No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Social skills, social outcomes, and cognitive features of childhood social phobia
Abstract
Social skills, social outcomes, self-talk, outcome expectancies, and self-evaluation of performance during social-evaluative tasks were examined with 27 clinically diagnosed social phobic children ages 7-14 and a matched nonclinical group. Results showed that, compared with their nonanxious peers, social phobic children demonstrated lower expected performance and a higher level of negative self-talk on social-evaluative tasks. In addition, social phobic children showed social skills deficits as assessed by self- and parent report, an assertiveness questionnaire, and direct behavioral observation. Furthermore, compared with the control group, social phobic children were rated by themselves and others as significantly less socially competent with peers and were found to be less likely to receive positive outcomes from peers during behavioral observation. Implications for the assessment and treatment of childhood social phobia are discussed.
... They suggest that specific behaviors-particularly the effectiveness of entrepreneurs in face-to-face interactions-might significantly influence their success. In line with existing research, Baron and Markman (2000) [7] differentiate between social capital, which refers to the actual and potential resources gained from relationships (e.g., Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998) [45] , and social competence, which is the overall effectiveness of entrepreneurs in social interactions (e.g., Spence et al., 1999) [57] . It is essential to recognize that social competence is used here, as in previous studies (e.g., Spence et al., 1999) [57] , as a collective term encompassing various social skills, such as accurately perceiving others (social perception; e.g., Zebrowitz, 1997) [68] , creating positive first impressions (e.g., Ferris et al., 2000;Wayne & Kacmar, 1991) [24,67] , and persuading others to alter their views or behavior (e.g., Shavitt & Brock, 1994) [55] . ...
... They suggest that specific behaviors-particularly the effectiveness of entrepreneurs in face-to-face interactions-might significantly influence their success. In line with existing research, Baron and Markman (2000) [7] differentiate between social capital, which refers to the actual and potential resources gained from relationships (e.g., Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998) [45] , and social competence, which is the overall effectiveness of entrepreneurs in social interactions (e.g., Spence et al., 1999) [57] . It is essential to recognize that social competence is used here, as in previous studies (e.g., Spence et al., 1999) [57] , as a collective term encompassing various social skills, such as accurately perceiving others (social perception; e.g., Zebrowitz, 1997) [68] , creating positive first impressions (e.g., Ferris et al., 2000;Wayne & Kacmar, 1991) [24,67] , and persuading others to alter their views or behavior (e.g., Shavitt & Brock, 1994) [55] . ...
... In line with existing research, Baron and Markman (2000) [7] differentiate between social capital, which refers to the actual and potential resources gained from relationships (e.g., Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998) [45] , and social competence, which is the overall effectiveness of entrepreneurs in social interactions (e.g., Spence et al., 1999) [57] . It is essential to recognize that social competence is used here, as in previous studies (e.g., Spence et al., 1999) [57] , as a collective term encompassing various social skills, such as accurately perceiving others (social perception; e.g., Zebrowitz, 1997) [68] , creating positive first impressions (e.g., Ferris et al., 2000;Wayne & Kacmar, 1991) [24,67] , and persuading others to alter their views or behavior (e.g., Shavitt & Brock, 1994) [55] . ...
... This model is frequently cited in the literature, used clinically, and can be applied to any anxiety disorder. Two more specific models of social phobia will be presented: a model developed by Spence, Donovan, and Brechman-Toussaint (1999) that describes the development and maintenance of social anxiety in children, and a recently developed model by Rapee and Spence (2004), that describes the etiology of social phobia. ...
... Following the development of adult models of social phobia, new and more specific childhood models have been developed. One model of social phobia, proposed by Spence et al. (1999), provides a general description of the potential development and maintenance of social anxiety in childhood. This model suggests that social phobia in children is maintained by a cycle, whereby social skill deficits result in unsuccessful social interactions. ...
... A recent model of the etiology of social phobia (Rapee & Spence, 2004) illustrates the continuity of social anxiety from childhood to adulthood. This model builds on and Spence et al. 's (1999) propose that the degree of impact will vary according to whether the experience occurs at a critical point in the individual's life, how long the experience lasts, and its intensity. For example, interactions with overprotective parents who discourage social interactions over several influential years may have a considerable influence on a young anxious child's social beliefs. ...
p>Social phobia is one of the most common anxiety disorders in childhood. However, there is currently no widely used and accepted model of social phobia for young people. In the literature reviews, the adult models of social phobia are discussed and researched based on them reviewed. Current models of anxiety and social anxiety in children are then considered and the research conducted on children is described. Comparisons between the adult and child models are made and suggestions for a more comprehensive model of social phobia for children, based on the Clark and Wells (1995) adult model of social phobia, are proposed.
As part of their model, Clark and Wells (1995) propose that negative self-images, often visual images seen and recalled from the perspective of an observer (OP), are an important maintaining factor in social phobia. The OP can be contrasted with a field perspective (FP; where visual images are recalled from an individual’s perspective). The present empirical study explored the relevance of the OP to children. Fifty-eight children (aged 7 – 14 years) recalled memories of social and physical situations and were asked to label the perspective they used (OP or FP). Social anxiety, memory distress and memory age were also measured. Children did recall OP memories. OP was not related to child’s age, social anxiety or social memories. Interestingly, OP was related to older social memories, but not to memory distress. Possible reasons for the findings and the potential implications for the models of social phobia in child development are discussed.</p
... This can lead to negative expectations for and subsequent avoidance of future social interactions, which further decreases opportunities to develop social skills, maintaining and further exacerbating social anxiety (Wallace & Alden, 1997). An "integrated model" would allow for the presence of both underlying deficits and biases (Hopko et al., 2001, Spence et al., 1999. Indeed, an etiological model of SAD suggests evidence of both skills deficits and negative interpretation biases (Spence & Rapee, 2016). ...
... Few studies to-date have assessed objective social skills deficits in children with SAD, and the findings are mixed (Schmitz et al., 2010;Schmitz et al., 2011). Additionally, in the few studies that have examined parent appraisals, findings suggest that parents of socially anxious children evaluate their children as less socially skilled than parents of non-anxious children, but it is unknown whether these appraisals are accurate (Ginsburg et al., 1998;Kortlander et al., 1997;Spence et al., 1999). Some direct observation studies of non-clinical cohorts have found that external observers rate socially anxious children's performance worse than age-matched non-anxious controls on social interaction tasks (including conversational role plays and reading aloud) (Beidel et al., 1999;Norton & Hope, 2001). ...
... Some researchers have proposed a "deficit model" in which social skills deficits serve as an underlying causal and maintaining factor of SAD, others a "bias model" in which socially anxious individuals exhibit negative cognitive biases and a hypercritical cognitive style in evaluating their own performance in social situations which serve as an underlying causal and maintaining factor of SAD, and still others a "integrated model" combining elements of both (Halldorsson & Creswell, 2017;Rapee & Heimberg, 1997;Spence et al., 1999). An important question for psychotherapy for children with SAD is whether the disorder primarily involves a skills deficit or an appraisal bias involving underestimates of skill. ...
Social Anxiety Disorder is highly prevalent among children and leads to poor long-term outcomes if left untreated. Theoretical models of anxiety differ in whether children with Social Anxiety Disorder experience objective social skills deficits, negative self-interpretation biases, or some combination of the two. This pilot study evaluated evidence in support of the “deficit” and “bias” models. Approval was obtained from the ethics committee of a large private university in Cambridge, MA, USA, and data collection was completed in 2015. We recruited 68 parent-child dyads for a study in which anxious children (with Social Anxiety Disorder) and non-anxious children underwent a child-adapted version of the Trier Social Stress Test. Children were aged 8-14, 67.6% male, and self-identified as 54.4% White, 7.4% Black, 4.4% Latinx, 13.2% Asian, 14.7% multiethnic, and 5.9% “other” or no response. Performance ratings were obtained from children, their parents, and external observers. We found evidence of both specific social skills deficits and self-appraisal biases in anxious children. Anxious children struggled with signs of physical discomfort but not with actual speech content. Although children were generally able to accurately evaluate their social performance, older anxious children were most self-critical. Parents were similarly accurate in appraisals of their children’s social performance. Anxious children responded favorably to positive feedback with improved self-evaluations of performance and decreased anxiety. Findings suggest that a comprehensive “integrated” theoretical model of Social Anxiety Disorder should include both skills deficits and self-appraisal biases.
... Results on the relation between social anxiety and social skills are contradictory. Some studies conclude that children with social anxiety have a social skills deficit (Alfano et al., 2006;Dodd et al., 2011;Ginsburg et al., 1998;Inderbitzen-Nolan et al., 2007;Miers et al., 2010;Spence et al., 1999). Other studies do find that children with social anxiety behave less adequately in social situations than their non-anxious peers and conclude that this difference might not be due to a social skills deficit per se, but that children with social anxiety have difficulty to adequately use their social skills due to their anxiety (see also, Hopko et al., 2001;Spence & Rapee, 2016). ...
... In other studies, evidence was found for impairments in social functioning and poorer social skills in children with social anxiety according to the parents (Ginsburg et al., 1998), and for a social skills deficit in adolescents with social anxiety compared to non-anxious adolescents (Inderbitzen-Nolan et al., 2007). Children with SoAD were also found to be less socially competent by their peers and were less likely to receive positive evaluations from peers during behavioral observations (Spence et al., 1999). On the other hand, Cartwright-Hatton et al. (2003) did not find evidence for poor social skills in children with social anxiety. ...
... We found that parents of children with SoAD reported significantly lower levels of assertive and responsible social behavior prior to treatment in their children compared to parents of children with an anxiety disorder without SoAD. There are indeed several studies that found a clear link between the less favorable use of social skills and SoAD (Alfano et al., 2006;Dodd et al., 2011;Ginsburg et al., 1998;Inderbitzen-Nolan et al., 2007;Miers et al., 2010;Spence et al., 1999). ...
The current study investigated the role of social skills and its interaction with social anxiety as predictors of treatment outcome in children with an anxiety disorder either with or without a social anxiety disorder (SoAD). In total, 133 children (aged 8 to 13) with an anxiety disorder received a 10-session cognitive behavioral treatment (FRIENDS program). Pre- to post treatment Reliable Change (RC) and Treatment-Recovery (TR) were assessed from a multi-informant perspective, by including diagnostic information (ADIS C/P), child-reported anxiety symptoms (MASC) and parent-reported internalizing symptoms (CBCL-Int). Social skills were assessed with the parent-rated Social Skills Rating System (assertion, self-control, responsibility). Results showed that 1) parents of children with a SoAD reported significantly less favorable use of assertive and responsible social behavior in their children pre-treatment than parents of children without SoAD, 2) children with higher social skills had a better treatment recovery, and 3) children with anxiety and higher responsible behavior pre-treatment and without a SoAD had a better treatment recovery, but this effect did not show for children with SoAD. In conclusion, better use of social behavior increased the likelihood of treatment recovery but not of reliable change. Further studies on the role of social skills in the treatment of childhood (social) anxiety are needed to investigate the mechanisms by which social skills impact treatment outcome.
... Studies suggest that some young people with SAD have social skills deficits, which remain even when their anxiety is diminished (Spence, Donovan, & Brechman-Toussaint, 1999;Spence, 2003). Therefore, more effective interventions with adolescents combine social skills training and anxiety reduction (Beidel et al., 2007;Compton et al., 2014). ...
... It is also worth noting that 45.9% of the noncase group had a lower average and below lower than average repertoire. In line with other studies in the area, a more deficient social skills repertoire was associated with individuals classified as having SAD (Alfano, Beidel, & Turner, 2006;Alfano, Beidel, & Turner, 2008;Beidel et al., 2007;Mesa, Beidel & Bunnell, 2014;Spence et al., 1999). Most of the adolescents who comprised the sample were also classified as having a repertoire of social skills below lower than average, even among those not classified as having SAD, pointing out the need for intervention programs with these adolescents. ...
... The data indicated that the more elaborate the overall repertoire of social skills and its component classes of empathy, self-control, civility, assertiveness, affective approach and social resourcefulness, the lower the chance of an adolescent satisfying the SAD screening criteria. These data are consistent with the results of other similar studies (Alfano et al., 2006, Alfano et al., 2008, Beidel et al., 2007, Mesa et al., 2004, Spence et al., 1999. The total SPIN score also correlated significantly and inversely with the total RSES score, indicating that the lower the self-esteem level of an adolescent, the more likely they are to satisfy the indicator screening criteria for SAD. ...
