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Horney, Zen, and the Real Self: Theoretical and Historical Connections

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This paper surveys much of the historical evidence concerning Karen Horney's interests in Zen Buddhism. Areas where Horney integrated Zen into her theoretical conceptions are also examined. Moreover, the author follows Horney's lead by making additional theoretical connections between Zen and the real self. Within the ideological frame of "modern science," Freudian psychoanalysis emerged to replace religion as a method of mind healing (Mitchell, 1993). Freud's most radical attempt to explain mental functioning in scientific terms was exemplified by his Project for a Scientific Psychology (1895). The goal was "to furnish a psychology that shall be a natural science: that is to represent psychical processes as quantifiable determinate states of specifiable material particles" (Freud, 1895, p. 295; Sulloway, 1979, p. 116). Although the Freudian system evolved, it continued to operate within the basic assumptions of this model. The paradigm sought scientific objectivity by grounding itself in biologic/instinctual-based hypotheses of personality development and psychopathology (Mitchell, 1993; Sulloway, 1979). Given this positivist bent, Freud's model for mental health idealized the rationality and logic of the ego (Mitchell, 1993). It is no surprise therefore that Freud regarded the teachings and methods of religious paradigms as irrational and antithetical to a "scientifically" based psychotherapy. Mystic and spiritual experiences were simply considered to be regressive in nature. One well-known example was Freud's reaction to Romain Rolland's mystical experience of being "limitless, unbounded," and one with the world. Freud proposed that this experience derived from the helplessness This paper is a revised version of "Some Connections Between Karen Horney, Zen, and the Real Self." Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis Public Education Lecture pre

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... Horney's evolving friendship with Zen and D. T. Suzuki, as discussed below (DeMartino, 1991, Kondo, 1991Morvay, 1999;Quinn, 1987), profoundly impacted her path to exploring her most pressing questions about humanity, suffering, and liberation. Evidence of Horney's interest in Zen dated back to the late 1930s but reached a more sustained and direct engagement through the friendship with Suzuki, which initiated in the early 1950s (DeMartino, 1991). ...
... 268). Their interactions even included group discussions involving practice with Zen meditation and teaching tools known as koans (Morvay, 1999). ...
... However, at least to this observer, Horney's overall path and the overall path of Zen were moving steadfastly toward a greater convergence rather than divergence. (DeMartino, 1991, p. 280) Horney's relative lack of scientific-philosophical or clinical dogmatism facilitated her engagement with Zen (Morvay, 1999). This openness to the quite philosophically different, yet related world of Zen was illustrated well by her trip to Japan with colleagues (including Suzuki, Kondo, and DeMartino, among others), in which she visited Buddhist temples and monasteries, conversed with Buddhists, engaged with indigenous Japanese psychotherapy experts, gave lectures, spent time in nature, appreciated Zen gardens, participated in local community life and festivals, and kept probing specifically into the issue of overcoming egocentricity in the move toward self-realization (Kondo, 1991;Morvay, 1999;Quinn, 1987). ...
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In this chapter, we embark upon a historical journey, examining aspects of the lives and work of three individuals who attempted to incorporate the world outside the clinic into their theorizing about psychology and mental health: Frantz Fanon, Karen Horney, and Erich Fromm. These “worlded” clinicians waged important critiques of the psychological theories and practices of their time, particularly along the lines of race, gender, and political economy. We will pay attention to how elements of their own life travels informed their understanding of the importance of context vis-à-vis psychology. We will close with a concrete example of supportive intercultural travel by exploring the cross-cultural engagement of Zen Buddhism and D.T. Suzuki with Horney and Fromm.
... Buddhism as a motivator toward healthy detachment Morvay (1999) used the concept of ''healthy detachment'' when describing the practice of mindfulness training in Zen Buddhism: ''When one is in a ''mindful'' state, there develops a quiet control over the mind by simply paying attention to sensory perceptions and thoughts within a context of healthy detachment'' (p. 29). ...
... 29). Morvay (1999) continued, ''Thus, one becomes an open and receptive onlooker toward the ordinary stream of consciousness without preconception or judgment. Detachment is, indeed, a strong virtue in Buddhist thinking. ...
... Detachment is, indeed, a strong virtue in Buddhist thinking. To further illustrate this, Morvay (1999) also cites a phrase in the Dhammapada, in which the Buddha states, ''All states (Dhamma) are without self, when one sees this in wisdom, then he becomes dispassionate toward the painful'' (p. 32). ...
