and performed the same job duties. The mean age
for this mostly male (69%) sample was 42 years; the mean
tenure was 13 years. The sample includes all respondents for
whom the measures of affectivity (PA and NA), emotional ex-
haustion, job satisfaction, job performance, and turnover were
available. The measures of affectivity (PA and NA), emotional
exhaustion, job satisfaction, and job performance were obtained
at Time 1. The turnover data were obtained at Time 2, 1 year
later.
Measures
Emotional exhaustion.
Emotional exhaustion was measured
with Maslach and Jackson's (1986) nine-item emotional ex-
haustion scale (Maslach Burnout Inventory). This nine-item
scale measures how often one feels emotionally overextended
and exhausted by one's work. The inventory uses a 7-point scale
(0 = never,
and 6 =
everyday).
Sample items include "I feel
emotionally drained from my work," "I feel fatigued when I
get up in the morning and have to face another day on the job,"
and "I feel I'm working too hard on my job." Evidence of the
construct validity of emotional exhaustion has been provided
by correlations between emotional exhaustion and selected job
characteristics (i.e., direct contact with patients; Lee & Ash-
forth, 1990; Maslach & Jackson, 1986). The present study estab-
lished a Cronbach's alpha of .89.
Dispositional affectivity.
This study used the PANAS Scale
developed by Watson et al. (1988) as the measure of affectivity.
The PANAS Scale is designed to measure both PA and NA. PA
is measured by descriptors such as "active, alert, enthusiastic,
inspired, and interested." NA is assessed by descriptors such
as "afraid, hostile, irritable, jittery, and upset." Participants
indicated the extent to which they experienced each descriptor
of affect
in general
on a 5-point scale ranging from 1
(very
slightly or not at all)
to 5
(extremely).
Cronbach's alpha for
PA was .90; alpha for NA was .88.
Satisfaction.
Five widely recognized dimensions of the sat-
isfaction construct--degree of satisfaction with the work itself,
degree of satisfaction with coworkers, degree of satisfaction
with supervision, degree of satisfaction with promotional oppor-
tunities, and degree of satisfaction with pay--were used to
measure satisfaction (Price & Mueller, 1986). The satisfaction
items asked the following questions: "All in all, how satisfied
are you with the work itself of your job?"; "All in all, how
satisfied are you with your co-workers?"; "All in all, how
satisfied are you with the supervision?"; "All in all, how satis-
fied are you with the promotional opportunities?"; and "All in
all, how satisfied are you with the pay?" Each of the satisfaction
items used a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (very
unsatisfied)
to
5 (very satisfied).
These 5 items were summed to form a com-
posite measure of satisfaction for each participant (coefficient
alpha = .75).
Performance.
Employee performance was measured with a
1-item, global rating of performance. Because all employees
ultimately report to and are evaluated by the same top-ranking
administrative officer, this officer was asked, "Overall, how
would you rate this employee's performance over the last six
months"? A 5-point scale was provided with ratings ranging
from 1
(poor)
to 5
(excellent).
Turnover.
Past researchers have calculated turnover in a
number of ways (Wright & Bonett, 1992). In this study,
turnover
was defined only as voluntary withdrawal from the organization.
The potential problems resulting from a failure to adequately
distinguish between voluntary and involuntary turnover have
been well noted (Gerhart, 1990; McEvoy & Cascio, 1987;
Stumpf & Dawley, 1981). In the present study, we were able
to confirm, through independent conversations with both admin-
istrative personnel and the employees themselves, that each and
every employee did, in fact, voluntarily withdraw. This specific-
RESEARCH REPORTS 489
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and lntercorrelations Among the Study Variables
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Emotional exhaustion 2.6 1.3 -- -.23 .34** -.27* -.39** .72***
2. Job satisfaction 2.8 0.7 -- -.05 .11 .36** -.20
3. Turnover ~ -- -.37** .00 .25*
4. Job performance 4.0 0.7 -- -.04 -.12
5. Positive affectivity 3.4 0.7 -- -.47***
6. Negative affectivity 1.9 0.7
Turnover was dummy coded "1" for no turnover and "2" for turnover.
*p "~ .05. **p -~ .01. ***p --- .001 (all one-tailed tests).
ity is widely recommended, though not often available in previ-
ous research (cf. Campion, 1991; Jackofsky, 1984; Wright &
Bonett, 1993). Although infrequent (all turnover was voluntary
in the present study), employees have been terminated for cause.
Typically, termination is for drug-related infractions. Data sup-
plied by the organization indicated that annual voluntary turn-
over ranges between 10-15%. In the present study, the rate was
13.5%.