... When anxious children enter a social situation, negative rumination activates a public self-image which threatens their social self-concept [12,13]. Spence, Donovan, and Brechman-Toussaint [14] found that socially anxious children tended to anticipate more negative outcomes and reported poorer expected performance on social tasks. Social anxiety reduces the quality of social interactions and children's social, academic, and emotional self-concept [15]. ...
... These findings are consistent with previous studies, in which children and adolescents presented fewer anxiety symptoms, improved their performance in the speech task, and increased their self-confidence [11,26,32]. Moreover, video-feedback is a useful component to modify children's negative appraisal of their social performance, because children who suffer from social anxiety show a tendency to self-rate themselves as socially unskilled [12,14]. ...
... Social self-concept mediated the effect of SSL on social anxiety symptoms. According to previous studies, social self-concept of individuals with social anxiety is negatively affected by a highly distorted public self-image [14,15,28]. Video-feedback with cognitive preparation, as a component of the SSL, contributed to children's disconfirming their negative beliefs about their social performance and adjusting their self-image during the speech [29,31]. ...
Effectiveness of video-feedback with cognitive preparation to treat anxiety problems (especially social anxiety) has been scarcely explored on children. Super Skills for Life (SSL) is a CBT-based intervention to reduce anxiety and comorbid problems that, apart from social skills training and behavioural activation, integrates video-feedback with cognitive preparation. This study aimed to evaluate SSL effects, implemented in a school setting, on social performance and to test self-concept and social skills as potential mediators of pre- and post-test changes in social anxiety and generalized anxiety. Sample comprised 57 children aged 8–11 years with emotional symptoms. Children were video recorded in the first and last session to assess social performance. Anxiety and self-concept measures were completed by children pre-test and post-test. Participants reduced anxiety behaviours and improved social and communication skills after treatment. In general, girls showed better social performance than boys, but SSL impact was greater in males. Social self-concept was the only mediator of change in pre- to post-treatment social anxiety. This study provides evidence of SSL to improve children's social performance and reduce anxiety through video-feedback with cognitive preparation. Improving social concept seems essential to reduce social anxiety. An SSL programme is an ideal prevention protocol for anxious children.
... It has been empirically verified that social competence is a personality trait that positively affects entrepreneurial outcome variables such as firms' performance (Sallah & Caesar, 2021). Social competence is increasingly regarded as an important psychological characteristic for entrepreneurs (Dai et al. 2019) because it refers to the ability of the entrepreneur to interact with others effectively (Luna et al. 2020;Spence, et al. 1999). Furthermore, social competence is needed for individual entrepreneurs because they must have the ability to convince various stakeholders to fulfil the need for high-performing new ventures. ...
... The instruments used have been adapted from Riggio (1986) as applied by ; Spence et al., (1999) and many more, with some modification by considers the culture and context of the study. Face validity was applied for ensure the validity of the modified instruments. ...
Women entrepreneurs in small businesses are beginning to be seen more than ever as a vehicle for entrepreneurship development, contributing not just to employment and social stability but also become a competitive power. However, the slow and inefficient business performance of women entrepreneur is drawing the attention of scholars towards the traits that should be possessed. Drawing upon the psychological characteristic model, the purpose of this study is to examine the influence of social competence (social perception, social adaptability, expressiveness and impression management) on the women entrepreneurial success and in turn its impact on the business sustainability. The data were collected from January until October 2020 on micro enterprise in Malaysia during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using quantitative research design, a structured questionnaire was used among the women entrepreneur listed in Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. Proportionate stratified random sampling was used to select the respondents from each state in Malaysia. Descriptive statistic and linear regression analysis were used to analyse the data, which comprised 500 respondents. Overall, the findings showed that four dimensions of social competence had a significant positive relationship on the women entrepreneurial success. The novelty of this study rests in shedding light on a revised psychological characteristic model in micro enterprise sector and emphasised the crucial role women entrepreneur’s social competence for business sustainability.
... Looking to the first stage of this approach, we know surprisingly little about 'in the moment' experiences (and pre-and post-event experiences) of children with SAD and how contextual and developmental factors influence these experiences. The limited existing studies have mainly focused on children's negative cognitions, indicating that, compared with non-anxious children, children with SAD experience more negative thoughts during social-evaluative tasks (e.g., Spence et al., 1999;Tuschen-Caffier et al., 2011), but we know little about other cognitive and behavioural 'in the moment' processes. Thus, in order to ultimately inform understanding of the maintenance of childhood SAD, we interviewed children with SAD about their experiences during a social stress induction task. ...
... This led to a variety of emotional and behavioural reactions intended to deal with the perception of threat, some of which have been described in the previous literature with socially anxious children and some which have not. More specifically, as noted in previous research recruiting pre-adolescent children with SAD (e.g., Alkozei et al., 2014;Kley et al., 2012;Spence et al., 1999), there was evidence that the children's negative beliefs reflected a sense of social threat, ambiguous neutral stimuli (e.g., the neutral facial expressions of children in the pre-recorded audience) were interpreted in an overly negative fashion, and within-situation avoidance was seen as a 'helpful' strategy to avert feared outcomes. Notably, among the older children in the study, potential maintenance factors were described that have not previously been systematically examined in the (pre-adolescent) child-focused literature on SAD; including the use of safety-seeking behaviours, post-event processing and experience of negative imagery, which appeared to reinforce children's negative belief/s about how they appeared to others. ...
Objectives:
Childhood social anxiety disorder (SAD) is a common and disabling condition. General forms of cognitive behavioural treatments have demonstrated poorer efficacy for childhood SAD when compared to other childhood anxiety disorders and further understanding of the psychological factors that contribute to the maintenance of childhood SAD is warranted. Examining the social experiences of children with SAD may help to identify relevant psychological factors and increase our understanding of what keeps childhood SAD going.
Methods:
The current study used reflexive thematic analysis to analyse the transcripts of interviews with 12 children aged 8-12 years with SAD who had been interviewed about their 'in the moment' social experiences during a social stress induction task. The interview topic guide included factors hypothesized to maintain SAD in adult cognitive models of the disorder.
Results:
The interviews revealed both variety and commonalities in the experiences and interpretations of social events in children with SAD, captured in three related main themes: (i) Discomfort being the centre of attention, (ii) (Lack of) awareness of cognitions and (iii) Managing social fears. Findings indicated likely developmental influences on which maintenance mechanisms apply at which point in time.
Conclusions:
There is variation in the psychological mechanisms that children with SAD endorse and developmental factors are likely to influence when specific mechanisms are relevant. We now need further studies that take a developmentally informed approach to understand the nature of the association between the factors identified in this study and social anxiety in childhood to inform the development of more effective interventions for childhood SAD.
... While negative expectations and dysfunctional cognitions are already well researched in adults with SAD and are central targets of interventions [14], few and inconsistent findings exist in this regard in children and adolescents [17]. However, the sparse research consistently indicates that socially anxious children are more likely to expect that future social situations will have a negative outcome compared to non-anxious children [17][18][19][20]. Research regarding the occurrence of dysfunctional cognitions during a social situation in socially anxious children and adolescents is, surprisingly, much more inconsistent than findings regarding negative expectations [17]: some studies indicate a more frequent occurrence of dysfunctional cognitions in social situations in children with SAD compared to healthy children [18,19], whereas others do not show any differences [20][21][22]. ...
... However, the sparse research consistently indicates that socially anxious children are more likely to expect that future social situations will have a negative outcome compared to non-anxious children [17][18][19][20]. Research regarding the occurrence of dysfunctional cognitions during a social situation in socially anxious children and adolescents is, surprisingly, much more inconsistent than findings regarding negative expectations [17]: some studies indicate a more frequent occurrence of dysfunctional cognitions in social situations in children with SAD compared to healthy children [18,19], whereas others do not show any differences [20][21][22]. Although it is still unclear whether dysfunctional cognitions are more frequent in children with SAD, studies that have looked at dysfunctional cognitions concerning social anxiety using path-analytical or regression-analytical approaches in larger community samples show first evidence for the relevance of dysfunctional cognitions in children and adolescents. ...
Clark and Wells’ prominent model of social anxiety disorder (SAD) assumes that cognitive variables such as negative expectations or dysfunctional cognitions play a central role in the symptomatology of SAD. In contrast to adults, it is less clear how well the cognitive model can be applied to children and adolescents. A network analysis with seven nodes was conducted to explore the importance of cognitive variables and their interaction with symptoms of SAD based on N = 205 children and adolescents (8–18 years, M = 11.54 years). Cognitive variables had a high but differential impact within the positively connected network of SAD. Dysfunctional cognitions were most strongly connected within the network. Dysfunctional cognitions, as predicted by Clark and Wells’ model, seem to act as a hub affecting several symptoms. The association between negative expectations and avoidance indicates that negative expectations may particularly contribute to the maintenance of SAD.
... He or she probably thinks I am pathetic", for the just-mentioned party scenario. Labels of the five-point scale are A Dutch adapted version of the Expected Performance questionnaire (ExP; Miers, Blöte, Heyne, & Westenberg, 2014;Miers, Blöte, Sumter, Kallen, & Westenberg, 2011;Spence, Donovan, & Brechman-Toussaint, 1999) was used to measure participants' social self-perception. The items of the ExP ask about the expected performance for giving a speech. ...
... In the SAND study, the items referred to the speech the participants were required to give one week later, e.g., "Compared to other kids your age, how good will you be at giving the speech?". In addition to the items in the original version (Spence et al., 1999) that ask about the judgment by other children two items were added about the judgment by a teacher, e.g., "How good do you think a teacher watching the video (i.e., of your speech) will think you are at giving a speech?" The items are rated on a 5-point scale (1 = lowest, 5 = highest expectation). ...
Use this Share link for a free copy of the article: https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1Z7xNh~JITJnY
... Childhood and adolescent anxiety pose a risk for anxiety disorders in adulthood [7] and pathological anxiety has high comorbidity rates with other disorders, e.g., depression [8]. Moreover, anxiety disorders have broad impacts on both the health care system and particularly affected patients, with long-term negative consequences for child maturation [9], e.g., academic, and vocational underachievement [10] as well as impaired social competency [11]. Thus, advancing our understanding of the pathogenesis of anxiety disorders is essential. ...
Overgeneralization of conditioned fear is associated with anxiety disorders (AD). Most results stem from studies done in adult patients, but studies with children are rare, although the median onset of anxiety disorders lies already in childhood. Thus, the goal of the present study was to examine fear learning and generalization in youth participants, aged 10–17 years, with AD (n = 39) compared to healthy controls (HC) (n = 40). A discriminative fear conditioning and generalization paradigm was used. Ratings of arousal, valence, and US expectancy (the probability of an aversive noise following each stimulus) were measured, hypothesizing that children with AD compared to HC would show heightened ratings of arousal and US expectancy, and decreased positive valence ratings, respectively, as well as overgeneralization of fear. The results indicated that children with AD rated all stimuli as more arousing and less pleasant, and demonstrated higher US expectancy ratings to all stimuli when compared to HC. Thus, rather than displaying qualitatively different generalization patterns (e.g., a linear vs. quadratic slope of the gradient), differences between groups were more quantitative (similar, but parallel shifted gradient). Therefore, overgeneralization of conditioned fear does not seem to be a general marker of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents.
... This often results from a lack of capacity to learn the necessary social skills or the exhibition of adverse behaviours that hinder relationship building. Social skills lead to difficulties establishing social relationships, resulting in students with less or lower-quality social experiences needing more social skills (King et al., 1997;Spence et al., 1999). ...
This study adopts a qualitative approach and uses a case study design to examine the potential benefits of Adapted Physical Activities (APA) in improving turn-taking skills in children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). A 12-year-old female participant with moderate intellectual disability participated in a 12-week APA training program. Researchers conducted one-hour interviews with his family and three teachers to gain in-depth information about his experiences and perceptions. Interview data transcribed with participants' consent showed that APA contributed to a potential improvement in skills vital to social and academic abilities, including turn-taking and waiting. As a result, the findings obtained from this study showed that APA positively contributes to taking turns and waiting, which are of great importance in interpersonal interaction, especially in terms of communication rhythms and mutual exchanges. In this context, educators can enhance the quality of life for individuals with special needs in educational settings through APA.
... Shyness has been associated with various academic and well-being outcomes in adolescence. Spence, Donovan, and Brechman-Toussaint (1999) found that shy 8 adolescents may struggle with classroom participation and may avoid seeking help from teachers, leading to lower academic performance. In terms of well-being, Rubin and Burgess (2002) highlighted that shy adolescents may experience higher levels of loneliness and social anxiety, which can impact their overall mental health. ...