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The purpose of this study was to determine the applicability of Buddhist practices in today’s workplaces. The findings were supported by interviews with Buddhist masters and Buddhist business practitioners, as well as literature review, through phenomenological analysis. As a means of presenting the main reasons why Buddhist practices should be considered in contemporary workplaces, a SWOT analysis is presented. In this analysis, a number of strengths for using Buddhist practices in workplaces are listed such as pro-scientific, greater personal responsibility, and healthy detachment, while potential weaknesses such as non-harming, equanimity, and no competition are also reviewed. Both the strengths and the weaknesses could be listed in reverse if applied to a different extent. Among the opportunities were issues such as re-educating the world of business, enhancing personal ownership and a healthier society, while the threats comprised issues such as creating different imbalances, disinterest, and stationary development.
... Horney's work centres on a basic belief that there is an inner essence of our being that is the source of our growth and self-realization. This essence she called the real self (Morvay, 1999). Horney (1950, p. 17) writes, 'The human individual, given a chance, tends to develop his particular human potentialities. ...
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The chapter outlines the concept of authenticity from various theoretical standpoints, including Indian perspective on authenticity. It was the first attempt in psychology to carve out the conceptual edifice of authenticity from the view point of Sri Aurobindo's Intergral Yoga. To bring out the lived experiences of authenticity the author presents themes from the lives of Mahatma Gandhi and Sri Aurobindo, who are regarded as exemplars of authentic living. These themes are based on the qualitative analysis of the life stories of both the "extraordinary" persons.
... T. Suzuki, citing him in her writings as early as 1945, but not meeting him until the early 1950s (Morvay, 1999). She also approached Kondo to explore incorporating the Zen practice of "just sitting" into psychotherapy as a way of cultivating the "real self." ...
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Postmaterial spiritual psychology posits that consciousness can contribute to the unfolding of material events and that the human brain can detect broad, non-material communications. In this regard, this emerging field of postmaterial psychology marks a stark departure from psychology's traditional quantum measurements and tenets. The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality codifies the leading empirical evidence in the support and application of postmaterial psychological science. Sections in this volume include: personality and social psychology factors and implications; spiritual development and culture; spiritual dialogue, prayer, and intention in Western mental health; Eastern traditions and psychology; physical health and spirituality; positive psychology; and scientific advances and applications related to spiritual psychology. With articles from leading scholars in psychology, medicine, physics, and biology, this text is an interdisciplinary reference for a rapidly emerging approach to contemporary science.
... Much of his life's work was devoted to understanding the varieties of spiritual experience, and his interest in Buddhism, along with other aesthetic practices, was an important aspect of the early dialogue between Buddhism and Western psychology. Following him, in the 1950s and 60s, the psychoanalyst Karen Horney (Morvay, 1999) developed an additional parallel between Buddhism and Western psychology. The three psychological forces she recognized—moving towards, moving against and moving away from—reflect the essence of the three Buddhist poisons: passion, aggression, and ignorance (Nimmanheminda, Kaklauskas & Sell, 2003). ...
Article
This paper discusses the application of Buddhism and Buddhist mindfulness practices to the contemplative group process model at Naropa University. I begin by giving some background to the dialogue between Buddhism and Western psychology and then describe the contemplative group. I will discuss its structure, contract and leadership interventions that cultivate reflection, attunement and self-regulation. Finally, I will describe how these groups can contribute to harmonious and skillful relationships through encouraging personal and interpersonal capacities and the Buddhist pāramitās. Background of this East – West Dialogue In the early 1900's, when William James, who is considered the father of American psychology, was giving a lecture at Harvard University, he recognized a Buddhist monk from Sri Lanka in the audience and abruptly departed from his lecture saying to the monk, "Take my chair. You are better equipped to lecture on psychology than I. This is the psychology everybody will be studying twenty-five years from now" (Epstein, 1995, pp. 1-2). James was interested in self-discipline, will and the relationship between attention, mental health and spirituality (McDermott, 1977). Much of his life's work was devoted to understanding the varieties of spiritual experience, and his interest in Buddhism, along with other aesthetic practices, was an important aspect of the early dialogue between Buddhism and Western psychology. Following him, in the 1950s and 60s, the psychoanalyst Karen Horney (Morvay, 1999) developed an additional parallel between Buddhism and Western psychology. The three psychological forces she recognized—moving towards, moving against and moving away from—reflect the essence of the three Buddhist poisons: passion, aggression, and ignorance (Nimmanheminda, Kaklauskas & Sell, 2003). Between 1960 and 1980, this East-West dialogue flourished, as seen in the works of people such as D. T. Suzuki (1963), Alan Watts (1966), and Chögyam Trungpa (1969, 1973, 1975, 1976). In the last couple of decades, dozens of books have been published in Europe and the U.S. regarding the relationship between Buddhism, mindfulness and mental health. Safran's (2003) observation that, "Buddhism gives every sign of being here to stay within our [Western] culture, and its influence on psychoanalytic thinking 1 is growing" (p. 1) can't be contested. This convergence has been further strengthened by the Dalai Lama's work with Western psychologists and scientists from diverse fields at the Mind and Life Institute, as well as other research on the effects that meditation and mindfulness have on the brain. Such research has spawned numerous publications on the subject (see, for example, Segal, et al., 2002, Hayes, et al., 2004, & Germer, et al., 2005). 1 Psychoanalysis is clearly not alone in its appreciation of the relationship between mindfulness and mental health. Cognitive behavioral psychotherapies have also embraced and expanded on the therapeutic use of mindfulness.