Results
Correlational Analyses: Hypotheses 1-4
Table 1 contains means, standard deviations, and inter-
correlations for the study variables. Hypothesis 1 pre-
dicted a negative relationship between emotional exhaus-
tion and job satisfaction. This prediction was not sup-
ported. Emotional exhaustion was not associated with job
satisfaction. In support of Hypothesis 2, emotional ex-
haustion was correlated with job performance (r = -.27,
p < .05). Hypothesis 3 predicted a positive relationship
between emotional exhaustion and subsequent employee
voluntary turnover (dummy coded "1" for no turnover,
"2" for turnover). A pooled variance t-test procedure for
testing the equality of the two turnover group means was
conducted. This t-test procedure can be considered a spe-
cial case of a one-way analysis of variance with two levels
of classification (no turnover-turnover) for the categori-
cal turnover response variable (Steel & Torrie, 1980). As
predicted, a positive relationship was established between
emotional exhaustion and subsequent voluntary turnover
(r = .34, p < .01). Hypothesis 4 predicted directional
relationships among PA, NA, and emotional exhaustion,
As predicted, a negative relationship was established be-
tween PA and emotional exhaustion (r = .47, p < .01 ),
whereas there was a positive relationship between NA and
emotional exhaustion (r = .72, p < .0001 ).
Regression Analyses: Hypothesis 5
Although these results provide strong support for the
bivariate relationships posited in Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4,
they do not address the possibility of various third-vari-
able explanations (Brief et al., 1988). As proposed in
Hypothesis 5, the present research provides the first op-
portunity to simultaneously examine the relative contribu-
tion of PA, NA, and emotional exhaustion to the predic-
tion of job performance and voluntary turnover. Job satis-
faction was excluded from these analyses because it was
not correlated with emotional exhaustion.
In the first analysis, job performance was regressed on
emotional exhaustion, PA, and NA. Thus, job performance
is considered the dependent variable, with emotional ex-
haustion, PA, and NA as independent variables. Table 2
contains the results of this regression analysis. The results
demonstrated that only emotional exhaustion was a sig-
nificant predictor of performance, t(43) = - 1.91, p <
.05. The value of the t statistic for PA, t(43) = -0.81,
ns, and NA, t(43) = 0.50, ns, did not reach significance.
The dependent variable in the second analysis, em-
ployee voluntary turnover, is a binary (no turnover-turn-
over) response variable. The analysis often recommended
to investigate relationships involving binary response
variables is logistic regression. In the present case, the
method of maximum likelihood is used to fit a linear
logistic regression model to the binary turnover response
data (Cox & Snell, 1989). Table 3 contains the results of
this logistic regression analysis. The results demonstrated
that only emotional exhaustion was a significant predictor
of employee voluntary turnover (z = -1.80, p < .05).
The value of the z statistic for PA (z = -1.05, ns) and
NA (z = -0.16, ns) did not reach significance. Taken
together, the one-tailed test results of these analyses pro-
vide further support to the findings that emotional exhaus-
tion predicted turnover and job performance, even after
controlling for PA and NA.
Our results show significant relationships among emo-
tional exhaustion, job performance, and voluntary turn-
over. This raises the possibility that voluntary turnover
might be mediated by the consequences of emotional ex-
haustion. 1 That is, emotional exhaustion could be related
1We gratefully acknowledge the helpful suggestion of an
anonymous reviewer regarding this point.
490 RESEARCH REPORTS
Table 2
Regression Analyses Predicting Job Performance From
Emotional Exhaustion, Positive Affectivity,
and Negative Affectivity
Independent variable /~
SE t
Emotional exhaustion -0.22* 0.11 - 1.91
Positive affectivity -0.14 0.18 -0.81
Negative affectivity 0.12 0.24 0.50
Note.
n = 47.
*p < .05 (all tests were one-tailed).
to lower job performance. Job performance, in turn, could
cause people to depart from the organization (Jackofsky,
1984). If this were the case, the significant relationship
between emotional exhaustion and turnover would drop
to nonsignificance once the effects of job performance
ratings were taken into account (cf. Baron & Kenny,
1986).
To test for this possibility, we treated voluntary turnover
as the dependent variable. Emotional exhaustion and job
performance were both independent variables. Table 4
contains the results of this logistic regression. The two
independent variables, considered simultaneously, were
found to predict voluntary turnover, X2(2, N = 47) =
9.29, p < .01. This global chi-square result provides the
joint effect of the model explanatory variables. The value
of the z statistics further demonstrated that job perfor-
mance (z = 2.00, p < .05), but not emotional exhaustion
(z = -1.54,
ns),
was a significant predictor of voluntary
turnover. Finally, for only descriptive, and not for inferen-
tial, purposes we report the
R 2
effect size
(R 2 =
.18;
adjusted R E =
.14) obtained from a multiple regression
analysis using a dummy-coded dependent variable (i.e.,
voluntary turnover).