This research project investigates shyness amongst adolescents in secondary schools, aiming to understand its prevalence, contributing factors, and impact on academic performance and well-being. A quantitative research design was utilized, and data were collected through a questionnaire administered to 300 adolescents from three secondary schools. The findings revealed a prevalence rate of 40% of shyness among the participants. Significant correlations were found between shyness and factors such as insecure parental attachment, lower self-esteem, and poor peer relationships. Shyness was associated with lower academic performance and higher levels of anxiety and depression symptoms. The results highlight the need for interventions that address individual, familial, and school-related factors contributing to shyness. Implementing targeted support strategies could help shy adolescents overcome social challenges and enhance their overall well-being and academic success in school settings. 3
... Socially anxious children's biased perceptions of social functioning are the result of repeated exposure to unpleasant social interactions or a lack of positive interactions. Studies have found that young people perform poorly in social situations, especially in negative interactions with peers, and this poor outcome, in turn, leads to anxiety, which, in turn, provides fewer opportunities for social skills, leading to poorer social performance (9). If not taken seriously, childhood social anxiety typically persists into adolescence or adulthood and increases the risk of psychological disorders (10,11). ...
Urban green spaces are critical to the healthy development of children's social interactions and activities. However, the relationship between urban green spaces for children's activities and the alleviation of children's social anxiety remains unclear. In this study, we aimed to explore the link between spatial characteristics and social anxiety in children. To explore the coupling relationships among green space, play space, and social anxiety, an assessment of children's play spaces and levels of social anxiety was performed using self-reported data, OpenStreetMap captured the characteristic indicators of urban parks, and the ArcGIS and SPSS softwares were used for the mathematical analysis. The results showed that (1) both the NDVI and 10-min accessibility were significantly negatively related to children's social anxiety; (2) the diversity of service facilities, surfacing materials, and the attractiveness and challenge of the environment were negatively related to children's social anxiety; (3) there were significant differences between activity types and social anxiety. These results provide design references and a theoretical basis for improving the benefits of urban green space on children's health and wellbeing.
... All interaction partners were trained to offer eye contact continuously during the social stress tasks and to show a neutral but friendly attitude toward the participants. Children were instructed to do their best because the interaction partners and peers would later rate their performance based on video recordings [28,29]. Both sessions of the social stress task were separated by a 10-min break during which children were offered to play a well-known game of cards (UNO®). ...
This study measured visual attention (fixation count, dwell time) during two real-life social stress tasks using mobile eye-tracking glasses in children (9–13 years) diagnosed with social anxiety disorder (SAD; n = 25) and a healthy control group (HC; n = 30). The influence of state anxiety on attention allocation and negative self-evaluation biases regarding gaze behavior were also examined. Compared to the HC group, children with SAD showed visual avoidance (i.e., fewer fixations) of the faces of interaction partners during the second social stress task. While visual avoidance in HC children decreased with declining state anxiety from the first to the second social stress task, no such effect was found in children with SAD. A negative self-evaluation bias regarding gaze behavior in children with SAD was not found. In sum, measuring visual attention during real-life social situations may help enhance our understanding of social attention in childhood SAD.
... Behavioural assessment can be applied in conjunction with traditional diagnostic interviews and self-report inventories for a comprehensive assessment of patients' social difficulties [190]. Based on studies, behavioural assessment tests have discriminative validity in distinguishing between young people with and without social anxiety disorder [16,191,192]. This approach can also identify social behavioural differences between children and adolescents who are diagnosed with social anxiety disorder [16]. ...
Social anxiety disorder or social phobia is a condition characterized by debilitating fear and avoidance of different social situations. We provide an overview of social anxiety and evidence-based behavioural and cognitive treatment approaches for this condition. However, treatment avoidance and attrition are high in this clinical population, which calls for innovative approaches, including computer-based interventions, that could minimize barriers to treatment and enhance treatment effectiveness. After reviewing existing assistive technologies for mental health interventions, we provide an overview of how social robots have been used in many clinical interventions. We then propose to integrate social robots in conventional behavioural and cognitive therapies for both children and adults who struggle with social anxiety. We categorize the different therapeutic roles that social robots can potentially play in activities rooted in conventional therapies for social anxiety and oriented towards symptom reduction, social skills development, and improvement in overall quality of life. We discuss possible applications of robots in this context through four scenarios. These scenarios are meant as ‘food for thought’ for the research community which we hope will inspire future research. We discuss risks and concerns for using social robots in clinical practice. This article concludes by highlighting the potential advantages as well as limitations of integrating social robots in conventional interventions to improve accessibility and standard of care as well as outlining future steps in relation to this research direction. Clearly recognizing the need for future empirical work in this area, we propose that social robots may be an effective component in robot-assisted interventions for social anxiety, not replacing, but complementing the work of clinicians. We hope that this article will spark new research, and research collaborations in the highly interdisciplinary field of robot-assisted interventions for social anxiety.
... It is clear that socially phobic children have limited success in learning to discriminate and label emotional expressions. One assumption is that socially phobic children have social skills deficits in performing the behaviors that enhance the possibility of achieving successful social outcomes and being judged positively by others (37). ...
Background: Children with learning disabilities (LDs) may be at risk of social anxiety because they are less socially accepted and more anxious than their peers. Approximately 70% of students with LDs experience a high level of anxiety symptoms, and they have clinical symptoms of anxiety more than their peers. Objectives: This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of social skills training on social anxiety disorder in students with LDs. Methods: This randomized controlled trial study included a pretest-posttest control group. Data were collected using Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition (SCID-5), Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale (SCAS), and Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters (MESSY). In total, 30 participants with diagnosed LDs and high social anxiety were randomly assigned to intervention and control groups. The intervention group received a social skills treatment over 12 sessions of 90 minutes. After collecting the data, SPSS version 24 was used with 95% CI for data analysis. The Levene test was used to assess the equality of variances, and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) employed to assess the main effect of social skills intervention. Results: The results of the ANCOVA test showed that social skills training reduced social anxiety in the intervention group (P < 0.01). The covariate (pretest of anxiety) was also significant (P < 0.01). Conclusions: This study showed that social skills training could reduce social anxiety in children with LDs. This result can be a guideline for clinicians to provide the appropriate intervention for the emotional problems of students with LDs.
... Challenging behaviours are usually stable over time (Côté et al., 2006) and therefore risk affecting engagement and learning long-term. Emotional symptoms have been shown to harm the child´s sociability (Cole et al., 1997;Spence et al., 1999), which may lead to difficulties in establishing and maintaining relationships with other children (Chen et al., 2000). Problems with behaviour and emotional symptoms affect learning, sociability, and engagement negatively, which can affect children's development in the long and short term. ...
Preschool staffs' responsiveness affects children’s behaviour, their difficulties, and engagement in the preschool context, but children’s behaviour and characteristics also affect staff responsiveness. Early second language learners (L2-learners) have been shown to have more problems with behaviour and emotions and lower engagement in preschool. Being engaged in preschool activities predicts future academic performance, attitude towards school and well-being in the short and long term, and can be promoted by the preschool staff. Knowledge of which factors support engagement in preschool for L2-learners can help prevent, in the early years, negative pathways based on low engagement and problems with behaviour and emotions. This cross-sectional study used data from a longitudinal study to investigate the relationship between child engagement and staff responsiveness as well as how child age, child problems with behaviour and emotions, child group size, and the child:staff ratio impact child engagement and staff responsiveness. The study also investigated whether these relations differ between L2-learners and children learning Swedish as their first language (L1-learners). Preschool staff (N = 611) reported through questionnaires on engagement, age, problems with behaviour and emotions and emotional symptoms of 832 children aged 13–71 months, as well as on staffing and staff responsiveness. With a path analysis extended by multi-group analysis, we found two models suggesting that age, problems with behaviour and emotions and preschool staff responsiveness influence child engagement, irrespective of background. The study also found that child engagement significantly influenced staff responsiveness. The multi-group analysis only weakly supported the hypothesis that the child’s age affects staff responsiveness more strongly for L2-learners. The results indicate that individual children and child groups themselves can affect the responsiveness of their staff, and that children with low engagement risk being neglected. L2-learners are at increased risk since they tend to display lower engagement and more behaviour problems in preschool in general. If not attended to early, the lower engagement already apparent among L2-learners in preschool can create stable patterns of low engagement and problems with behaviour and emotions that extend beyond the preschool years and having negative effects on the children’s later well-being and school performance.
... During the following social stress task, children answered four standardized questions posed by two female adult observers about a previously heard short story. Children had 1 min to hear and answer each question and were instructed to do their best, because the observers and peers would later rate their performance based on video recordings (Schmitz et al., 2011;Spence et al., 1999). All observers received a briefing and were trained to give standardized neutral verbal and nonverbal feedback while maintaining a friendly attitude. ...
According to cognitive models of social anxiety disorder (SAD), both anticipatory processing and post-event processing are core mechanisms in disorder maintenance leading to dysfunctional coping with social situations through negative self-evaluation and increased anxiety. To date, little is known about these processes during late childhood, a critical period for disorder development. Further, it remains unclear if dysfunctional rumination in children can be altered through psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive distraction. In the current study, children aged 9 to 13 years with SAD and age- and gender-matched healthy controls (HCs, each: n = 30) participated in an experimental laboratory social stress task while anticipatory processing, post-event processing, subjective anxiety, self-evaluations, and autonomic arousal (skin conductance level) were assessed. Further, the impact of a brief cognitive distraction intervention on post-event processing was assessed. Children with SAD reported more negative anticipatory and post-event processing compared to HC children. Further, negative anticipatory processing was associated with higher subjective anxiety and reduced subjective performance ratings during the social stress task. In the aftermath of the stressor, distraction led to reduced subjective anxiety in the group with SAD and lower autonomic arousal in all children but did not alter post-event processing. The current study suggests that both anticipatory and post-event processing already play a key role in the maintenance of SAD in childhood. While distraction may be beneficial in reducing prolonged subjective anxiety and autonomic arousal after social situations, more research on interventions targeting ruminative processes is needed.
... Although considered the treatment of choice, there are accumulating data that exposure therapy alone or in combination with interventions such as relaxation training or cognitive restructuring does not produce optimal treatment outcome for youth with SAD (e.g., Compton et al., 2014;Ginsburg et al., 2011;Hudson et al., 2015;Scaini et al., 2016). One explanation for this differential outcome is that unlike children with other anxiety disorders, children with SAD also demonstrate social skill deficits (e.g, Beidel et al., 1999;Spence et al., 1999), which do not improve without specific intervention and practice (Olivares-Olivares et al., 2019). ...
Disseminating efficacious psychological treatments remains a challenge for researchers and clinicians. In the case of social anxiety disorder (SAD), Social Effectiveness Therapy for Children (SET-C) has been demonstrated as an efficacious intervention but elements of the protocol, such as peer generalization sessions, remain challenging to conduct in typical clinical settings. To address this need, we developed an artificially intelligent, web-based application, Pegasys-VRTM, designed to replace peer generalization sessions and enhance homework compliance. The feasibility of Pegasys-VRTM was tested in a randomized controlled trial in comparison to SET-C. The results indicated that both programs were equally efficacious in decreasing anxiety and improving social skill in social encounters. Sixty-three percent (63%) of children treated with SET-C and 60% treated with Pegasys-VRTM did not meet diagnostic criteria for SAD at posttreatment. Pegasys-VRTM is a feasible, efficacious, and dissemination-friendly element of a comprehensive treatment program for social anxiety disorder in children.
... The advantage of this approach is scalability to dozens or hundreds of participants. Some studies of social interactions use questionnaires to examine children and their parents (e.g., [14,15]). The second approach is a test that is simple and easy for children to complete and this advantage is high reliability and validity because many previous studies have used them. ...
Sociality is the tendency to spontaneously interact with others to establish and maintain relationships. Some approaches, including questionnaires, tests, controlled experiments, and qualitative field research, cannot capture complex social interactions, such as in children during nursery activities, because of problems with ecological validity and the labor cost of analysis. Here, we introduced a new methodology for the quantitative analysis of spontaneous social movement and investigated children’s group behavior using position data. We periodically visited a nursery and recorded videos of eurhythmics, in which children move in tune with music, in different classes. The results revealed that children in the six-year-old class approached others in a short period of time (within one second) and established group behavior like that in a game of tag. It can be interpreted that such social behavior may include actions related to the cognition of anticipating others’ behaviors in a complex situation. Although only a small amount of data could be acquired, this study suggests one of the characteristics of social behaviors in the classroom considering an ecological approach.
