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Odors: Implicit Memory and Performance Effects
Abstract
In order to assess the influence of odors on human performance and implicit memory for odors, 108 subjects completed a variety of tests in weakly scented (jasmine, lavender or odorless) rooms without having been made aware of the odor. After a 30 min interval the subjects were shown slides of different surroundings, including the room they had been in, and were requested to rate how well a set of 12 odors, including a blank, would fit to these surroundings. Half of these contexts contained visual cues related to two of the presented odors (leather and coffee). After the rating of fit the subjects had to rate the odors for pleasantness, were asked to identify the odors with their correct names and to tell where and when they had last smelled these odors. One subject remembered smelling the odor (jasmine) in the room and was discarded from the analysis of the results for the rating of fit. None of the others reported recollection of the experimental odors. The results showed that in general jasmine had a negative and lavender a positive effect on test performance. If an odor-related visual cue was present in the context, the related odor was always rated highest in fit to that context. Furthermore, the subjects working in rooms with an odor subsequently assigned this odor to the visual context of that room to a significantly higher degree than subjects working in rooms with different odors. Since none of the subjects reported that they had smelled the odor in the rooms where performance testing took place, it was concluded that the memory for these odors was implicit. Further analysis showed that such memory was only found in subjects who were unable to supply the right name for the odor. The possible consequences of this latter finding for understanding the relationship between sensory (episodic) and semantic odor memory are discussed.
... The subconscious processing of smells has been noted for its capacity to shift behavior (Gustavson et al., 1987;Holland et al., 2005;Mas et al., 2019;Olsson et al., 2006). Several studies have shown correct recollection behaviors without explicit recognition (Degel et al., 2001;Degel & Köster, 1999;Köster, 2002;Olsson & Cain, 2003) and findings suggest that odors alter cognition and behavior largely at a subconscious level (Prehn et al., 2006;Wisman & Shrira, 2015;Ye et al., 2019;Zhou et al., 2014;Zhou & Chen, 2008). Regarding self-other distinction, a study showed that participants were able to distinguish their own and their friends' odors in a three-alternative forced choice task, but only with strikingly low confidence (Lundström et al., 2008). ...
... In fact, participants recollection of having smelled the odors during the procedure was not above chance except for the female gender cosmetic scent. A vast amount of literature suggests that explicit recollection of odors is not as good as are implicit behaviors suggesting recollection (Degel & Köster, 1999;Herz & Engen, 1996;Zucco, 2003). As a result, such responses might be related to poor memory retrieval. ...
Conflicting multisensory signals may alter embodiment to produce self-identification with a foreign body, but the role of olfaction in this process has been overlooked. We studied in healthy participants how sex (male and female sweat odors) and gender (male and female cosmetic scents) olfactory stimuli contribute to embodiment. Participants saw, on a head mounted display, the first-person perspective of a sex mismatching person. Synchronous visuotactile stimulation was applied to enhance illusory embodiment. Simultaneously, they smelled either sex- or gender- congruent or incongruent stimuli. We assessed implicit (skin conductance responses to visual threats) and explicit (questionnaire) measures of embodiment. Stronger responses to threat were found when participants smelled the sex-congruent compared to the sex-incongruent odor, while no such differences were found for the cosmetic scents. According to the questionnaire, embodiment did not differ between conditions. Post-experimental assessment of the presented cues, suggest that while both sweat odors were considered generally male, cosmetic scents were not. The presented scents were generally not associated to the embodied body. Our results suggest that sex-related body odors influence implicit but not explicit aspects of embodiment and are in line with unique characteristics of olfaction in other aspects of cognition.
... It also relieves common cold, flu, angina and bronchitis, and improves liver normal function. 26 It is believed that the use of lavender oil is effective in wound healing and reducing wound infections. Lavender oil affects the wound environment and has antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. ...
... Lavender oil affects the wound environment and has antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. 26 additionally, the combination of lavender extract and honey improved wound healing. 27 A skin cream for dogs and cats made of herbal extracts, one of the ingredients of which is Lavandula officinalis was examined for wound healing in rats and rabbits. ...
Medicinal plants were used as treatment many years ago, and now the raw materials of most medicines are obtained from plants. Recently, due to the lack of side effects, the variety of effective compounds in plants, the development of industries related to the cultivation of medicinal plants, the recommendations of the World Health Organization to use plants, and several other reasons, the use of medicinal plants has been widespread. Numerous studies have been performed to investigate the effects of medicinal plants and microbial flora on wound healing. Previous studies revealed the positive effects of medicinal plants on wound healing compared to other chemical drugs, and a significant reduction in inflammation, acceleration of the healing process, and reduction of oxidative stress were observed following the use of herbal medicines. In this review, the effects of the most important Iranian medicinal plants and microbial flora on wound healing in veterinary medicine have been investigated.
... In fact, the subconscious processing of smells has been noted for its capacity to shift behavior (Gustavson et al., 1987;Holland et al., 2005;Mas et al., 2019;Olsson et al., 2006). Several studies have shown correct recollection behaviors without explicit recognition (Degel et al., 2001;Degel & Köster, 1999;Olsson & Cain, 2003) and findings suggest that odors alter cognition and behavior largely at a subconscious level (Prehn et al., 2006;Wisman & Shrira, 2015;Ye et al., 2019;Zhou et al., 2014;Zhou & Chen, 2008). This is, even when odors are not consciously perceived, they do impact our mood and behavior (Köster, 2002). ...
... In fact, participants recollection of having smelled the odors during the procedure was not above chance except for the female cosmetic scent. A vast amount of literature suggests that explicit recollection of odors is not as good as are implicit behaviors suggesting recollection (Degel & Köster, 1999;Herz & Engen, 1996;Zucco, 2003). As a result, such responses might be related to poor memory retrieval. ...