... In the 1950s, Zen was the first form of Buddhism to have a widespread impact on the culture, and today is still the most influential. 13 Zen had an influence on Western psychology in general (e.g., Maupin, 1962;Rosebaum, 1999;Twemlow, 2001) and, more specifically, on Fritz Perls' Gestalt therapy (Fagan & Shepherd, 1970), psychoanalyst feminist Karen Horney (Horney, 1987;Morvay, 1999), Abraham Maslow (Cleary & Shapiro, 1996), and much later Marsha Linehan's Dialectic Behavior Therapy (Robins, 2002). Similarities were shown between Zen and behavioral self-control (Shapiro & Zeifferblatt, 1976) and ...
Article
Essential Buddhism, the fundamental teachings of the historical Buddha and the core of all major branches of Buddhism, is psychology, not religion or philosophy. Essential Buddhism is described from a psychological perspective and interrelated with Western psychology in general, and cognitive science, behaviour modification, psychoanalysis, and transpersonal psychology, in specific. Integrating Buddhist psychology and Western psychology yields a more comprehensive psychology and more powerful therapies.
... limation of desire and the relinquishment of the nidana chain (the unnecessary suffering fostered by lust, desire, and passion) in Buddhism (Jaffe, 1998). However, Parsons (2001 has pointed out that Jung, along with other Neo-Freudians, may have engaged in a naïve reading of Buddhism, seeing it as " a culturally variant healing exercise " (p. 233). Morvay (1999) asserts that Horney may have moved beyond simple assumptions by focusing on the practices that generate receptivity and powers of observation. Rubin (1985) has similarly described meditation as a systematic approach " for cultivating exactly the state of mind that Freud recommended " (p. 602). Epstein (1995) has noted a similar emphasis ...
Article
This article examines interviews with practitioners and teacher-practitioners who draw from diverse traditions in their counselling practice. Interviewees described areas of commonality and areas of dynamic tensions between the traditions applied. The study examines the ways in which they translated meanings from both contexts. Interviewees appeared, at times, to dichotomise aspects of differing traditions, and at other times, to build effective translations. Implications for educators include the need for teaching and supervision approaches that encourage culturally sensitive and coherent translations.
... Many modern scholars, who are not necessarily personality psychologists, have continued in the tradition of Jung, Weber, and the others, making links between psychology and religious traditions. Psychoanalysts, for example, link psychoanalytic therapy to both Judaism and Buddhism (e.g., Bergmann, 1995;Fromm, 1960;Gresser, 1994;Lothane, 2001;Morvay, 1999;Safran, 2003), and studies of Buddhism and the associated practice of meditation and their relationship to mental and physical health have appeared in the major psychological journals (e.g., Seeman, Dubin, & Seeman, 2003;Wallace & Shapiro, 2006;Walsh & Shapiro, 2006). However, at least at this point, researchers' interest in religion and personality has not extended to all the major faiths. ...
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Almost every traditional personality theorist had something to say about religion, but the topic of how religious beliefs might affect individuals' views of human nature remains largely unstudied. All religions, however, contain certain implicit ideas re-garding personality that are likely to impact individual behavior. This article draws on Islamic sources to consider what a practicing Muslim might believe about motivation, personality development, the self, the unconscious, psychological adjustment, and the individual and society. In general terms, understanding these beliefs can be useful in the broader study of how cultural issues affect personality. More specifically, understand-ing Islamic beliefs related to personality can assist in planning for the provision of psychological services to Muslims, as well as understanding the psychological per-spectives of Muslims who are not extremists. When psychology speaks, for instance, of the motif of the virgin birth, it is only concerned with the fact that there is such an idea, but it is not concerned with the question whether such an idea is true or false in any other sense. The idea is psychologically true inasmuch as it exists. Psychological existence is subjective in so far as an idea occurs in only one individual. But it is objective in so far as that idea is shared by a society— by a consensus gentium. ——Carl Jung, The Autonomy of the Unconscious, 1938 In cultures all over the world, religious ideas create shared values, influence individ-ual behavior, and help sustain cultural identity (McAdams & Pals, 2006; Pettigrew, 1997; Stewart & Healy, 1989). These ideas are trans-mitted directly and indirectly to children, and they often have little to do with belief in a deity. Jung, for example, asserted that he was Chris-tian only because his life was based on Christian concepts—and not because of, in his words, a belief in "Zeus, Jahwe, Allah, the Trinitarian God, and so forth" (Bennett, 1983, p. 168).