... Par ailleurs, les enfants caractérisés par des traits d'irritabilité (conceptuellement proche de l'affectivité négative) sont plus à risque que les autres enfants d'être rejetés ou victimisés par leurs pairs (Stringaris & Goodman, 2009), ce qui les rend plus à risque de développer des troubles du comportement intériorisés et extériorisés (Barker & Salekin, 2012). De plus, d'autres études ont déjà montré que les enfants et adolescents présentant des troubles intériorisés sont plus souvent confrontés à l'exclusion et au rejet par les pairs, ce qui tend encore à aggraver leurs troubles (Spence et al., 1999). Bien que les comportements sociaux soient présentés ici à gauche des traits concernant la reproduction, il est important de souligner la relation bidirectionnelle liant ces deux aspects dans notre modèle. ...
... Studies examining social skills deficits in children with SAD have yielded quite mixed findings (Levitan and Nardi 2009). For example, in the investigation by Spence et al. (1999) who compared 27 clinically diagnosed children with SAD aged 7 to 14 years and a matched nonclinical control group, various measures of social skills and competences were used including self-, parent-, and teacher-reported questionnaires as well as a number of behavioral assessments (e.g., role plays with another child, a reading aloud task, and a natural observation of children's interaction with peers). The results showed that the children with SAD not only had lower social skills scores on various questionnaires as compared to the control children, but also actually demonstrated these social skills deficits during some of the behavioral tasks. ...
In current classification systems, selective mutism (SM) is included in the broad anxiety disorders category. Indeed, there is abundant evidence showing that anxiety, and social anxiety in particular, is a prominent feature of SM. In this article, we point out that autism spectrum problems in addition to anxiety problems are sometimes also implicated in SM. To build our case, we summarize evidence showing that SM, social anxiety disorder (SAD), and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are allied clinical conditions and share communalities in the realm of social difficulties. Following this, we address the role of a prototypical class of ASD symptoms, restricted and repetitive behaviors and interests (RRBIs), which are hypothesized to play a special role in the preservation and exacerbation of social difficulties. We then substantiate our point that SM is sometimes more than an anxiety disorder by addressing its special link with ASD in more detail. Finally, we close by noting that the possible involvement of ASD in SM has a number of consequences for clinical practice with regard to its classification, assessment, and treatment of children with SM and highlight a number of directions for future research.
... The evidence for social skills deficits in childhood SAD is inconsistent. Some studies report that children with SAD have poorer social skills than children with other anxiety disorders or nonanxious children (Greco & Morris, 2005;Morgan & Banerjee, 2006;Scharfstein, Beidel, & Sims, 2011;Spence, Donovan, & Brechman-Toussaint, 1999;Tuschen-caffier, Kühl, & Bender, 2011), but others suggest that this is a reflection of inhibited behaviour in social situations and children's overly negative perceptions of their own social skills (Cartwright-Hatton, Hodges, & Porter, 2003;Cartwright-Hatton, Tschernitz, & Gomersall, 2005;Halldorsson, Castelijn, & Creswell, 2019). Recent work suggests that social skills deficits may be present only in a subgroup of children with SAD (Halls, Cooper, & Creswell, 2014;Pearcey et al., 2018). ...
Background
Childhood Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) is common and impairing. The recommended treatment is a disorder specific form of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) that includes social skills training and, whilst they appear to be more effective than more general treatments, it is not clear whether social skills training is the critical component involved in improved outcomes, particularly given that evidence for the relationship between social anxiety and social skills deficits in children is inconsistent. This may be partly due to an overlap in their observable features, and because the nature of the association may vary in different contexts (e.g. according to child age). An alternative approach is to examine the association between social anxiety and the social cognitive capacities that underpin social skills. This paper aims to examine the association between social anxiety and social cognition in children and adolescents, and examine conceptual and methodological moderators of this relationship.
Methods
Papers published between 1980 and 2019 were screened systematically. Fifty studies were identified from which an effect size could be calculated for the relationship between social anxiety and social cognition, including 15,411 children and adolescents.
Results
An overall significant, but moderate effect (r = −.15) was identified, where increased social anxiety was associated with lower social cognitive ability. Moderation analyses revealed specific associations within studies examining social anxiety among participants with and without ASD who were older than 7 years old, and studies assessing the relationship between social anxiety and specific aspects of Theory of Mind (ToM). No significant association was identified between social anxiety and emotion recognition.
Conclusions
Significant associations between social anxiety and social cognitive abilities appear to be accounted for by elevated social anxiety among children with ASD, and those with difficulties in specific aspects of ToM but not broader social skills, such as emotion recognition. This reinforces the importance of accurately identifying and treating social anxiety within ASD populations. In addition, treatments for social anxiety among neurotypical populations may benefit from targeting particular aspects of ToM rather than emotion recognition and other broad social skills.
... Spence et al. first investigate in 1999, then, in 2004, the impact of this specific anxiety disorder and the link with social skills of children. The authors found that in children without ASD and compared to non-anxious children, children with Social Anxiety Disorder have been found to have poorer social skills on behavioral assessments in the laboratory and in school (17,18). Their parents reported less assertive and responsible social skills and researchers observed fewer initiation and social interaction. ...
Background
Recognition of symptoms of Social anxiety (SA) may be difficult among individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) because of overlap between social anxiety and autistic symptomatology. The main aim of our study was thus to explore the association between symptoms of social anxiety and clinical characteristics of ASD in order to identify individuals experiencing concomitant ASD and social anxiety disorder. We also described the prevalence of SA in a sample of children and adolescents with ASD.
Method
79 children and adolescents with ASD (with and without intellectual disability) and 28-matched control participants were recruited in two French Expert Centers for ASD, coordinated by the Fundation FondaMental. Psychiatric comorbidities, anxiety disorders and depression were screened with standard tools (Liebowitz social anxiety scale, Hamilton Depression and Anxiety Rating Scale) and correlated to autistic features and social skills assessed with the social responsiveness scale 2 (SRS-2) and the repetitive behavior scale (RBS-R). We performed bivariate analysis between the social anxiety level and the scores measured with different clinical scales. We then adjusted the observed relationships with the alterations of SRS-2 and RBS-R scores.
Results
After adjustment, the level of social anxiety appeared as significantly associated with alterations in social reciprocity and particularly with the SRS-2 “social communication” and “social motivation” sub-scores, but not with RBS-R score.
Conclusions
We confirm previous reports showing that individuals with ASD are at high risk for specific anxiety disorders. In particular, high levels of impairments in social motivation and social communication (SRS-2) are indicative of comorbid disorders namely, social anxiety and ASD. Our findings clearly inform diagnostic assessment in ASD and stress the need to take comorbid anxiety disorders into consideration to improve treatment of ASD. To further clarify the impact of social anxiety on social competences and socio-adaptive handicap, longitudinal studies and cluster analysis will be needed in the future.
... While social anxiety is one of the most common mental health issues (Furmark, 2002;Kessler et al., 2012;Spence and Rapee, 2016), parents and teachers are often unfamiliar with its signs and symptoms. Therefore, adolescents having social anxiety tend to develop distress, fear of social evaluation and social avoidance, which further leads to social, emotional and academic dysfunction (Beidel et al., 1999;Rao et al., 2007;Spence et al., 1999). Pakistani adolescents in general experience a lack of confidence and lower self-esteem, and as a result they may feel anxious in a variety of situations (Ahmad et al., 2013). ...
Background
Social anxiety is common among adolescents in Pakistan and is associated with low self-esteem. Among the recommended treatments, cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is effective, and self-help approaches are encouraged.
Aim
To determine the effectiveness of culturally adapted CBT-based guided self-help (CACBT-GSH) intervention, using a manual ‘Khushi aur Khatoon’, for treating social anxiety when added to treatment as usual (TAU) compared with TAU only.
Method
A total of 76 adolescents with social anxiety aged 13–16 years from six schools in Multan, Pakistan were recruited into this randomized controlled trial. Participants were divided into intervention and control groups in a 1:1 ratio. Social anxiety, self-esteem and fear of negative evaluation were assessed through the Liebowtiz Social Anxiety Scale for children and adolescents, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation, respectively, at baseline and at the end of the study. Guided self-help using culturally adapted CBT (CACBT)-based self-help manual (eight sessions, one session per week) was provided to the intervention group. The effect of the CACBT-GSH intervention was analysed with ANCOVA.
Results
There was a statistically significant difference between the intervention and the control groups in favour of intervention. Participants in the intervention group showed reduced symptoms of social anxiety ( p < .001), fear of negative evaluation ( p < .001) and enhanced self-esteem ( p < .001).
Conclusion
The study demonstrated the effectiveness of CACBT-based guided self-help intervention in treating social anxiety and addressing the symptoms associated with it.
... Besides fear of judgment and ongoing self-consciousness, social anxiety is often marked by little eye contact, social communication difficulty, and behavioral avoidance (Wong & Rapee, 2016). Children and adolescents' social anxiety is also significantly associated with greater self-focused attention (Kley et al., 2012), more globally negative interpretations of social situations (Vassilopoulos et al., 2012), and the belief that positive social events will not occur for them (Spence et al., 1999). ...
Social anxiety is an intense discomfort and self-consciousness about potential negative evaluations from others or the possibility of embarrassing oneself. The incidence of social anxiety rises in adolescent girls compared to boys (11.2% versus 7.0%). Learning to take healthy risks, developing confidence, and gaining exposure to anxiety-generating stimuli are important. Self-acceptance training, mindfulness training, and reversing of automatic negative interpretive biases are useful interventions. Such techniques are illustrated and described.
... In a word, socially anxious individuals not only are fear of negative social feedback, but also experience more negative feedback than non-socially anxious counterparts (Van der . As pointed out by the cognitive-behavioral model of social anxiety (Rapee and Heimberg, 1997), these biases are involved in strengthening the core belief of socially anxious individuals, that is, other people would evaluate them negatively and underestimate their social performance (Alden and Wallace, 1995;Spence et al., 1999). In this way, the negative expectancy and experience biases reinforce socially anxious behaviors (including avoidance and withdrawal) overtime, manifesting as a persistent cycle that comprises and maintains social anxiety (Heimberg et al., 2010;Morrison and Heimberg, 2013). ...
Social anxiety has been associated with abnormalities in cognitive processing in the literature, manifesting as various cognitive biases. To what extent these biases interrupt social interactions remains largely unclear. This study used the Social Judgment Paradigm (SJP) that could separate the expectation and experience stages of social feedback processing. Event-related potentials (ERPs) in these two stages were recorded to detect the effect of social anxiety that might not be reflected by behavioral data. Participants were divided into two groups according to their social anxiety level. Participants in the high social anxiety (HSA) group were more likely to predict that they would be socially rejected by peers than did their low social anxiety (LSA) counterparts (i.e., the control group). Compared to the ERP data of the LSA group, the HSA group showed: (a) a larger P1 component to social cues (peer faces) prior to social feedback presentation, possibly indicating an attention bias; (b) a difference in feedback-related negativity (FRN) amplitude between unexpected social acceptance and unexpected social rejection, possibly indicating an expectancy bias; (c) a diminished sensitivity of the P3 amplitude to social feedback valence (be accepted/be rejected), possibly indicating an experience bias. These results could help understand the cognitive mechanisms that comprise and maintain social anxiety.
... In relation to anxiety, Hawkley and Cacioppo [23] have proposed that social isolation heightens vigilance to social threat, which in turn impairs individuals' ability to regulate their emotions [23]. For example, isolated adolescents may be less likely to take social risks and more likely to have social skill deficits (e.g., less assertive response style), which may worsen anxiety in the long term [14,24]. Importantly, while numerous studies have investigated the links between social isolation and internalising difficulties, few have examined other factors that may influence this association in early adolescents, who, as noted above, are particularly vulnerable to both social isolation and the onset of internalising symptoms. ...
... Socially phobic children were rated to be less socially competent not only by themselves, but also by their parents and peers, and, possibly as a consequence, received positive reactions from peers less frequently than other children (Spence, Donovan, & Brechman-Toussaint, 1999). ...