Research has shown that conflicting multisensory signals may alter embodiment to the point of self-identifying with a foreign body, but the role of olfaction in this process has been overlooked. Here, we study in healthy participants how sex (male and female sweat odors) and gender (male and female cosmetic scents) olfactory stimuli contribute to embodiment. Participants saw from the perspective of a sex mismatching person in virtual reality and received synchronous visuo-tactile stimulation to elicit illusory embodiment of the seen body while smelling either sex- or gender- congruent stimuli. We assessed implicit (skin conductance responses to visual threats) and explicit (questionnaire) measures of embodiment. Stronger responses to threat were found when participants smelled the sex-congruent compared to the sex-incongruent odor, while no such differences were found for the cosmetic scents. According to the questionnaire, embodiment did not differ between conditions. Post-experimental assessment of the presented cues, suggest that while both sweat odors were considered generally male, cosmetic scents were not. The presented scents were generally not associated to the embodied body. Our results suggest that sex-related body odors influence implicit but not explicit aspects of embodiment and are in line with unique characteristics of olfaction in other aspects of cognition.
... Informations conveyed by these subliminal odours can influence also some cognitive processes: it has been shown by Degel and colleagues that they can be used as environmental cues to feed our episodic memory (75,76). In this experiment, subjects were invited in an odourised room (first phase) and they were not aware of the presence of a weak ambiant odour. ...
... It can be also generalised at subliminal olfaction as brain compares stimulus features (hedonicity) and environment congruency (stressful or peaceful environment for example). Some other researchers pointed out also this congruency idea between odour and context (75,277). ...
Certaines études ont montré que des odeurs subliminales – odeurs d'intensité très faible activant le système olfactif mais non perçues consciemment – peuvent impacter le comportement alimentaire. Cependant, les mécanismes sensoriels et cognitifs impliqués dans le traitement des odeurs subliminales demeurent mal connus. Ce travail de thèse avait pour but d'explorer les activations cérébrales induites par des odeurs subliminales au moyen de l'Imagerie par Résonance Magnétique fonctionnelle. Durant les acquisitions IRM, les participants sont exposés à leur insu à deux odeurs présentées à intensité subliminale puis supraliminale. Quatre réseaux cérébraux mis en évidence par Analyse en Composantes Indépendantes s’avèrent spécifiques de la condition subliminale. Ces réseaux ne sont pas propres au traitement des odeurs et semblent liés à des processus attentionnels et de contrôle exécutif. La modulation de leur activité par des odeurs subliminales apporte des éléments nouveaux pour comprendre l’impact de ces odeurs sur le comportement, et suggère des applications possibles d'utilisation de ces odeurs pour réguler le comportement alimentaire.
... There is substantial evidence that implicit learning processes are extremely important to olfactory cognition. Explicit awareness of an odour, for example, may be unnecessary for an odour to become associated with a context in which it is experienced (Degel & Köster, 1999). In fact, being able to explicitly identify an odour may actually inhibit the formation or recall of such associations (Degel & Köster, 1999;Degel, Piper, & Köster, 2001). ...
... Explicit awareness of an odour, for example, may be unnecessary for an odour to become associated with a context in which it is experienced (Degel & Köster, 1999). In fact, being able to explicitly identify an odour may actually inhibit the formation or recall of such associations (Degel & Köster, 1999;Degel, Piper, & Köster, 2001). In other words, higher cognitive processes may have a more limited role in odour learning and memory during the formation of implicit associations. ...
Sensory and consumer research often focuses more on bottom-up than top-down influences on consumers’ perception and acceptance of foods. Yet, cognitive processes create and transform incoming sensory information originating from separate senses, including olfaction, gustation, and somatosensation, into the perception of flavour. The present paper discusses five cognitive processes that affect human chemosensory perception and responses to food flavours: Attention, language, memory, learning, and metacognition. It is argued that each of these processes are important in shaping interactions with food via the chemical senses. Attention moderates perception through its distribution across the environment, fine-tuning it for particular stimuli. Interactions among smells, tastes, and textures are acquired through learning, as are hedonic properties. Language affects food acceptability and preference, as does the memory of prior experiences with a food, even when they are not at a conscious level of processing. Metacognitive knowledge of personal capabilities indirectly influences the results of sensory evaluations. Future sensory and consumer research should take into account the significant role that these cognitive factors play in processing incoming chemosensory information.
... Lavender essential oil, demonstrating neuroprotective effects and promising cognitive improvement, has the anti-AD potential supported by both dementia model rats and clinical studies [29][30][31][32]. However, the material basis for producing anti-AD effects is still unclear, and the mechanism of activity still needs to be elucidated. ...
In the present study, the PC12 cells as a bioassay system were used to screen the small molecules with nerve growth factor (NGF)- mimic effect from Lavandula angustifolia Mill. The β-Cyclocitral (β-cyc) as an active compound was discovered, and its chemical structure was also determined. Furthermore, we focused on the bioactive and action mechanism of this compound to do an intensive study with specific protein inhibitors and Western blotting analysis. The β-cyc had novel NGF-mimic and NGF-enhancer effects on PC12 cells, while the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R)/phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase, (PI3K)/serine/threonine-protein kinase (AKT), and glucocorticoid receptor (GR)/phospholipase C (PLC)/protein kinase C (PKC) signaling pathways were involved in the bioactivity of β-cyc. In addition, the important role of the rat sarcoma (Ras)/protooncogene serine-threonine protein kinase (Raf) signaling pathway was observed, although it was independent of tyrosine kinase (Trk) receptors. Moreover, the non-label target protein discovery techniques, such as the cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) and drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS), were utilized to make predictions of its target protein. The stability of IGF-R and GR, proteins for temperature and protease, was dose-dependently increased after treatment of β-cyc compared with control groups, respectively. These findings indicated that β-cyc promoted the neuron differentiation of PC12 cells via targeting IGF-1R and GR and modification of downstream signaling pathways.