Discussion
Prior research (Hobfoll, 1989; Lee & Ashforth, 1996;
Wright & Bonett, 1997) noted that a primary goal of
future research is to develop new theoretical perspectives
Table 3
Logistic Regression Analyses Predicting Voluntary Turnover
From Emotional Exhaustion, Positive Affectivity,
and Negative Affectivity
Independent variable fl
SE z
Emotional exhaustion -0.89* 0.50 - 1.80
Positive affectivity -0.68 0.65 - 1.05
Negative affectivity -0.14 0.89 -0.16
Note.
n = 51.
*p < .05 (all tests were one-tailed).
Table 4
Logistic Regression Analyses Predicting Voluntary Turnover
From Emotional Exhaustion and Job Performance
Independent variable /~
SE z
Emotional exhaustion -0.58* 0.37 - 1.54
Job performance 1.56" 0.78 2.00
Note.
n = 47.
*p < .05 (all tests were one-tailed).
for better understanding emotional exhaustion. Using the
framework of COR theory, the present study is the first to
simultaneously examine several important, and potentially
costly if left unattended, work-relevant correlates of emo-
tional exhaustion. Although we were unable to predict
job satisfaction (Hypothesis 1), job performance (Hy-
pothesis 2) and turnover (Hypothesis 3) were related to
emotional exhaustion. Regarding Hypothesis 5, multiple
regression analysis further demonstrated that emotional
exhaustion predicted both turnover and job performance,
even after NA and PA were controlled.
The pattern of associations between emotional exhaus-
tion and the correlates examined in this study are consis-
tent with COR theory (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993; Leiter,
1993; Lee & Ashforth, 1996). More specifically, COR
theory predicts that emotional exhaustion occurs when
individuals feel that they do not have the necessary or
adequate supply of emotional resources to handle interper-
sonal stressors (Lee & Ashforth, 1996). This recognition,
in turn, leads to selective methods of adapting or coping
with the particular situation. Lee and Ashforth (1993a,
1993b) proposed that the prevalent coping strategy for
most individuals in these circumstances, especially for
social and human services workers, involves some form
of withdrawal from the situation, either behavioral (i.e.,
tumover or decreased performance) or attitudinal (i.e.,
job dissatisfaction). The present results provide strong
support to this behavioral withdrawal thesis. In particular,
the obtained relationships among job performance, emo-
tional exhaustion, and employee turnover require further
discussion.
Generally speaking, PA and NA showed only weak
relationships to the criterion variables examined here. PA
showed a significant bivariate association with job satis-
faction, whereas NA was significantly correlated with
turnover (see Table 1 ). The turnover relationship vanished
when emotional exhaustion was controlled for (see Table
3). However, given our modest sample size, it would not
be judicious to accept these nonsignificant relationships
without considerably more research. Certainly, with
greater statistical power, the relationships observed here
would have achieved significance. Additionally, previous
research has found NA and PA to be related to various
RESEARCH REPORTS 491
work outcomes (e.g., Brief et al., 1988; Cropanzano et
al., 1993; Czajka, 1990). It could well be that NA and
PA have weak, though practically important, effects on
the dependent variables measured here. Further research
with larger samples is necessary to examine this
possibility.
The practical relevance of employee performance in
emotional exhaustion-related research is widely recog-
nized (Garden, 1991; Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Shirom,
1989). However, although the notion that emotional ex-
haustion is related to a decline in work performance is
widely recognized, empirical support for this relationship
is limited. In fact, our literature review revealed only two
empirical studies linking job performance to emotional
exhaustion (Quattrochi-Turbin et al., 1983; Wright & Bo-
nett, 1997), and only Wright and Bonett used a non-self-
report measure of performance. In this study, Wright and
Bonett found a negative relationship between emotional
exhaustion and subsequent work performance (measured
3 years later). Interestingly, unlike the relationship estab-
lished in the present research, Wright and Bonett's re-
search failed to establish a cross-sectionally derived rela-
tionship between emotional exhaustion and their measure
of performance (i.e., a composite measure of the job-
specific performance dimensions: work facilitation, team
building, goal emphasis, and support).