Social attention is a ubiquitous, but also enigmatic and sometimes elusive phenomenon. We direct our gaze at other human beings to see what they are doing and to guess their intentions, but we may also absorb social events en passant as they unfold in the corner of the eye. We use our gaze as a discrete communication channel, sometimes conveying pieces of information which would be difficult to explicate, but we may also find ourselves avoiding eye-contact with others in moments when self-disclosure is fear-laden. We experience our gaze as the most genuine expression of our will, but research also suggests considerable levels of predictability and automaticity in our gaze behavior. The phenomenon’s complexity has hindered researchers from developing a unified framework which can conclusively accommodate all of its aspects, or from even agreeing on the most promising research methodologies. The present work follows a multi-methods approach, taking on several aspects of the phenomenon from various directions. Participants in study 1 viewed dynamic social scenes on a computer screen. Here, low-level physical saliency (i.e. color, contrast, or motion) and human heads both attracted gaze to a similar extent, providing a comparison of two vastly different classes of gaze predictors in direct juxtaposition. In study 2, participants with varying degrees of social anxiety walked in a public train station while their eye movements were tracked. With increasing levels of social anxiety, participants showed a relative avoidance of gaze at near compared to distant people. When replicating the experiment in a laboratory situation with a matched participant group, social anxiety did not modulate gaze behavior, fueling the debate around appropriate experimental designs in the field. Study 3 employed virtual reality (VR) to investigate social gaze in a complex and immersive, but still highly controlled situation. In this situation, participants exhibited a gaze behavior which may be more typical for real-life compared to laboratory situations as they avoided gaze contact with a virtual conspecific unless she gazed at them. This study provided important insights into gaze behavior in virtual social situations, helping to better estimate the possible benefits of this new research approach. Throughout all three experiments, participants showed consistent inter-individual differences in their gaze behavior. However, the present work could not resolve if these differences are linked to psychologically meaningful traits or if they instead have an epiphenomenal character.
... [1,2] Most times, social anxiety significantly impairs social functioning and could cause social skills practice deficit. [3,4] Earlier studies showed that adolescents with social anxiety are vulnerable to an unhealthy relationship, [5,6] impaired emotional development, [7,8] and comorbid psychologic problem. [9] In Nigeria, schooling adolescents are among the most vulnerable populations living with anxiety disorders. ...
Objective:
This study examined the effects of music therapy with cognitive behavioral therapy on social anxiety in a sample of schooling adolescents in south-east Nigeria.
Methods:
We adopted a randomized controlled trial design involving a treatment group and a waiting-list control group. A total of 155 schooling adolescents served as the study sample. The sample size was ascertained using GPower software. A 12-week MTCBP manual for social anxiety was employed to deliver the intervention. Data analyses were completed using repeated measures analysis of variance.
Results:
We found that social anxiety significantly decreased in the treatment group over time, whereas the waitlist control group showed no significant changes in social anxiety. Therefore, music therapy with cognitive-behavioral therapy was significantly beneficial in decreasing social anxiety symptoms of the treatment group. The follow-up assessment performed after 3 months revealed a significant reduction in social anxiety for the treatment group.
Conclusion:
The study, therefore, suggests that the use of music therapy with cognitive-behavioral therapy is significant in reducing social anxiety among schooling adolescents.
... In relation to anxiety, Hawkley and Cacioppo [23] have proposed that social isolation heightens vigilance to social threat, which in turn impairs individuals' ability to regulate their emotions [23]. For example, isolated adolescents may be less likely to take social risks and more likely to have social skill deficits (e.g., less assertive response style), which may worsen anxiety in the long term [14,24]. Importantly, while numerous studies have investigated the links between social isolation and internalising difficulties, few have examined other factors that may influence this association in early adolescents, who, as noted above, are particularly vulnerable to both social isolation and the onset of internalising symptoms. ...
Social isolation may be a unique risk factor for depression and anxiety in early adolescence. However, optimal sleep may protect adolescents from the emotional sequela of social isolation. The present study aimed to investigate whether sleep moderates the relationship between social isolation and symptoms of anxiety and depression in early adolescence. Five hundred and twenty eight early adolescents (M = 11.18yrs, SD = 0.56, range: 10-12 yrs, 51% male) completed online questionnaires assessing social isolation, sleep duration, daytime sleepiness and symptoms of generalised anxiety, social anxiety, separation anxiety and depression. Sleep duration moderated the effect of social isolation on symptoms of generalised anxiety, social anxiety and depression, but not separation anxiety. Daytime sleepiness emerged as an additional sleep-related risk factor in the relationship between social isolation and depressive symptoms. Therefore, sleep may be an important modifiable risk or protective factor to target, in the prevention of depression and anxiety in adolescence.
... While there is substantial empirical evidence that cognitive models of SAD apply to socially anxious adults (Clark and McManus 2002), their validity for socially anxious children is mostly unclear (Halldorsson and Creswell 2017). Several studies found a variety of cognitive distortions, such as misperceptions about social performance, in socially anxious children but not in nonanxious controls (e.g., Cartwright-Hatton et al. 2005;Spence et al. 1999), but others did not find evidence of cognitive distortions (e.g., Alfano et al. 2006;Bögels and Zigterman 2000;In-Albon et al. 2009). ...
Theoretical models and previous research suggest that post-event processing (PEP) after social situations maintains social anxiety disorder (SAD). To date, little is known about PEP in childhood, a critical period for disorder development, or about possible positive effects of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) on PEP in children. Children with SAD (n = 71; aged 9–13 years) and healthy controls (n = 55) participated in a social stress task (Trier Social Stress Test for Children, TSST-C), which was repeated in children with SAD after either 12 sessions of CBT or a waiting period. PEP was assessed daily with regard to both valence and frequency, as well as in more detail regarding specific negative and positive ruminative thoughts 1 week after each TSST-C. Daily PEP after the TSST-C was more frequent and more negative in children with SAD compared to healthy controls, in particular during the first 2 days after the TSST-C. After CBT treatment, children with SAD reported more positive PEP but not less negative PEP compared to children in the waitlist control group. The current study suggests that negative PEP in children with SAD is most pronounced in the first days following social stress. Group-based CBT seems to be effective in building up positive cognitions after social stress in children, but developing specific interventions targeting negative PEP immediately after a social stressor may be necessary to further increase treatment efficacy.
... Anxiety is a common disorder which refers to a significant and persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations, [1][2][3] and it usually begins during the period of adolescence. [4] Anxiety can lead to significant impairments in social functioning, impaired peer relations, social skills deficit, [5][6][7][8] and comorbid psychological disorders. [9] Students suffering from anxiety usually have fewer and poor quality friendships and delayed or impaired romantic relationships. ...
Background:
Anxiety is a common disorder which refers to a significant and persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations. This study investigated the impacts of cognitive-behavioral intervention on anxiety and depression among undergraduate students enrolled in social science education programs at public universities in the Southeast Nigeria.
Methods:
Participants were 55 undergraduate students enrolled in social science education programs at public universities in the Southeast Nigeria. The adequacy of the sample size used was determined using GPower software. Cognitive-behavioral treatment manuals on anxiety and depression were used to deliver the intervention. Data analyses were completed using repeated measures analysis of variance.
Results:
Results indicated a significant positive impact of cognitive-behavioral intervention on anxiety and depression among social science education students exposed to the cognitive-behavioral intervention when compared to the waitlisted group. Results also showed that there was a significant time × group interaction for anxiety and depression. Follow-up tests showed that significant reduction in anxiety and depression persisted after 3 months for the cognitive-behavioral intervention group in comparison to the waitlisted control group.
Conclusion:
We concluded that cognitive-behavioral intervention was a successful intervention which decreased the symptoms of anxiety and depression in social science education students who participated in the study. Additional studies are recommended to further corroborate the influence of cognitive-behavioral intervention in the reduction of anxiety and depressive symptoms in the Nigerian undergraduate student population.
... Children experiencing anxiety are more vulnerable to cognitive and language impairments and psychopathology such as depression later in life (Beesdo et al. 2009). Further, anxiety in typically developing children has been associated with increased social competence deficits and, thus, has been associated with poorer social outcomes when compared to children without anxiety (Spence et al. 1999). Sleep disturbances associated with childhood anxiety are also well documented (Caporino et al. 2017;Gregory et al. 2011;Gregory and Sadeh 2012;Ivanenko et al. 2006) and can heighten a child's risk of other health complications (Mahrer et al. 2012). ...
Children on the autism spectrum experience high rates of anxiety but little is known about the impact of anxiety on child or parent quality of life (QoL). This study aimed to investigate the relationship between anxiety, autism characteristics, and QoL in children and their parents. Sixty-four parents of children on the spectrum completed questionnaires on their child’s autism characteristics, anxiety symptomatology, and both child (PedsQL) and parent QoL (WHOQoL-BREF). Parents of children with elevated anxiety reported lower child and parent QoL. Regression models highlight specific anxiety subscales as predictive of PedsQL school and emotional functioning but not of parent QoL. Anxiety symptomatology may be a significant factor contributing to specific aspects of QoL for children on the spectrum.
Background and aims
Smartphone addiction is a global problem, especially among college students, and has brought many kinds of harm to college students. Previous studies have confirmed the risk factors of smartphone addiction, but the effects of social anxiety and depressive symptoms on smartphone addiction and the potential mediating mechanisms have not been fully explored. The focus of this study is to clarify the influence of social anxiety on smartphone addiction and the mediating role of depressive symptoms in this relationship to help college administrators formulate smartphone addiction prevention programs for college students.
Methods
This study conducted a questionnaire survey on 3,379 college students from different universities in China. They completed the Social Anxiety Scale, Beck Depression Inventory-II, and Smartphone Addiction Scale. Then, This study used the SPSS Macro program PROCESS v 4.0 to test the mediation model.
Results
Statistical analysis showed that social anxiety, depressive symptoms, and smartphone addiction were all positively correlated. We further found that social anxiety had a predictive effect on smartphone addiction, and depressive symptoms played a complete mediating role in the relationship between social anxiety and smartphone addiction among college students.
Discussion and conclusion
This research emphasizes the importance of considering social anxiety and depressive symptoms when studying the underlying mechanisms of smartphone addiction among college students, thereby offering valuable insights for devising intervention strategies aimed at mitigating addictive behaviors in this population.
Purpose
This paper aims to specifically analyze the interrelationships of employee political skill and personal reputation with both workplace and non-workplace outcomes. The study further focuses on performance and career development as workplace outcomes and entrepreneurial intentions as a non-workplace outcome, while analyzing employee political skill and personal reputation.
Design/methodology/approach
The study uses a survey method, where multi-source data were collected in a time-lagged fashion from the employees working in the textile sector in an under-researched emerging economy setting of Pakistan.
Findings
The findings establish that political skill is a significant predictor of employee job performance, career development and entrepreneurial intentions. Moreover, the mediating role of personal reputation was confirmed for the proposed relationships. Hence, the findings highlight the contributory role of personal reputation in the enhancement of workplace and non-workplace outcomes, such as entrepreneurial intentions linked to political skill.
Research limitations/implications
Despite some limitations, this paper offers theoretical implications both for political skill and indirect reciprocity literature. A vital theoretical contribution is extended by studying the mediating role of personal reputation in the main relationships analyzed in this paper. The scope of indirect reciprocity is expanded by identifying personal reputation as a vital mechanism for indirect reciprocity.
Practical implications
Organizations should focus on developing political skill amongst their employees, as these skills are salient for amassing a favorable reputation, that eventually leads to performance, career growth and development of entrepreneurial intentions. Organizations should put in place careful selection and coaching and mentoring programs that equip employees with such skills that eventually lead toward the alignment of employees’ personal goals and organizational goals. Employees, then, could focus on priming both organizational and personal goals.
Originality/value
This paper is one of the pioneering studies that specifically link employee political skill with job performance, career development and entrepreneurial intentions, especially in the relatively volatile and under-researched context of Pakistan. Another novelty of this research is the investigation of personal reputation as a psychological mechanism underlying the primary relationships proposed in this research.
: يهدف البحث الحالي إلى اختبار تأثير نظرية المؤامرة التنظيمية في القلق الإستراتيجي، فضلاً عن تشخيص مستوى اهتمام متغيرات الدراسة وأبعادها، ولتحقيق أهداف الدراسة تم صياغة أنموذج فرضي يعكس فرضيات البحث، إذ تكون من متغيرين رئيسين، يمثل المتغير المستقل نظرية المؤامرة التنظيمية وتم قياسها بصورة مجتمعة، في حين كان المتغير التابع القلق الإستراتيجي بأبعاده (الخوف من المستقبل، الاضطرابات الاجتماعية، التهديدات والتعارض التنافسي)، واعُتمد المنهج الوصفي الاستطلاعي وتم توزيع استمارة الاستبيان كأداة رئيسة لجمع البيانات، إذ طبقت الدراسة في مديرية شرطة محافظة ميسان كميدان للبحث فكان مجتمع الدراسة جميع الضباط العاملين في المديرية والبالغ عددهم (725) ضابط. أما عينة الدراسة فكانت عينة قصديه تكونت من (251) ضابط وفق المعادلة الإحصائية وزعت عليهم أداة القياس لاستطلاع آرائهم حول متغيرات الدراسة، وأستعمل عدد من البرامج الإحصائية المتمثلة بـ(SPSS V.24, SMART PLS V.3.3) لتحليل البيانات واختبار الفرضيات السبعة الرئيسة الفرضيات الفرعية المنبثقة عنها، وقد أظهرت نتائج التحليل الإحصائي صحة فرضيات الدراسة فضلاً عن عدد من النتائج كأن أبرزها وجود تأثير معنوي لنظرية المؤامرة التنظيمية في القلق الإستراتيجي.