... In this context, meditation is both a practice and a tool necessary to achieve self-transcendence and enlightenment and a means to end suffering. 14,15 The ontological and epistemological underpinnings of meditation depend entirely on one's perception of reality: what is real in the here and now? Negative emotions have no place in this reality. ...
Article
Chronic pain is a complex phenomenon that causes a significant disruption in the lives of those affected. Chronic pain is difficult to treat and challenges healthcare professionals' abilities to implement effective treatments. Therefore, chronic pain sufferers often seek complementary alternative medicine therapies such as meditation. Literature reviews have examined studies using mindfulness-based stress reduction program as an intervention for a variety of health problems. However, no reviews exist looking at a specific patient population's utilization of meditation-based programs. Therefore, the purpose of this integrative review is to examine studies that have investigated meditation as an intervention for chronic pain, identify gaps in the literature, and make recommendations for further research.
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This chapter provides those who aspire to lead from a non-authoritarian stance some important support instruments toward finding fulfillment and understanding in doing so. The chapter first lays a foundation by offering some highlights in the life of the Buddha, followed by an elaboration on Vipassana or insight meditation, which was the technique used to acquire enlightenment and lay the foundation for the Buddha’s subsequent teachings. After a concise evaluation of the two main streams of contemporary Buddhism, Theravada and Mahayana, the chapter explains the Four Noble Truths, one of the most profound insights in Buddhist psychology. Additionally, the chapter also discusses the critical aspect of consciousness as a pillar to mindful performance. In order to ensure a broad understanding of utilizing Buddhist psychology, the chapter discusses some important advantages, but also underscores some points of caution to consider. In the final section, the Seven-Point mind training is discussed, as an exercise to maintain humility, understand the highs and lows of life, and extract a positive lesson from each.
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This chapter provides those who aspire to lead from a non-authoritarian stance some important support instruments toward finding fulfillment and understanding in doing so. The chapter first lays a foundation by offering some highlights in the life of the Buddha, followed by an elaboration on Vipassana or insight meditation, which was the technique used to acquire enlightenment and lay the foundation for the Buddha’s subsequent teachings. After a concise evaluation of the two main streams of contemporary Buddhism, Theravada and Mahayana, the chapter explains the Four Noble Truths, one of the most profound insights in Buddhist psychology. Additionally, the chapter also discusses the critical aspect of consciousness as a pillar to mindful performance. To ensure a broad understanding of utilizing Buddhist psychology, the chapter discusses some important advantages, but also underscores some points of caution to consider. In the final section, the Seven-Point mind training is discussed, as an exercise to maintain humility, understand the highs and lows of life, and extract a positive lesson from each.
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In the 1930s, Zen Buddhism was hardly known outside Japan. By the 1960s, it had become by far the most popular form of Buddhism in Europe and the United States. Its popularity was born from the general belief that Zen responded to the psychological and religious needs of the individual without incurring the criticisms customarily levelled against religion. Zen was imagined as a practical spirituality that accepted all religions and religious symbols as expressions of a universal psychological truth. Zen was not itself a religion, but a ‘super-religion’ that had understood the inner mechanics of the psyche’s natural religion-making function. Three authors in particular, namely D. T. Suzuki, Friedrich Spiegelberg and Alan Watts, were pivotal in the formation of this narrative. Using Jung’s psychological model as their conceptual basis, they promoted a vision of Zen Buddhism that laid the foundations for the ‘Zen Boom’ of the 1950s and 60s. This article will examine the pivotal role played by Jung’s psychology in the formation of this narrative. KEYWORDS Zen Buddhism, D. T. Suzuki, Alan Watts, Friedrich Spiegelberg, The Religion of no Religion.