... 10 SCHWARZ, YANG, AND HAMBURGER as we advocate for the exploration of unconscious processes in human olfactory navigation, we recommend referring to Degel and Köster (1999) implicit odor memory task, a methodology that has not yet been applied in spatial navigational contexts. ...
An old misconception led to the belief that humans have a poor sense of smell. The sense of smell is a rather primitive but important sense that our ancestors used for hunting, mating, and survival. Throughout the past decades and even centuries, the importance of this sense for our daily lives has been lost under the assumption that “humans have a bad sense of smell.” Especially in combination with spatial orientation and navigation, the sense of smell is of particular importance in a lot of our close relatives in the animal kingdom. Research on humans reveals an immense gap here compared to research on nonhuman animals. However, there are some findings that suggest that olfaction is also important in human navigation: Olfactory cues are more emotional-laden and memorable than visual cues and it is evolutionary only logical that humans, similar to their close relatives from the animal kingdom, use their sense of smell for orientation as well. Therefore, it is very likely that humans, similar to other animals, use their olfactory system for navigation. The main difference is that humans are not consciously aware of it. As we outline in this review, several findings may explain why olfactory navigation in humans is primarily an implicit process and why it has mainly been neglected in the past. We further give suggestions for future research and how findings in olfactory human navigation can be used for other field outside wayfinding, such as aromatherapy or Alzheimer’s diagnosis.
... Odor memory appears to coexist with memory for other senses, but our task design was only able to demonstrate a long-term memory odor superiority effect in our wayfinding task in terms of unusual resistance. Moreover, the existing literature suggests that odors are likely to be processed implicitly rather than explicitly, as the latter is the case with other senses such as vision (Degel and Köster 1999). This needs to be further investigated in the future studies. ...
Non-human animals are exceptionally good at using smell to find their way through the environment. However, the use of olfactory cues for human navigation is often underestimated. Although the sense of smell is well-known for its distinct connection to memory and emotion, memory effects in human navigation using olfactory landmarks have not been studied yet. Therefore, this article compares wayfinding and recognition performance for visual and olfactory landmarks learned by 52 participants in a virtual maze. Furthermore, it is one of the first empirical studies investigating differences in memory effects on human navigation by using two separate test situations 1 month apart. The experimental task was to find the way through a maze-like virtual environment with either olfactory or visual cues at the intersections that served as decision points. Our descriptive results show that performance was above chance level for both conditions (visual and olfactory landmarks). Wayfinding performance did not decrease 1 month later when using olfactory landmarks. In contrast, when using visual landmarks wayfinding performance decreased significantly, while visual landmarks overall lead to better recognition than olfactory landmarks at both times of testing. The results demonstrate the unique character of human odor memory and support the conclusion that olfactory cues may be used in human spatial orientation. Furthermore, the present study expands the research field of human wayfinding by providing a study that investigates memory for landmark knowledge and route decisions for the visual and olfactory modality. However, more studies are required to put this important research strand forward.
... The use of odors to influence human behavior is widespread in practices like aromatherapies (Tisserand and Balacs, 1996) and marketing (Emsenhuber, 2009). The impact of olfactory information on our behavior is commonly accepted in society (Degel and Köster, 1999). Nevertheless, to date there has been limited research studying this influence, as research has long credited the human olfactory system with only its classical functions for self-preservation [finding food (Yeomans, 2006) or perceiving warning signals (Scherer and Quast, 2001)]. ...
Despite the predominant focus on visual perception in most studies, the role of humans’ sense of smell in navigation has often been neglected. Recent research, however, could show that humans are indeed able to use their sense of smell for orientation, particularly when processed implicitly. In this study, we investigate whether implicit perception of olfactory landmarks enhanced wayfinding performance compared to explicit perception. Fifty-two people completed a wayfinding and a recognition task in a virtual maze at two times of testing 1 month apart. Participants either received olfactory, visual, or both cues at the intersections. Wayfinding performance was better for olfactory landmarks, which were not correctly remembered in the recognition task. In contrast, wayfinding performance was better when visual landmarks were correctly remembered. In the multimodal condition, wayfinding performance was better with landmarks being remembered at t1 and remained the same at t2. Our results suggest distinct implicit processing mechanisms within the olfactory system and therefore hold important implications for the nature of spatial odor processing extending beyond explicit odor localization tasks. The study highlights the importance for future studies to develop and employ further experimental methods that capture implicit processing across all of our senses. This is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of consciousness, as olfaction strongly influences our behavior, but remains largely latent unless deliberately honed through practice.
... Our study also pinpoints the tempo preference task as a novel, indirect method for investigating olfactory-elicited emotions, notably the effects of emotional stimuli on time processing. These findings inform our understanding about the psychological mechanisms underlying the relaxing and stimulating effects of odors, and further adds to the evidence that odors can be used to influence human behavior efficiently (Brand et al., 2016;Degel & Köster, 1999;Guéguen & Petr, 2006;Lehrner et al.,2000Lehrner et al., , 2005Leleu et al., 2015;Li et al., 2007;Mattila & Wirtz, 2001;Sela & Sobel, 2010). The demonstration of the implicit influence of ambient odors on time processing and tempo preference is highly relevant in many applied areas, including medical care, well-being improvement, sensory marketing, and consumer behavior. ...
It has recently been shown that relaxing and stimulating odors distort time perception by slowing down or speeding up the pacemaker of the internal clock. Since individuals tend to prefer musical tempo at the rate of the pacemaker, we examined whether relaxing and stimulating ambient odors could bias tempo preference in a study in which the musical stimuli were unfamiliar pleasant musical excerpts. Participants listened to pairs of excerpts played at slightly different tempi and had to indicate which one they preferred. We hypothesized that participants exposed to a relaxing odor (strawberry) would prefer the slower excerpts while participants exposed to a stimulating odor (lemon) would prefer the faster excerpts. As expected, the findings showed that participants in the control (no odor) condition preferred the slower of the fast-tempo pairs of excerpts and the faster of the slow-tempo pairs, indicating a preference bias for moderate tempo. Preferences in both odor conditions differed significantly from those in the control condition such that no such preference bias was observed. There was an interaction between tempo and odor such that participants showed no preference for the slower of the fast-tempo pairs of excerpts in the presence of a lemon odor, and no preference for the faster of the slow-tempo pairs in the presence of a strawberry odor. To our knowledge, this is the first time it has been shown that odors can alter the rate of the pacemaker without participants being conscious of the presence of an olfactory stimulus in the environment.