Although interesting, one could argue that both Wright
and Bonett's (1997) findings and the present results may
well be a function of the type of performance instrument
used. That is, while measuring different aspects of perfor-
mance, both studies relied on supervisory ratings. Thus,
employees who are less emotionally exhausted or fatigued
may be more fun to be around and more likable. Because
people (i.e., supervisors) tend to be more tolerant of those
they favor or like, supervisors may provide more positive
evaluations for those who display positive affect (Rob-
bins & DeNisi, 1994). Rather than being directly related
to changes in performance, emotional exhaustion could
serve as a systematic source of halo in performance evalu-
ations. However, in the present study, i t should be empha-
sized that PA and NA were not associated with job perfor-
mance ratings. If rating bias was accounting for the emo-
tional exhaustion-job performance relationship, then one
would also have expected significant bivariate associa-
tions between NA and performance and between PA and
performance. These were not obtained. Nevertheless, a
conclusive test of this possibility awaits future research
in which more quantitative measures of performance are
available.
These suggestions for more quantitatively based perfor-
mance measures may prove difficult tasks for future re-
search endeavors, however. For instance, the current ap-
praisal process for the present employee sample is based
solely on supervisory evaluation. Wright, Bonett, and
Sweeney (1993) noted that many human services organi-
zations emphasize non-task-specific performance dimen-
sions in the appraisal process. Furthermore, regardless of
whether supervisory performance evaluations include halo
or other forms of bias, they are predictive of "success"
from the employees' point of view (Staw, Sutton, &
Pelled, 1994). It remains for future research using addi-
tionai participants in a variety of settings to establish
the generalizability of these findings to other employee
groupings.
Another topic for future research should be to establish
a less ambiguous causal link between job performance and
emotional exhaustion. In accordance with COR theory, we
framed our hypotheses with the assumption that exhaus-
tion causes (decreased) performance. In addition, the
findings that performance ratings served as a mediator
between emotional exhaustion and turnover is consistent
with a model in which exhaustion is the causally prior
variable. However, it is important to emphasize that, in
the present study, performance ratings and emotional ex-
haustion were collected at the same point in time. Thus,
it is also possible that the causal arrow runs from perfor-
mance to exhaustion. For example, an employee who re-
ceives consistently negative performance feedback may
be more likely to experience emotional exhaustion than
a person whose feedback is generally positive.
The findings regarding job performance and turnover
bear further scrutiny. More specifically, the fact that job
performance mediated the relationship between emotional
exhaustion and turnover is consistent with COR theory.
On the basis of her review of the literature, Jackofsky
(1984) observed that often, though not always, poor per-
formers are likely to turn over. Similarly, McEvoy and
Cascio (1987) have noted that because poor performance
is a stressful event, in most circumstances, employees will
try to reduce this stress. In order to do so, individuals can
either allocate additional precious resources to increase
productivity or exhibit various forms of withdrawal be-
havior. Of course, in the event of emotional exhaustion,
those resources have probably been depleted. Consistent
with this reasoning, and on the basis of COR theory, we
anticipated that emotionally exhausted employees would
lack the necessary additional resources to increase perfor-
mance. As a consequence, they were more likely to leave
their employers. If these findings are replicated, it would
suggest that emotional exhaustion may not (only) affect
a single criterion at a single time. Rather, it might result in
"ripple effects" that resonate for months, as one negative
outcome causes another. This certainly could have been
the case here; reduced job performance was associated
with higher turnover a year later.
These observations are consistent with Comments made
by Shirom (1989), who observed that even relatively
small levels of emotional exhaustion may be large enough
492
RESEARCH REPORTS
to cause concern, because emotional exhaustion is sugges-
tive of very high levels of activation or arousal. In fact,
Gaines and Jermier (1983) maintained that because emo-
tional exhaustion refers to an extreme feeling state, even
minimal occurrence of this type of strain, experienced
relatively few times a month, may warrant attention. In
sum, from the perspective of COR theory, turnover is a
likely eventual solution for emotionally exhausted
employees.
Conclusion
The present research is the first to simultaneously exam-
ine the relationships among affectivity, job satisfaction,
turnover, job performance, and emotional exhaustion.
With the COR model as the theoretical base, the present
findings appear to confirm the primacy-of-loss hypothesis
(Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993). Emotionally exhausted em-
ployees exhibit diminished job performance and eventu-
ally quit their job, even after controlling for PA and NA.
According to COR theory, these withdrawal-related activi-
ties demonstrate that emotionally exhausted employees,
without the benefit of outside help or intervention, respond
to stress by coping with strategies designed to minimize
any further resource loss. It remains for future research
to more thoroughly investigate the mechanisms by which
emotionally exhausted individuals learn to reframe or re-
appraise situations as challenging, as opposed to stressful
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Lee and Ashforth, 1996).
Until preventive measures are undertaken, organizations
will likely continue to experience the costly dysfunctional
manifestations of emotional exhaustion examined in the
present study.
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Received May 19, 1997
Revision received August 29, 1997
Accepted October 7, 1997 •
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