Article
Purpose This paper aims to contribute or rekindle internal and external dialogues about the interactions, decisions and behaviour in the work environments; while also consider some critical overarching values that can help workforce members cope with the stress and pressure, which augment as the speed of life increases. Design/methodology/approach The methodology used in this project is an integrative literature review, supported by, findings and reflections from two doctoral dissertations: one in workplace spirituality and one in Buddhist psychology; and the researcher’s analysis and joint application of these two streams over the past decade. Findings Workplace spirituality and Buddhist psychology share overlapping, multi-interpretable traits, with as the main discrepancies that workplace spirituality is a relatively new concept, while Buddhist psychology has been around for more than 2,500 years; and workplace spirituality focusses only on the workplace, while Buddhist psychology focusses on every area of the life. Yet, the overarching notion of doing right while respecting and accepting others and aiming for an overarching better quality of life remains a strong driver in both realms. Research limitations/implications This paper will hopefully entice future researchers to engage in additional studies on spiritual intersections to expand on such databases and enhance awareness, acceptance and implementation amongst scholars and practitioners in business settings. Practical implications Exploring intersections of behavioural disciplines such as workplace spirituality and Buddhist psychology addresses an important need within workforce members and therewith also those within their social circles, as they evoke deeper and consistent contemplation on the aspects that connect us together and can enhance overall well-being and happiness at a greater magnitude than, this study experiences it today. Social implications The study aims to deliver a contribution to the database of awareness-enhancing literature, in an effort to help spawn dialogue and critical thinking about the attitudes and behaviours towards ourselves, others and the future. Originality/value This paper presents an overview of themes in two psychological streams, both focussing on living and acting with greater consciousness, to make more mindful decisions, improve the overall experience of cooperating towards a common good and understand the responsibility towards creating a future that will be sustainable rather than destroyed.
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In conclusion, we discuss travel as practice and examine how clinical psychology can better participate in the life and movement(s) of the world. We draw on contemporary innovations in practice, as well as the movements of Gandhi and King, to broaden our categories of and for good mental health. We attempt to link—or, collapse the distinction between—the world inside the clinic and the worlds outside the clinic. Healing is revealed to be needed at multiple levels. We aim to see our role as traveling alongside others in their lives and circumstances, understanding not only their personal conditions but the social conditions in which they live. We also acknowledge the importance of community building in general. In sum, the world matters to clinical psychology.
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Psychological interpretations of Buddhism are more comprehensive than one might initially think. This “dialogue,” or at least attempts at such, has been a subset of the broader psychology and religion movement since the latter's inception in the late nineteenth century. Indeed, the history of this specific dialogical enterprise has incorporated multiple models and engaged multiple types of Buddhism. To name but a few, even a cursory survey of the past century reveals that theories classified as Jungian, humanistic/transpersonal, empirical/experimental, neurocognitive, existential, behavioral and what can be called “general psychotherapeutic” have all engaged what they consider to be the psychological import of Buddhism (e.g., Boss, 1965; Molino, 1998a; Nauriyal et al., 2006). The relation between these latter studies and psychoanalytic ones is complex as nonpsychoanalytic studies (notably evident in Jungian and transpersonal studies) often employ psychoanalytic concepts in eclectic ways.1 Given this complexity, some initial comment concerning parameters is in order. First, we shall confine ourselves to specifically psychoanalytic studies of Buddhism.
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Part I of this paper describes Karen Horney's theory of neurosis. In the 1930s, Horney repudiated Freud's view of female developmental psychology. She argued that cultural factors rather than anatomy or innate biological drives were the primary determinants not only of female development but of personality, as well. When genetic and environmental circumstances together lead to basic anxiety early in life, she believed a deep inner conflict emerges in the individual leading to the need for elaborating layers of rigidified protective defenses. She called this the neurotic process. This process can result in discrete symptoms of mental disorder as well as the more generalized problems of alienation from the person's real self and reliance on neurotic solutions. In Part II, the practical application of Horney's theory to clinical work is demonstrated in a case presentation of a notably timid and perfectionistic man. Part III points up elaborations of Horney's theories by later workers of her school, the American Institute for Psychoanalysis, and provides a history of her school within the broader context of American psychoanalysis. The author's emphasis on postmodern and narrativist elements of Horneyan psychoanalysis are illuminated, as well.
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"A Mind of Her Own" is the first full-scale biography of Karen Horney, the bold, complex, original psychoanalyst who dared to challenge Freud's view of women. Like her work on women, Horney's interest in the narcissistic personality, which anticipated the present interest in self-psychology, went against the grain of the psychoanalytic establishment. Ms. Quinn brilliantly demonstrates the relationship between Horney's innovative psychoanalytic thinking and her complicated interior life, her bouts of depression, and her lifelong search for intimacy. "A Mind of Her Own" draws on a wealth of new material, including unpublished diaries as well as extensive research in America, Germany, and Japan where Horney's fascination with Zen Buddhism took her in the last year of her life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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