... In memory studies it has been demonstrated that unattended and not consciously perceived (not subliminal) odors are very effective, whereas they may lose their effectivity by becoming consciously perceived or identified and nameable (Degel and Köster, 1999;Degel et al., 2001;Köster and Degel, 2001). ...
In this paper we analyze some key concepts and problems in olfaction and argue that many concepts borrowed from vision are not helpful in elucidating the functions of human olfaction. This is illustrated with several examples. Olfaction is rarely in the focus of human attention. Olfaction is, compared to vision, a ‘hidden sense’, but still guides many important behaviors by way of unattended unconscious olfactory perception and implicit memory. Not all olfactory processing, however, is of an unconscious nature. Flavors, and the pleasures gained from them, are most often consciously perceived. These are experiences mostly determined by olfaction, taste, touch and chemesthesis. Our analyses lead us to conclude that olfaction should not be modeled on vision, neither conceptually nor with respect to the problems solved by the two senses. A critical examination of the ecological and physical constraints of olfaction and the other senses should be given priority. Such analyses will further our understanding of which problems are solved by the different senses and how they collaborate to guide us through the world.
... According to Masago et al. (2000), participants who inhaled 10% lavender oil for 3 min were much more relaxed and less anxious and have improved mood, and EEG showed higher alpha intensity. Masago et al. (Degel and Köster 1999) also found that inhalation of lavender produces an EEG pattern that indicates how relaxed the patient is. Diego et al. (Masago et al. 2000) also observed that the use of lavender oil aromatherapy improves the speed and accuracy of mathematical calculations. ...
Lavandula species is a flowering plant that is common in Europe and across the Mediterranean. Lavender has many health benefits for humans. In addition to its use in herbal medicine, it is widely used in the fields of cosmetics, perfumes, foods, and aromatherapy. Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were used to search for relevant material on the phytochemical ingredients, the pharmacologic effects of the ingredients, and the mechanism of action of the Lavandula species identified. These materials were reviewed in order to have access to important updates about the Lavandula species. Lavender as referred to in English contains essential oils, anthocyanins, phytosterols, sugars, minerals, coumaric acid, glycolic acid, valeric acid, ursolic acid, herniarins, coumarins, and tannins. It has been used to treat colic and chest ailments, worrisome headaches, and biliousness, and in cleaning wounds. It has antifungal, antibacterial, neurologic, antimicrobial, anti-parasitic, anti-diabetic, and analgesic effects among others. Lavandula species has prospects for various biological applications, especially with its dermatological application. Advances in drug development would enable characterization of various bioactive constituents; thus, its development and application can have a more positive impact on humanity. Here, we highlighted updated information on the history, distribution, traditional uses, phytochemical components, pharmacology, and various biological activities of Lavandula species.
... Other studies suggest that the olfactory sense may link to implicit memory, which can remain intact in people with dementia (Degel et al., 2001;Degel & Köster, 1999;Fleischman et al., 2005). Implicit memory refers to previous experiences unconsciously influencing later behaviour without conscious awareness (White et al., 2015). ...
There is a growing interest in using olfactory (smell) stimulation in dementia care. This study aims to extend current knowledge by synthesising the evidence on the efficacy of interventions using olfactory stimulation for people with dementia and to assess the effects of different types of odours and administration methods using a mixed methods approach. The rapid review was conducted based on searches in six electronic databases. A narrative approach was applied to assess 20 studies included in the review. Fourteen studies used a quasi-experimental design, five studies used an experimental design and one was a case study. High heterogeneity was found on odours and methods of application used, with the majority of studies administering lavender oil using a diffuser. Mixed results were reported on the benefits of olfactory stimulation on responsive behaviours and cognitive function. Although the evidence available is limited, encouraging results were found regarding olfactory stimulation and increased sleep duration, food intake and improved balance. It was not possible to draw any overall conclusion in relation to the effect of olfactory stimulation. However, this review shows promising results that support further investigation of olfactory stimulation as a nonpharmacological intervention for people with dementia. The review is limited due to the low to moderate quality of studies included. Furthermore, the broad range of approaches was employed, and comparison between the studies was difficult. Further high-quality mixed method studies using robust and detailed protocols are needed to clarify the effects of olfactory stimuli and any other factors that may influence the responses of people with dementia.
... In psychology, implicit measures are generally preferred as evidence for a specific effect, as they are believed to provide more meaningful information than explicit judgments (e.g., [78,79]). Indeed, smells do not always receive overt attention, with many people not noticing but the most extreme changes in their surrounding smellscape [79,80]. At the same time, some people are much more aware of the smells in their surroundings. ...
Human sweat odor serves as social communication signal for a person’s traits and emotional states. This study explored whether body odors can also communicate information about one’s self-esteem, and the role of applied fragrance in this relationship. Female participants were asked to rate self-esteem and attractiveness of different male contestants of a dating show, while being exposed to male participant’s body odors differing in self-esteem. High self-esteem sweat was rated more pleasant and less intense than low self-esteem sweat. However, there was no difference in perceived self-esteem and attractiveness of male contestants in videos, hence explicit differences in body odor did not transfer to judgments of related person characteristics. When the body odor was fragranced using a fragranced body spray, male contestants were rated as having higher self-esteem and being more attractive. The finding that body odors from male participants differing in self-esteem are rated differently and can be discriminated suggests self-esteem has distinct perceivable olfactory features, but the remaining findings imply that only fragrance affect the psychological impression someone makes. These findings are discussed in the context of the role of body odor and fragrance in human perception and social communication.