The transition to adolescence may be a challenging time for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This developmental period is marked by increased social demands and increasing anxiety and depression symptoms for many individuals with autism. As both of these factors may compound social difficulties and impact friendship experiences, this study explored the relations among autism symptom severity, internalizing symptoms, and friendship experiences in boys with and without ASD (with IQ > 75). Results showed that internalizing symptoms predicted quantity of close friendships in the ASD group. Given the observed relationship between internalizing symptoms and friendship experiences, social skills intervention programs should address possible internalizing symptoms associated with establishing/maintaining social relationships and perceived friendship quality.
Social anxiety severely impacts adolescents’ social interactions with others; however, the underlying neural mechanism has not been revealed. This study examined how adolescent's social anxiety level influences the interbrain synchrony within adolescent-parent dyads during emotional processing by using electroencephalograph (EEG) hyperscanning. A sample of 25 adolescent-parent dyads completed the picture processing task. Adolescents’ ages ranged from 10 to 14 years old. The results showed that (1) at parietal areas, greater gamma interbrain synchrony was observed in the high social anxiety adolescent-parent dyads (HSAs) than the low social anxiety adolescent-parent dyads (LSAs) in the positive conditions. However, greater gamma interbrain synchrony of the picture processing task was observed in the LSAs than the HSAs in the negative conditions. (2) Compared with the neutral condition, LSAs induced greater interbrain synchronization in the negative condition than in the neutral condition at central and parietal areas. However, HSAs induced greater interbrain synchronization in the positive condition than in the negative condition at parietal areas. (3) HSAs induced greater interbrain synchronization at parietal areas than in the central areas in positive conditions. The results provide neurological evidence that the way parent and adolescent process different emotions in the same emotional episode could be affected by the adolescent's anxiety level.
Background:
Social competence training for individuals with comorbid autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) and intellectual disability was scarce and had methodological limitations in sample sizes and outcome measures.
Aims:
The current study addressed the limitations and reported a social competence intervention for adolescents and adults with ASD and intellectual disability in Hong Kong, the CBT-CSCA (Mild Intellectual Disability).
Materials & methods:
Thirty-three participants (aged 14-44 years, with an FSIQ 55-70) completed the 15-session intervention in a community centre. A pre-post intervention design was employed. Outcome measures included proxy-ratings on participants' social competence, autistic symptoms and behavioural problem, and participants' weekly self-evaluation on knowledge acquisition and confidence in applying skills.
Results:
Significant improvements were shown in proxy-reported negative social behaviours, autistic symptoms and overall behavioural problems. Participants also reported satisfactory knowledge gain and confidence in applying content learnt after each session.
Discussion:
The CBT-CSCA (Mild Intellectual Disability) is based on an established model and validated studies on ASD population. It demonstrated its applicability and emerging effectiveness in individuals with ASD and mild intellectual disability.
Conclusion:
The study supports that social competence training remains a centrality intervention approach for individuals with ASD and intellectual disability.
Importance:
Social deficits are a common and disabling feature of many pediatric disorders; however, whether behavioral interventions are associated with benefits for children and adolescents with social deficits is poorly understood.
Objective:
To assess whether behavioral interventions in children and adolescents with neurodevelopmental or mental health disorders are associated with improvements in social function and social cognition, and whether patient, intervention, and methodological characteristics moderate the association.
Data sources:
For this systematic review and meta-analysis, the PsycINFO, MEDLINE, and PubMed electronic databases were searched in December 2020 for randomized clinical trials published from database inception to December 1, 2020, including terms related to neurodevelopmental or mental health disorders, social behavior, randomized clinical trials, and children and adolescents. Data were analyzed in January 2021.
Study selection:
Randomized clinical trials that enrolled participants aged 4 to 17 years with social deficits and examined the efficacy of a clinician-administered behavioral intervention targeting social functioning or social cognition were included. A total of 9314 records were identified, 78 full texts were assessed for eligibility, and 33 articles were included in the study; 31 of these reported social function outcomes and 12 reported social cognition outcomes.
Data extraction and synthesis:
Articles were reviewed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Assessment for randomized clinical trials. Data were independently extracted and pooled using a weighted random-effects model.
Main outcomes and measures:
The main outcome was the association of behavioral intervention with social function and social cognition. Hedges g was used to measure the standardized mean difference between intervention and control groups. Standardized effect sizes were calculated for the intervention group vs the comparison group for each trial.
Results:
A total of 31 trials including 2131 participants (1711 [80%] male; 420 [20%] female; mean [SD] age, 10.8 [2.2] years) with neurodevelopmental or mental health disorders (autism spectrum disorder [ASD] [n = 23], attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [n = 4], other conditions associated with social deficits [n = 4]) were analyzed to examine differences in social function between the intervention and control groups. Significantly greater gains in social function were found among participants who received an intervention than among the control groups (Hedges g, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.40-0.83; P < .001). The type of control condition (wait list vs active control vs treatment as usual) was a significant moderator of effect size (Q2, 7.11; P = .03). Twelve studies including 487 individuals with ASD (48 [10%] female; 439 [90%] male; mean [SD] age, 10.4 [1.7] years) were analyzed to examine differences in social cognition between intervention and control groups. The overall mean weighted effect was significant (Hedges g, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.39-0.96; P < .001), indicating the treatment groups had better performance on social cognitive tasks.
Conclusions and relevance:
In this systematic review and meta-analysis, significantly greater gains in social function and social cognition were reported among children and adolescents who received behavioral interventions for social deficits compared with participants receiving the control conditions. These findings suggest that children and adolescents with social deficits might benefit from social skills training regardless of their specific neurodevelopmental or mental health diagnosis.
Research has established that children with high levels of early behavioral inhibition (BI) – a subdued, timid, fearful response to novel or mildly challenging stimuli or events – are at an elevated risk for social anxiety in later childhood and adolescence. Yet, substantial heterogeneity has been documented in those developmental trajectories; consequently, understanding factors that moderate children’s paths from early BI to social anxiety is an important goal. We proposed that the association between children’s BI at toddler age and social anxiety at early school age is (a) mediated by their BI at preschool age, and (b) moderated by the level of social understanding, or Theory of Mind (ToM). In 102 typically developing community children, we observed BI in the laboratory at age 2 and 4.5 in “Risk Room” paradigms and assessed ToM at age 4.5 and 5.5 using false belief tasks. Mothers and fathers rated children’s social anxiety symptoms at age 6.5. We supported the proposed moderated mediation model, with the path from BI at age 2 to BI at age 4.5 to social anxiety at age 6.5 unfolding only for children whose ToM abilities were relatively low, but not for those whose ToM abilities were relatively high. Results also supported a curvilinear relation between ToM and social anxiety, which highlights the risk of elevated social anxiety for children with extremely low ToM abilities. Taken together, proficiency in mindreading may help inhibited children navigate social environments and thus reduce risks for social anxiety.
Anxiety is one of the most common forms of child psychopathology associated with persistent impairment across the lifespan. Therefore, investigating mechanisms that underlie anxiety in early childhood may improve prevention and intervention efforts. Researchers have linked selective attention toward threat (i.e., attentional bias to threat) with the development of anxiety. However, previous work on attentional bias has used less reliable, reaction time (RT)‐based measures of attention. Additionally, few studies have used eye‐tracking to measure attentional bias in young children. In the present study, we investigated the psychometric properties of an eye‐tracking measure of attentional bias in a sample of young children between 6‐ and 9‐years‐old and explored if trait and clinical anxiety were related to attentional biases to threat. Results showed good psychometric properties for threat and neutral attentional biases, comparable to those found in adult eye‐tracking studies. Temperamental and clinical anxiety did not significantly relate to threat/neutral dwell time and attentional biases. The significance of these null findings was discussed in relation to existing developmental theories of attentional biases. Future studies should explore if temperamental or clinical anxiety prospectively predict threat attentional bias and the onset of anxiety in older children using a longitudinal design.
Uvod: Samoodređenje osoba sa intelektualnom ometenošću predstavlja predmet velikog broja inostranih studija tokom poslednjih decenija, dok je u našoj sredini ta tema nedovoljno istražena. Studije ukazuju da na ispoljavanje samoodređenog ponašanja mogu uticati različiti personalni činioci, među kojima su i socijalne veštine. Cilj: Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je utvrđivanje značajnosti povezanosti između nivoa razvijenosti samoodređenja kod osoba sa lakom intelektualnom ometenošću i umerenom intelektualnom ometenošću i njihovih socijalnih veština. Metode: Uzorak je činilo 128 ispitanika sa lakom i umerenom intelektualnom ometenošću, oba pola, starosti od 21 do 58 godina (AS = 33.77, SD = 9.27). Samoodređenje je ispitano primenom Skale samoodređenja, dok su podaci o socijalnim veštinama prikupljeni primenom tri podskale (domen Socijalizacija) Vinelandove skale adaptivnog ponašanja. Rezultati: Rezultati su pokazali da osobe sa lakom intelektualnom ometenošću imaju statistički značajno viši ukupan nivo samoodređenja i socijalnih veština, u poređenju sa osobama sa umerenom intelektualnom ometenošću. Statistički značajna povezanost između nivoa samoodređenja i nivoa socijalnih veština, posmatrana kroz ukupne skorove na primenjenim instrumentima, utvrđena je za poduzorak osoba sa umerenom intelektualnom ometenošću, ali ne i za poduzorak osoba sa lakom intelektualnom ometenošću. Utvrđeni obrasci povezanosti između pojedinih komponenata samoodređenja i domena socijalnih veština ukazali su na specifičnosti veze između ova dva koncepta za svaki od poduzoraka. Zaključak: Dobijeni rezultati upućuju na potrebu za detaljnim istraživanjem nivoa i profila samoodređenja i socijalnih veština kod osoba sa različitim nivoom težine intelektualne ometenosti, kao i za pažljivim tumačenjem povezanosti ispitivanih varijabli.
Er bestaan verschillende interventies om het inlevingsvermogen, ook wel theory of mind (ToM) vaardigheden genoemd bij kinderen met autismespectrumstoornis (ASS) te verbeteren. In het hier besproken onderzoek zijn kinderen met ASS (7–12 jaar oud; n = 140) willekeurig toegewezen aan een wachtlijstcontrole of een ToM-training. In de ToM-training werden gedurende acht weken groepslessen aangeboden, waarin de kinderen vaardigheden leerden, zoals emotieherkenning, verbeelding, begrip van misleiding en humor. Uitkomst maten na acht weken waren ToM- en emotiebegriptaken, en ouder- en leerkrachtvragenlijsten over sociaal gedrag. Na drie maanden vond een follow-upmeting plaats in de trainingsgroep. De training bleek een positief effect te hebben op ToM-begrip, dat ook na drie maanden nog te zien was. Ook ouders rapporteerden verbeteringen op het gebied van sociale vaardigheden. Deze waren met name zichtbaar bij algemene en aan ASS gerelateerde vaardigheden, maar de verbetering in concrete ToM-gerelateerde vaardigheden was gering. Leerkrachten rapporteerden geen effect van de training op sociaal gedrag. De ToM-training verbetert met name het inzicht van kinderen, maar effecten zijn ook zichtbaar in alledaags gedrag. In dit artikel wordt een overzicht gegeven van de bevindingen bij de afsluiting van de trial en wordt een nieuwe, blended versie van de ToM-training geïntroduceerd: de ToM‑e training.