... (p. 6) Although this question [the relationship between odor naming and recognition memory] may be of academic interest and the methods used to provide an answer to it were ingenious, one may wonder about their relevance for everyday life where we almost never name odors and the odors that are most important to us (odors of our surroundings and of people we know) are usually non-nameable. (p. 6) As shown above in the experiments by Degel and Köster (1999), Degel, Piper, and Köster (2001), odors that can be identified by name, become "things" and tend to lose their intimate connections with the situations in which they occurred in a person's life and therewith their main function. Odors are probably not meant to be identified. ...
If thinking can be fast or slow, metaphorical thinking can be fast and slow too. But metaphorical thinking does not occur as often and in the ways that many metaphor scholars today think. Slow metaphorical thinking does mean, however, that we can exert more control over metaphor than has previously been acknowledged. We can even offer resistance to metaphor.
Deliberate Metaphor Theory (DMT) claims that there is an essential processing difference between non-deliberate and deliberate metaphor use which can explain all this. This book is the first full account of the DMT model for metaphor comprehension. It presents explicit conceptualization and formal operationalization, and is based on a well-known cognitive-psychological model for all utterance comprehension in discourse. The original three-dimensional model of DMT is here refined into a four-dimensional model, which reveals new research questions and discoveries about the use of metaphor.
The book brings together numerous cognitive-scientific insights into metaphor. It has a high degree of interdisciplinary accessibility to all students of metaphor, whether master students, PhDs, post docs, or established academics.
... Colzato et al. (2014) considered linalool as the main component of lavender EO and, most importantly, they suggested its role in attention increase: in this context, the authors only measured linalyl acetate as reference control. Both linalool and linalyl acetate have been reported to have complementary mechanisms which seem to be responsible for lavender EO cognitive effects (Cavanagh & Wilkinson, 2002;Degel & Koster, 1999). On the other hand, other studies reported only linalool to be responsible for nervous system modulation. ...
Modern society is reviving the practice of aromatherapy, and lavender is reported being the most worldwide purchased plant for essential oil (EO) extraction. Since recent studies reported cognitive enhancing effects of lavender besides the hypno-inducing effects, a literature review is needed. Considering EO quality and diffusion devices, we conducted a systematic review on the effects of lavender EO inhalation on arousal, attention and memory in healthy subjects. Starting from this new multidisciplinary perspective, cognitive effects were reviewed to link outcomes to effective and reproducible protocols. A systematic search on MEDLINE, ERIC, PsycInfo, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases using Cognitive Atlas and plant-related keywords was conducted. Among the 1,203 articles yielded, 11 met eligibility criteria. Subjects administered with lavender EO displayed arousal decrease and sustained attention increase. Controversial results emerged regarding memory. Lack of EO quality assessment and protocols heterogeneity did not allow assessing whether different EO composition differentially modulates cognition and whether placebo effect can be discerned from EO effect itself. However, GABAergic pathway modulation exerted by linalool, a major lavender EO constituent, might explain cognitive functions empowerment. We speculate aromatherapy could be a burgeoning cognition enhancing tool, although further investigation is required to reach robust conclusions.
... In addition, behavioral and physiological investigations have revealed that odors can induce states of relaxation or excitation, reduce anxiety and stress arousal, influence performance in cognitive tasks, and provoke changes in physiological parameters such as heart rate or skin conductance (e.g., Alaoui-Ismaili, Robin, Rada, Dittmar, & Vernet-Maury, 1997;Alaoui-Ismaili, Vernet-Maury, Dittmar, Delhomme, & Chanel, 1997;Bensafi et al., 2002a,b;Delplanque et al., 2008Delplanque et al., , 2009Ehrlichman & Bastone, 1992;Goel, Kim, & Lao, 2005;Herz, 2009;Heuberger, Redhammer, & Buchbauer, 2004;Torii et al., 1988). Results from numerous experiments suggest that odors can affect cognition and behavior in a similar fashion to that of emotional stimuli in other perceptual modalities (Chebat & Michon, 2003;Degel & Köster, 1999;Epple & Herz, 1999;Ilmberger et al., 2001;Ludvigson & Rottman, 1989;Millot & Brand, 2001;Millot, Brand, & Morand, 2002). Different essential oils have therefore been tested to investigate their potential use as stress releasers in various stressful situations (Heuberger & Ilmberger 2010; e.g., Lehrner et al., 2005). ...
Personal and home care products are nowadays similar in terms of hedonic value and performance. In this context, the consideration of their emotional value, in harmony with consumer expectations, can be a differentiating factor for fragrance development. This chapter aims at providing examples that show how emotional responses to odors, personal products, and home care products can be measured. After describing the strong influence of olfaction on emotional processing and the role of associative learning, we propose a definition of emotion and feelings. We focus on the verbal report of feelings, or the verbalization of the subjective experience of emotions, by mainly referring to the conscious part of the emotional response elicited by odors and fragranced products. Although the unconscious part of the emotional response related to physiological and behavioral responses should not be underestimated, this topic is covered in part 1 of the book, which is dedicated to the basic studies of emotions. The current chapter provides a review of a methodology developed to measure food-elicited feelings or fragrance- elicited feelings, with consideration of cross-cultural differences. Fundamental ques- tions and critical choices that arise when such an approach is undertaken are also highlighted. A series of results is presented to illustrate the use of this methodology in sensory settings for product development. In this context, we propose that in- vestigations should be undertaken into the effects of changing the product label, packaging, and color of fragranced products on consumer emotional expectations and on the overall emotional response when the product is experienced in real-life situa- tions. Finally, we present measures other than verbal reports that examine the existence of automatic associations between odors and subtle emotions, with the caveat that we should continue asking about feelings in any fundamental or applied research.