Introduction: Self-efficacy beliefs and negative self-referent cognitions can have a significant role in the general performance of individuals and in particular their social position. The aim of this study was to investigate the mediation role of Self-efficacy beliefs on the relationship between negative self-statements and social anxiety. Method: The Present study was a descriptive correlational design of a type path analysis. The society of this study consisted of all high school students of Gotvand Township in the academic year 2011-2012. In this study, 318 high schools students (196 girl and 122 boy; mean 16/26) were selected randomly by a multi-stage random cluster sampling. The results were interpreted using Pearson correlation and path analysis. The data were collected by using the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Children (SEQ-C), Self-Efficacy for Social Situations Scale (SESS), Negative Affectivity Self-Statement (NASSQ) and Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SASA). Results: Results show that there is significant negative correlation between self-efficacy beliefs (general and social) and social anxiety. Negative self-statements had a significant positive correlation with social anxiety. It has been seen that there was a significant negative correlation between negative self-statements and self-efficacy beliefs (general and social). Path analysis indicated a good fitness for the model and results revealed that negative self-statements have a significant indirect effect on social anxiety by the mediation of self-efficacy beliefs (general and social). Conclusion: According to the findings, it can be said that self-referent cognitions influencbeleifs about general and special abilities and can also increase or decrease overall rates of social anxiety.
This study investigated the relationship between childhood anxiety disorders, the valence and content of self-statements, and the impact of treatment on the internal dialogue. Participants (151 8- to 13-year-olds) included 71 youth with anxiety disorders and 80 control participants. Positive and negative self-statements and a states-of-mind (SOM) ratio were examined. Results indicated that the negative self-statements and SOM ratio (but not positive self-statements) of children with anxiety disorders significantly predicted anxiety. Results also indicated that negative (but not positive cognition) and SOM ratio predicted improvement in anxiety after treatment and mediated treatment gains. Results of analyses to explore the content specificity hypothesis were mixed. The impact of negative self-talk on children's anxious symptomatology and favorable treatment outcome is discussed.
Examined the factor structure, internal reliabilities, and concurrent validity of a revised form of the Social Anxiety Scale for Children (SASC-R) with fourth through sixth graders (N = 587). Factor analysis on a subsample (n = 459) yielded three factors: Fear of Negative Evaluation From Peers, Social Avoidance and Distress Specific to New Situations, and Generalized Social Avoidance and Distress. Confirmatory factor analysis with another subsample (n = 128)revealed a good fit for the three-factor model of social anxiety. In addition, high-socially-anxious children perceived their social acceptance and global self-worth to be low. Neglected and rejected children reported more social anxiety than accepted classmates. The data support the reliability and validity of the SASC-R.
Twenty-eight subjects meeting Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (rev. 3rd ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1987) criteria for social phobia and without a comorbid affective disorder and 33 nonclinical controls were asked to present a brief, impromptu speech to a small audience. Speakers themselves, as well as members of the audience, rated each speaker on a public speaking questionnaire that included both specific items (e.g., voice shook) and global items (e.g., appeared confident). For global items, no significant difference was indicated between the two groups on observers' ratings of public speaking performance. However, social phobics rated their own performance worse than did nonclinical controls, and there was a significantly greater discrepancy between self and other ratings for social phobics than controls. Fear of negative evaluation was the only significant predictor of the self-other discrepancy on global items.
Test-retest reliabilities of the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale over 1- and 5-wk. intervals were examined for two samples of students, 73 boys and 88 girls in regular sixth, seventh and eighth grade classrooms (11 yr. to 14 yr). For raw scores the test-retest Pearson r was .88 (1-wk.) and .77 (5-wk.), indicating good reliability. For both samples there was a small difference between test (12.2 for 1-wk. sample; 11.4 for 5-wk. sample) and retest (11.2 for 1-wk. sample; 9.8 for 5-wk. sample) mean raw scores. Implications for test use are discussed.
Compared the level of physiological reactivity and frequency of negative cognitions in 26 nonclinic, socially anxious (SA) Ss (mean age 20.8 yrs), 17 clinic SA patients (mean age 40.8 yrs), and 26 nonsocially anxious (NSA) Ss (mean age 22.0 yrs) to investigate the consistency of cognitive and physiological reactivity in the assessment of social anxiety. A social interaction self-statement test served as the cognitive measure. Physiological reactivity was monitored continuously throughout Ss' completion of the following behavioral tasks: an unstructured interpersonal interaction with an opposite-sex confederate, a similar interaction with a same-sex confederate, and an impromptu talk on a topic selected by the S. The clinic and nonclinic samples of SA Ss differed significantly from the NSA Ss in level of physiological reactivity and type of cognition. There were no significant differences between the 2 anxious groups. The results indicate that both thoughts and physiological reactivity were influenced by situational parameters. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The development of a new, comprehensive and multicomponent treatment for social phobia is described. Initial results of a pilot study with the new treatment also are reported. The treatment was found to be effective with severe (generalized) social phobics, most of whom had co-occurring Axis I and/or II conditions. In addition to significant change on a host of outcome variables, a normative-based endstate functioning index was used to determine treatment efficacy. The results are discussed with respect to the implementation of the treatment and in terms of the need for a comprehensive approach to treating social phobia.
This study investigated cognition in children with high, moderate, and low test anxiety under naturalistic test-taking conditions. Children with high test anxiety not only reported more negative self-evaluations and more off-task thoughts but also more on-task and coping thoughts. Consistent with previous research, no "task-facilitating" role for these on-task and coping cognitions was found. This finding lends support to the notion of "the power of non-negative thinking". The only facilitating role was for positive self-evaluations. It was hypothesized that positive cognition could be task-facilitating under certain conditions. Limited support was found for this idea.
Judgmental biases for threat-relevant stimuli are thought to be important mechanisms underlying the etiology and maintenance of anxiety disorders. The authors hypothesized (a) that people with generalized social phobia (GSP) would rate negative social events but not nonsocial events as more probable and costly than would nonanxious controls (NACs) and (b) that cognitive behavioral treatment would decrease probability and cost estimates for social but not nonsocial events. Participants with GSP and NACs were assessed twice, 14 weeks apart, during which the former received cognitive behavioral therapy. Those with GSP evidenced socially relevant judgmental biases prior to treatment, and these were attenuated following treatment. Reduction in cost estimates for social events, but not in probability estimates, mediated improvement in social phobia. Results are discussed in light of emotional processing theory.
It is normal for children to experience fears and anxieties during childhood. When fear and anxiety interfere with the child’s day-to-day existence and development, however, the situation has become abnormal and evaluation and intervention are required. The terms “anxiety,” “fear,” and “phobia” are often used interchangeably by the lay person, though they can have different meanings to the clinician. Anxiety is often thought of as a more generalized symptom with wider influence over a child’s personality and daily functioning and can progress from symptom to disorder or even originate as such. Fear is associated with events that are more situation-specific. If any specific fear grows to become particularly intense and anxiety-producing, resulting in dysfunctional avoidant behavior and cognitive and physiological changes, it is termed a phobia. In this chapter, “phobia” is subsumed under the term “fear,” though it goes beyond the level of normal fears that may be entirely appropriate or adaptive (e.g., a fear of snakes may be appropriate and even adaptive, but not if no snakes are present and a child refuses to leave his or her room for fear of encountering a snake).
Anxiety disorders like separation anxiety disorder, specific phobia, social phobia and generalized anxiety disorder are highly prevalent in children and adolescents. If left untreated, it can interfere with emotional, social, and school functioning. Comorbid disorders such as major depressive episode or multiple anxiety disorders have to be recognized by detailed medical history and individual psychological testing. The main therapeutic interventions consist of cognitive-behavioral therapy, family therapy and pharmacological treatment with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. If treated properly anxiety disorders in children and adolescents have good prognostic outcome.
This study examined the degree to which anxiety symptoms among children cluster into subtypes of anxiety problems consistent with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edition) classification of anxiety disorders. Two community samples of 698 children 8-12 years of age completed a questionnaire regarding the frequency with which they experienced a wide range of anxiety symptoms. Confirmatory factor analysis of responses from Cohort 1 indicated that a model involving 6 discrete but correlated factors, reflecting the areas of panic-agoraphobia, social phobia, separation anxiety, obsessive-compulsive problems, generalized anxiety, and physical fears, provided an excellent fit of the data. The high level of covariance between latent factors was satisfactorily explained by a higher order model in which each 1st-order factor loaded on a single 2nd-order factor. The findings were replicated with Cohort 2 and were equivalent across genders.
In this study, the relationship between a self-report measure of assertive behavior in children, the Children's Assertiveness Inventory, and a role-play measure of assertive behavior, the Revised Behavioral Assertiveness Test for Children, was examined in 69 elementary school children. Measures of assertive responding to positive (initiating interactions/giving and receiving compliments) and negative (standing up for one's own rights/refusing unreasonable requests) situations were obtained for both self-report and role-play measures. Results suggest that self-report of positive assertion is more closely related to role-play measures and expert ratings of assertiveness than is self-report of negative assertion. Results are discussed in terms of relationship between assertive behavior and aggressive behavior in children and the need to "unbind" these two notions in future studies. Developmental issues which limit the finings are also addressed.
The primary purpose of this study was to examine the social validity of the Revised Behavioral Assertiveness Test for Children (BAT-CR). In Part I, 38 children responded to the BAT-CR. Responses were videotaped and retrospectively coded for components of assertiveness and rated for overall assertiveness by expert judges. In Part II, child "judges" viewed these videotapes and rated the taped children on likeability. Results revealed that while components like eye contact, response length, and verbal requests for new behavior were related systematically to expert ratings of assertiveness, they were either not related or related differentially to child ratings of likeability. Further, boy judges differed systematically from girl judges. Such findings question the social validity of the component approach. In addition, they question whether we may be teaching skills that are useful and important from an adult's perspective, but less so from a child's viewpoint.
Examined the relatedness of a variety of measures commonly used to identify social interaction in children. 82 8–10 yr olds were administered measures of direct social interaction, peer sociometric ratings, teacher ratings, role-play assertion, the Children's Assertiveness Inventory, Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children. These measures were intercorrelated and then employed in multiple regression analyses to predict social interaction skills. For females, sociometric ratings, teacher ratings, negative role-play assertion, and self-report assertion were found to predict 83% of the social interaction variance. For males, sociometric ratings, teacher ratings, positive role-play assertion, and self-report anxiety accounted for 72% of the social interaction variance. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for developing an integrated, cost-effective screening procedure for socially dysfunctional children. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
reviews the small existing literature and the growing body of research in progress to detail the current state of the art in conceptualizing, assessing, and treating social anxiety disorders in young people / begins with a discussion of the descriptive features of these disorders with special emphasis on the impact of changes appearing in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV (DSM-IV) / 2nd, current conceptualizations of social anxiety disorders in young people are reviewed, and their implications for assessment and treatment design are discussed / 3rd, available assessment techniques are reviewed / 4th, state-of-the-art treatment approaches are discussed / 2 case examples [of a 12-yr-old boy presenting with social withdrawal from school and a 14-yr-old girl with social anxiety] are described (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Willard W. Hartup This volume amounts to an anniversary collection: It was 50 years ago that Lois Jack (1934) published the findings from what most investigators consider to be the first intervention study in this area. The experiment (later replicated and extended by Marjorie Page, 1936, and Gertrude Chittenden, 1942) concerned ascendant behavior in preschool children, which was defined to include: (a) The pursuit of one's own purposes against interference and (b) directing the behavior of others. Individual differences in ascendance were assumed to have some stability across time and, hence, to be important in personality development. But ascendance variations were also viewed as a function of the immediate situation. Among the conditions assumed to determine ascendance were "the individual's status in the group as expressed in others' attitudes toward him, his conception of these attitudes, and his previously formed social habits" (Jack, 1934, p. 10). Dr. Jack's main interest was to show that nonascendant children, identified on the basis of observations in the laboratory with another child, were different from their more ascendant companions in one important respect: They lacked self confidence. And, having demonstrated that, Dr. Jack devised a procedure for teaching the knowledge and skill to nonascendant children that the play materials required. She guessed, correctly, that this training would bring about an increase in the ascendance scores of these children.
The purpose of this paper is to present the psychometric properties and individual items comprising the Children's Assertive Behavior Scale (CABS). The CABS is a behaviorally designed self-report instrument for children which measures general and specific social skills and covers many socially relevant situations which are problematic for children. Acceptable psychometric properties of the 27-item test were obtained in several independent investigations across both geographical regions and grade levels. The CABS showed significant concurrent validity with peer, parent, and teacher measures of social competency. The CABS also discriminated trained versus untrained children participating in social skills versus a placebo discussion group. The instrument is presented, along with recommendations for future applications and research.
The present study examined the use of inhibiting and facilitating self-statements (i.e., self-statements that make it harder or easier to deliver an effective social response) in groups of withdrawn (n = 33), aggressive (n = 32), and popular (n = 27) children. These self-statements were studied across two types of interpersonal situations (resolving conflict, initiating social interactions) and two levels of interpersonal relationship (friend, stranger). Results indicated that popular children made significantly more facilitating than inhibiting responses than aggressive or withdrawn children, who did not differ from one another. In addition, results indicated a tendency for children in all three status levels to endorse more facilitating than inhibiting self-statements in situations involving friends (vs. strangers) and the initiating of social behavior (vs. conflict situations). Finally, a Relationship Situation interaction was found, indicating significantly more facilitating self-statements than inhibiting self-statements for all three groups in situations involving initiating interactions with friends.
Cognitive features of social anxiety and dysphoria were examined with a design that allowed for evaluation of each state alone and in combination. From a community sample of 211 8 to 12 year olds, four groups of children were defined based on previous researcher's criteria: mixed (high socially anxious-dysphoric;n= 14), socially anxious (high socially anxiousnondysphoric;n= 14), dysphoric (non-socially anxious-dysphoric;n= 13), and control (non-socially anxious-nondysphoric;n= 14). The negative cognitive triad and negative cognitions pertaining to the self were associated with both dysphoria and social anxiety. Both dysphoric and socially anxious groups reported significantly more cognitive distortions than the control group, yet cognitive distortions of overgeneralizing and personalizing were specific to social anxiety and not dysphoria. Both dysphoric and socially anxious groups reported significantly more depressive cognitions than the control group, and evidence of cognitive content-specificity emerged only for anxiety, although there was some evidence for depressive content-specificity in the mother's ratings. The mixed group was the most dysfunctional on all of the cognitive measures. This study provided some evidence of cognitive-specificity as well as the confounding between the affective states of dysphoria and social anxiety. Methodological, theoretical, and treatment implications are highlighted.
Social phobics, anxious controls and non-patient controls took part in a brief videotaped conversation with a stooge in order to investigate the cognitive model of social phobia. Thoughts, behaviour, and attention during the conversation were assessed. Compared to the control groups, social phobics had more negative self-evaluative thoughts, performed less well, and systematically underestimated their performance. There were no differences in attention between the three groups. Content analysis of thought sampling data from the conversation, and from three hypothetical situations, revealed that few of the negative thoughts reported by social phobics explicitly mentioned evaluation by other people. This suggests that social phobics may not closely monitor other people's responses in social situations and hence that their thoughts are not data driven. The results are discussed in relation to the cognitive model of social phobia and suggestions are made for improvements in the treatment of social phobia.
Despite considerable theorizing and clinical application, cognitive features of child anxiety disorders have received little empirical attention. Studies have yet to use diagnosed anxiety-disordered samples, and few studies have used multiple cognitive assessment measures, an important factor for establishing validity. The present paper (a) provides an overview of methodological issues in the assessment of cognition, (b) examines the existing literature on circumscribed fears such as test-anxiety, dental, or medical fears, drawing a distinction between two cognitive categories (valence of cognition and coping strategies), and (c) considers the benefits and limitations of self-statement questionnaires and thought-listing procedures. With regard to the valence of cognition and the role of coping self-talk, we examine different assessment methods and report preliminary data based on diagnosed cases of 9- to 14-year- old anxiety-disordered youth seeking treatment at the Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders Clinic (CAADC). Discussion includes the tendency for anxious children to “fake good” and their excessive and nonfunctional use of coping self-talk. Difficulties in the assessment of cognition in anxious children are also discussed.
Clinical reports suggest that anxiety states are associated with cognitions concerning danger. Since judgements of the risk of an event are thought to be influenced by judgemental heuristics such as availability of cognitive representations of such events, it was hypothesised that anxious individuals should overestimate subjective personal risk. This was confirmed in a comparison with matched control subjects, although patients who were also depressed as well as anxious over-estimated risks to at least the same extent. Results were interpreted as supporting an interaction between anxiety and the availability of ‘danger schemata’.
The effects of social-skills training consisting of instructions, feedback, behavior rehearsal, and modelling were examined in a multiple-baseline analysis in four unassertive children. The treatment was effective in that the behaviors selected for modification changed markedly. The effects of treatment generalized from trained to untrained items (interpersonal situations requiring assertive responding) and gains were maintained at the two-and four-week followup probe sessions. In addition, overall assertiveness in all subjects increased from baseline assessment to the conclusion of treatment and into followup.
Epidemiological data indicate that, based on current diagnostic criteria, anxiety disorders are the most common childhood disorders. Furthermore, the comorbidity rate among the various diagnostic categories is quite high, and relatively little attention has been given to delineating the specific and distinct parameters of these disorders. The current study examined the characteristics of overanxious disorder and social phobia by comparing children who have these disorders to matched normal controls. The results indicated that children with social phobia could be differentiated from the other groups, based on self-report inventories, daily diary data, and a psychophysiological assessment. However, there were few variables that distinguished overanxious children. The results provide strong support for the diagnostic validity of social phobia in children but lesser support for overanxious disorder as currently defined.
The reliability of DSM-III/DSM-III-R childhood anxiety disorder diagnoses was determined using a new semistructured interview, the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children child and parent versions (ADIS-C and ADIS-P). The interviewer-observer paradigm was used. Pairs of independent clinicians examined 51 outpatients and their mothers and assigned independent primary and secondary diagnoses. Product-moment correlations were calculated between pairs of raters and by computing kappa coefficients, based upon perfect matches on primary diagnoses. Both overlap and differences were evident in the anxiety disorders diagnosed. Agreement between clinicians was moderate to high, with the exception of overanxious disorder. The latter resulted in a low kappa coefficient based upon the child interview data only. Reasons for diagnostic disagreements between the parent and child interviews are discussed.
The evidence for the skills deficit and response inhibition models of social anxiety is reviewed. Evidence inconsistent with both hypotheses suggests that social anxiety may be better considered from a cognitive-behavioural perspective. There is already evidence that socially anxious patients underestimate their ability to deal with socially threatening situations. In this study it was demonstrated that, compared with matched control subjects, such patients overestimate the probability that unpleasant social events will occur in the first place, and that cognitively oriented treatment produced specific changes in this appraisal.
Investigated the cognitions of 115 low, 126 moderate, and 125 high test-anxious 5th and 6th graders under naturalistic test-taking conditions. 57% of the Ss were female, 88% were White, and 61% were upper middle class. The Ss were classified according to scores on the Test Anxiety Scale for Children. As predicted, high test-anxious Ss showed more task-debilitating cognitions during testing, including more negative self-evaluations and off-task thoughts and fewer positive self-evaluations. High test-anxious Ss also showed relatively high frequencies of on-task thoughts and coping self-statements. The study also examined the role of classroom environment in the test anxiety-performance relation. Relative to their peers, the performance of high test-anxious Ss was debilitated only in classrooms that were high in perceived evaluative threat. Moreover, significant relations between cognitions and mathematic performance were obtained only in high-threat classrooms, and these relations were maintained when the effects of mathematic ability were statistically controlled. It is suggested that future test-anxiety research and clinical intervention might view test anxiety within a broader theoretical context of person-environment fit. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Compared the cognitions of 294 low, moderate, and high test-anxious (the Test Anxiety Scale for Children) 5th and 6th graders in an analog test situation. High test-anxious Ss reported significantly more task-debilitating cognitions than either moderate- or low-anxious Ss, including negative evaluations and off-task thoughts. High test-anxious Ss also reported fewer positive evaluations than low test-anxious Ss, whereas moderately anxious Ss did not differ significantly from either extreme group. It was unexpected that the moderate- and high-anxious groups reported significantly more on-task thoughts than the low-anxious group and did not significantly differ from each other. Both test anxiety and cognitions showed significant although modest relations with actual task performance after the effects of ability were partialled out. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a self-presentation approach to the study of social anxiety that proposes that social anxiety arises when individuals are motivated to make a preferred impression on real or imagined audiences, but perceive or imagine unsatisfactory evaluative reactions from subjectively important audiences. The authors presume that specific situational and dispositional antecedents of social anxiety operate by influencing people's motivation to impress others and their expectations of satisfactorily doing so. In contrast to drive models of anxiety but consistent with social learning theory, it is argued that the cognitive state of the individual mediates both affective arousal and behavior. The traditional inverted-–U relation between anxiety and performance is reexamined in this light. Counseling implications are considered, including the recommendation that treatments be tailored to specific types of self-presentational problems. (142 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study investigated the relationship between childhood anxiety disorders, the valence and content of self-statements, and the impact of treatment on the internal dialogue. Participants (151 8- to 13-year-olds) included 71 youth with anxiety disorders and 80 control participants. Positive and negative self-statements and a states-of-mind (SOM) ratio were examined. Results indicated that the negative self-statements and SOM ratio (but not positive self-statements) of children with anxiety disorders significantly predicted anxiety. Results also indicated that negative (but not positive cognition) and SOM ratio predicted improvement in anxiety after treatment and mediated treatment gains. Results of analyses to explore the content specificity hypothesis were mixed. The impact of negative self-talk on children's anxious symptomatology and favorable treatment outcome is discussed.
The 1956 adaptation for children of Taylor's Manifest Anxiety Scale, the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, was revised to meet current psychometric standards. A 73-item revision draft was administered to 329 school children from grades 1 to 12. Based on item-analysis criteria for r
bis ≥ .4 and .30 ≤ p ≤ .70, 28 anxiety items were retained along with 9 of the original 11 Lie scale items. A cross-validation sample of 167 children from grades 2, 5, 9, 10, and 11 produced a KR20 reliability estimate of .85. Anxiety scores did not differ across grade or race. Females scored significantly higher than males. For the Lie scale, significant differences appeared by grade and race. No sex differences were obtained on the Lie scale. The resulting scale appears useful for children in grades 1 to 12 and may aid in future studies of anxiety as well as assisting the clinician in the understanding of individual children.
The current paper presents a model of the experience of anxiety in social/evaluative situations in people with social phobia. The model describes the manner in which people with social phobia perceive and process information related to potential evaluation and the way in which these processes differ between people high and low in social anxiety. It is argued that distortions and biases in the processing of social/evaluative information lead to heightened anxiety in social situations and, in turn, help to maintain social phobia. Potential etiological factors as well as treatment implications are also discussed.
The Spence Children's Anxiety Scale (SCAS) is a child self-report measure designed to evaluate symptoms relating to separation anxiety, social phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic-agoraphobia, generalized anxiety and fears of physical injury. The results of confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses supported six factors consistent with the hypothesized diagnostic categories. There was support also for a model in which the 1st-order factors loaded significantly on a single 2nd-order factor of anxiety in general. The internal consistency of the total score and subscales was high and 6 month test-retest reliability was acceptable. The SCAS correlated strongly with a frequently used child self-report measure of anxiety. Comparisons between clinically anxious and control children showed significant differences in total SCAS scores, with subscale scores reflecting the type of presenting anxiety disorder of the clinical samples.
Anxiety and self-focussed attention
- M W Eysenck
Eysenck, M. W. (1991). Anxiety and attention. In R. Schwarzer & R. A.
Wicklund (Eds.), Anxiety and self-focussed attention (pp. 125-131).
London: Harwood Academic.
An observational system for measuring reinforcing, neutral and punishing interaction in children
- W Furman
- J C Masters
- D F Rahe
- C Binger
Furman, W., & Masters, J. C. (with the collaboration of Rahe, D. F., &
Binger, C.). (1980). An observational system for measuring reinforcing,
neutral and punishing interaction in children. Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota, Institute of Child Development.
Australian standard classification of occupations dictionary
- G Butler
- A Mathews
Butler, G., & Mathews, A. (1983). Cognitive processes in anxiety. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 5, 51-62.
Department of Employment and Industrial Relations and Australian Bureau of Statistics. (1987). Australian standard classification of occupations dictionary. Canberra, Australian Capital Territory: Australian Government Publishing Service.
Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective
- A T Beck
- G Emery
- R L Greenberg
Beck, A. T., Emery, G., & Greenberg, R. L. (1985). Anxiety disorders and
phobias: A cognitive perspective. New York: Basic Books.
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
A review and reformulation of the concept of social skills
- R M Mcfall
McFall, R. M. (1982). A review and reformulation of the concept of social
skills. Behavioral Assessment, 4, 1-133.
Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV-Child Version: Parent Interview Schedule
- W K Silverman
- A M Albano
Silverman, W. K., & Albano, A. M. (1996). Anxiety Disorders Interview
Schedule for DSM-IV-Child Version: Parent Interview Schedule. San
Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.