... Colzato et al. (2014) considered linalool as the main component of lavender EO and, most importantly, they suggested its role in attention increase: in this context, the authors only measured linalyl acetate as reference control. Both linalool and linalyl acetate have been reported to have complementary mechanisms which seem to be responsible for lavender EO cognitive effects (Cavanagh & Wilkinson, 2002;Degel & Koster, 1999). On the other hand, other studies reported only linalool to be responsible for nervous system modulation. ...
Modern society is reviving the practice of aromatherapy, and lavender is reported to be the most worldwide purchased plant for essential oils (EO) extraction. Since odors can modulate cognitive functions acting through specific neuroanatomical pathways, lavender EO inhalation can enhance cognition. Taking into account EO quality and diffusion devices, we conducted a systematic review on the effects of lavender EO inhalation on arousal, attention and memory in healthy subjects. Starting from this new multidisciplinary perspective, cognitive effects were revised to link outcomes to effective and reproducible aromatherapy protocols. A systematic search on MEDLINE database using Cognitive Atlas and plant authenticity-related keywords was performed. Among the 806 articles yielded, 11 articles met eligibility criteria. Subjects administered with lavender EO displayed arousal decrease and sustained attention increase. Puzzling results were obtained regarding memory. Lack of EO quality assessment and high heterogeneity in inhalation protocols did not allow assessing whether different EO composition differently modulates cognition and whether placebo or expectancy effect can be discerned from EO effect itself. However, GABAergic pathway modulation exerted by linalool, a major lavender EO constituent, explains arousal reduction and sustained attention enhancement. In conclusion, aromatherapy can be an innovative, practical and non-invasive tool to prevent cognitive lapses.
... Lavender is typically considered a sedative-type aroma whose inhalation has been associated to a decrease in the level of autonomic nervous system (ANS) arousal (e.g. decrease of blood pressure, heart rate, and skin temperature) [107] and to the active performance of tasks in terms of quality, accuracy and reaction time [108][109][110][111]. In addition, previous research showed that lavender was capable to improve concentration and work efficiency [112]. ...
Scents have the ability to affect peoples’ mental states and task performance with to different extents. It has been widely demonstrated that the lemon scent, included in most all-purpose cleaners, elicits stimulation and activation, while the lavender scent elicits relaxation and sedative effects. The present study aimed at investigating and fostering a novel approach to evaluate users’ experience with respect to scents’ effects through the joint employment of Virtual Reality and users’ neurophysiological monitoring, in particular Electroencephalography. In particular, this study, involving 42 participants, aimed to compare the effects of lemon and lavender scents on the deployment of cognitive resources during a daily life experience consisting in a train journey carried out in virtual reality. Our findings showed a significant higher request of cognitive resources during the processing of an informative message for subjects exposed to the lavender scent with respect to the lemon exposure. No differences were found between lemon and lavender conditions on the self-reported items of pleasantness and involvement; as this study demonstrated, the employment of the lavender scent preserves the quality of the customer experience to the same extent as the more widely used lemon scent.
... The study of Degel and Köster described earlier (Degel and Köster 1999) showed that under certain conditions odorants may influence attentional performance even when subjects are unaware of their presence. According to an investigation by Holland and co-workers, the unnoticed presence of odorants may also affect every-day behavior and higher cognitive functions (Holland, Hendriks, and Aarts 2005). ...
The use of essential oils to control arousal and cognitive performance has a long tradition in mankind. In our time, the demand for remedies promising fast but safe recovery from mental stress is ever-growing. Thus, today a plethora of popular aromatherapy guidebooks exists, offering advice on the use of essential oils for a multitude of health complaints. With some delay, scientists have started to substantiate the claims raised in the popular literature and verify the effects of essential oils on cognitive functioning and performance. This chapter aims to give an overview about the available scientific literature dealing with the influence of essential oils and fragrances on arousal and cognitive performance. The topics covered in this chapter will range from brain potentials related to arousal over alertness and attention to learning and memory. In addition, it will be discussed whether olfactory versus non-olfactory administration influences the effects of essential oils on cognitive functions and how psychological phenomena, such as hedonic preferences, semantic associations, and individual expectations may shape these effects.
... However, previous studies have reported that compelling olfactory cues have the potential to enhance the sense of presence [20], [21], invoke emotion, and provide salient spatial cues [22]. Previous work has shown that odor, in some cases, can influence the performance on vigilance tasks [23], and mathematical tasks [24], even when the subjects are unaware of the presence of the odor [25]. Murray et al. [26] provides a tutorial and recommendations for the evaluation environment, scent types, subjective factors, and video characteristics to conduct olfactory-based mulsemedia QoE evaluation. ...
Recently, innovative technologies such as Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), Mixed Reality (MR) and Multi-Sensorial Media (mulsemedia) have introduced new sensorial effects including vibration, smell, airflow, etc. to human life. These effects were mostly deployed for entertainment gaming) and have resulted in positive user satisfaction. This paper describes a novel Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP (DASH)-based Multi-sensory Media Delivery Solution (DASHMS) which supports adaptive mulsemedia content distribution based on the operational environment which includes network, device and user settings. DASHMS was evaluated in a real-life educational experiment involving 44 students in an Irish university. The evaluation focused on both learner satisfaction and impact on education results. The results showed how the adaptive multi-sensorial media delivery resulted in a statistically significant increase in user experience. In terms of benefit to learning outcomes however, it was only memory recall which was statistically improved in the student experiment.
... Previous studies have reported positive correlations between odor intensity and arousal ratings (Bensafi et al., 2002;Chrea et al., 2009), leading to the view that the perceived intensity could even be seen as a substitute for the arousal dimension of olfactory emotions (e.g., Anderson et al., 2003;Lewis, Critchley, Rotshtein, & Dolan, 2007;Winston, Gottfried, Kilner, & Dolan, 2005). However, conceptualizing odor intensity as a proxy of emotional arousal properties of an odor might be too simplistic considering that some odorants can be stimulating at very low concentrations, and even at subliminal levels as showed by implicit measure (e.g., low level of lavender essential oil enhances memory performance, Degel & Köster, 1999). ...
It is generally assumed that intensity can be used as a proxy of the arousing properties of odors: the more concentrated an odorant, the more intense an odor and the more stimulating and the less relaxing the odor. The aim of the present study was thus to investigate the relationship between relaxing and stimulating properties of odors when judged on two independent scales, for different levels of stimulus concentration. Thirty-three volunteers judged relaxing, stimulating, pleasantness, familiarity and intensity properties of four odors, namely strawberry, lavender, coffee, and lemon, at five concentrations. Our findings show that for all odors, higher stimulus concentration is associated with higher perceived intensity and higher stimulating judgments whereas it was not associated with lower relaxing judgments. On the contrary, lavender and strawberry were also judged more relaxing when stimulus concentration increased whereas coffee and lemon relaxing properties remained the same overall whatever the concentration. Odor familiarity increased with stimuli concentration as well as pleasantness (with the exception of coffee odor). Our results underline the need to use two separate unipolar scales when assessing the relaxing and stimulating properties of odors in self-report questionnaires. They also question the suitability of the commonly used bidimensional framework (valence vs. arousal) to describe olfactory emotions.
... We suggest combining VR to create an immersive test context with an olfactometer that can release several fragrances (serially or in parallel) in a relatively short span of time. Furthermore, the custom-designed cleaning task and sniff recordings we used here allowed for going beyond asking consumers about their experience, and participants remained unaware of what was being tested and why, which enhanced experimental validity because odors generally affect us on an implicit level (e.g., Degel & Köster, 1999). We suspect that the merit of applying VR to odorbased research extends from fragrances added to certain products (e.g., laundry odor) to other domains in which odors are important, including eating behavior (foods and drinks) and social communication (e.g., deodorants). ...
Extending traditional research methods for studying effects of odor on behavior, this study
applied Virtual Reality (VR) to create a real-world, immersive context that was compared to a traditional sterile, non-immersive lab setting. Using precise odor administration with
olfactometry, participants were exposed to three odors (cleaning-related pleasant smell, cleaning-unrelated pleasant smell: vanillin, and odorless air). Our aim was to tease apart whether participants’ motivation to clean was driven by cleaning associations and/or odor pleasantness, and how context would accentuate these effects. The results indeed showed that, in VR only, the cleaning-related smell elicited faster and more energetic cleaning behavior on a custom-designed cleaning task, and faster and more voluminous olfactory sampling compared to controls (vanillin, air). These effects were not driven by odor valence, given the general absence of significant differences between the pleasant control odor vanillin and odorless air. In sum, combining rigorous experimental control with high ecological validity, this research shows the context-dependency of (congruent) odors affecting motivated behavior in an immersive context only.
... Chu and Downes (2002) have shown that congruent odours bring autobiographical stories to life and enhance the recollection of event details. The facilitative effects of hedonic congruity on memory have been demonstrated for the implicit pairing of sub-threshold odours and visual stimuli, both literal (Degel & Ko È ster, 1999;Degel, Piper, & Ko È ster, 2001) and imagined (Wolpin & Weinstein, 1983), as well as the explicit pairing of suprathreshold odours with paintings (Herz & Cupchik, 1993). ...
... Our findings show that hexanal is able to influence trust even outside of conscious awareness. As such, the study supplements existing research showing effects of undetectable smells on our perception and behavior (Degel and Köster, 1999;Li et al., 2007;Mujica-Parodi et al., 2009;Endevelt-Shapira et al., 2018). Using an olfactory affective priming paradigm, prior research (Li et al., 2007) has shown that subliminal odors (pleasant, unpleasant) can guide social likability judgments when odors were sufficiently undetectable. ...
Most everyday smells, from lavender to body odors, are complex odorant mixtures that “host” particular compounds that guide (social) behavior and motivation (biomarkers). A key element of social behavior is interpersonal trust, and building on previous research showing that (i) lavender odor can enhance trust, and that (ii) certain compounds in body odor can reduce stress in mice and humans (called “social buffering”), we examined whether a grassy-smelling compound found in both body odors and lavender, hexanal, would enhance interpersonal trust. Notably, we applied odor masking to explore whether trust could be influenced subconsciously by masked (i.e., undetectable) hexanal. In Study 1 (between-subjects), 90 females played a Trust Game while they either smelled hexanal (0.01% v/v), clove odor (eugenol: 10% v/v), or hexanal masked by clove odor (a mix of the former). As a sign of higher trust, participants gave more money to a trustee while exposed to masked hexanal (vs. the mask: eugenol). In Study 2 (within-subjects, double-blind), another sample of 35 females smelled the same three odors, while they rated the trustworthiness of a spectrum of faces that varied on trustworthiness. Controlling for subjective odor intensity and pleasantness and substantiating that masked hexanal could not be distinguished from the mask, faces were perceived as more trustworthy during exposure to masked hexanal (vs. the mask: eugenol). Whereas non-masked hexanal also increased face trustworthiness ratings, these effects disappeared after controlling for the odor’s subjective intensity and pleasantness. The combined results bring new evidence that trust can be enhanced implicitly via undetected smells.
... Cette modalité est connue pour sa capacité à activer plus fortement les émotions que les autres sens (Herz, 2004(Herz, , 2012(Herz, , 2016Herz & Schooler, 2002;Versace et al., 2014). Par ailleurs, elle semble prévaloir sur les autres sens pour moduler les processus attentionnels, mnésiques et les actions induites (Degel & Köster, 1999;Schaal & Durand, 2012). Finalement, elle intervient massivement dans l'acceptation et le rejet d'aliments (Dovey, Staples, Gibson, & Halford, 2008;Gaillet-Torrent, Sulmont-Rossé, Issanchou, Chabanet, & Chambaron, 2014;Lafraire, Rioux, Giboreau, & Picard, 2016) et est susceptible d'influencer la construction des préférences alimentaires (Schaal, 2017). ...
Comme tous les enfants, les enfants et les adolescents avec un trouble du spectre de l’autisme (TSA) doivent développer des compétences pour peu à peu gérer leur alimentation. Ils rencontrent de grandes difficultés dans la construction alimentaire. Cet article présente la mise en oeuvre et le déroulement d’une procédure de familiarisation à l’alimentation auprès de 49 enfants avec TSA âgés de 4 à 12 ans. Les résultats montrent l’intérêt d’utiliser certains principes didactiques comme l’échange dialogique et le respect de la zone prochaine de développement. La procédure, ainsi que les principes didactiques retenus permettent au professionnel d’élargir sa compréhension du fonctionnement de l’enfant et d’adapter les activités qu’il lui propose.
... Cette modalité est connue pour sa capacité à activer plus fortement les émotions que les autres sens (Herz, 2004(Herz, , 2012(Herz, , 2016Herz & Schooler, 2002;Versace et al., 2014). Par ailleurs, elle semble prévaloir sur les autres sens pour moduler les processus attentionnels, mnésiques et les actions induites (Degel & Köster, 1999;Schaal & Durand, 2012). Finalement, elle intervient massivement dans l'acceptation et le rejet d'aliments (Dovey, Staples, Gibson, & Halford, 2008;Gaillet-Torrent, Sulmont-Rossé, Issanchou, Chabanet, & Chambaron, 2014;Lafraire, Rioux, Giboreau, & Picard, 2016) et est susceptible d'influencer la construction des préférences alimentaires (Schaal, 2017). ...
Comme tous les enfants, les enfants et les adolescents avec un trouble du spectre de l’autisme (TSA) doivent développer des compétences pour peu à peu gérer leur alimentation. Ils rencontrent de grandes difficultés dans la construction alimentaire. Cet article présente la mise en œuvre et le déroulement d’une procédure de familiarisation à l’alimentation auprès de 49 enfants avec TSA âgés de 4 à 12 ans. Les résultats montrent l’intérêt d’utiliser certains principes didactiques comme l’échange dialogique et le respect de la zone prochaine de développement. La procédure, ainsi que les principes didactiques retenus permettent au professionnel d’élargir sa compréhension du fonctionnement de l’enfant et d’adapter les activités qu’il lui propose.
... Perhaps the recognition of the most / least dominant or neurotic donor would reveal higher olfactory expertise of the blind individuals. Given that odors affect us also in implicit ways [12], sensitivity to social odor cues could also be tested in tasks that would assess the effects of exposure to personality odor cues rather than have participants name or identify them. For example, it could be tested whether body odor from a neurotic individual would act as a prime to influence e.g. a judgment of how neurotic an individual in a video behaves; or rating oneself as more neurotic because the signal in the odor is contagious. ...
... Second, although self-report measures provide important explicit information about the relaxing/energizing properties of the odors, and are currently the most common measures in the field (see Herz, 2009), they rely on individual introspective abilities and are subject to biases (e.g., Choi & Pak, 2005). Third, relaxing/energizing properties of the odors affect behavior and performance even if the organism is not actively engaged in an explicit evaluation of these properties (e.g., Degel & Köster, 1999;Jarlier, 2012). This suggests that automatic associations between feelings and odors exist. ...
The extent to which automatic associations exist between relaxing and energizing feelings and odors is unclear. To investigate this question, we used a modified version of the Implicit Association Test. In this task, participants had to make speeded discrimination responses between stimuli and words related to energizing vs. relaxing feelings. These stimuli were either visual stimuli (i.e., vanilla vs. mint labels in Experiment 1) or olfactory (vanillin vs. menthol in Experiment 2, and two fine fragrances in Experiment 3). In compatible blocks, purportedly related items (e.g., vanillin and a label related to relaxing feelings) shared the same response key, while in incompatible blocks they did not (e.g., vanillin and a word related to energizing feelings). In the three experiments, the participants responded significantly faster in the compatible blocks than in the incompatible ones. The stronger the association between purportedly related items, the faster the participant responds in compatible blocks and the slower in incompatible blocks. Consequently, this differential speed of response supports the existence of associations between the stimuli that were considered to be compatible. This argues for the existence of automatic associations between relaxing/energizing feelings and odors, associations that can influence behavior.
... Based on sensory analysis and from perfumery, it is well known it takes a long training before people can consistently describe olfactory experiences in detail. Furthermore, study has established [157] that odors might be indirectly remembered without awareness of the learning event, and that such memories could be disturbed by clear knowledge of the odor. If sense of smell is certainly a "hidden" sense, therefore in normal everyday life odors may not be intended to be talked about, but just to be experienced with all the amazingly emotional memories they involve. ...
Our goal is to transform Internet and virtual reality communication into a multisensory experience by the digitization of the smell and taste senses. This will allow people to create, communicate, and regenerate multisensory information. This book was written in an attempt to present the state of the art in research in multisensory communication. Both human sense of smell and taste performs an important role in enhancing one’s everyday life experiences through emotions and memory. The memory of smell and taste lasts longer than memory attained verbally. Studies have shown that smell and taste senses are directly associated with one’s mood, stress, retention, and memory functions. The use of the Internet as a communication medium grew rapidly across the past two decades. To pursue the next stage of the Internet, humans should not only communicate using visual, audio, and tactile stimuli but also with smell …
... Vystavení jinému pachu (isobutyraldehyd versus citral) nemělo kýžený efekt, obdobně jako prezentace podnětu bez pachu. Metodika této studie je však problematická, neboť byly použity pachové látky o odlišné příjemnosti a intenzitě, což samo o sobě může ovlivňovat výkony v různých testech (Baron 1990;Baron, a Bronfen, 1994;Degel, a Köster, 1999) i kvalitu spánku (Goel a Lao, 2006;NSF 2013). Oba tyto pachy nadto vykazují nezanedbatelnou a vzájemně odlišnou trigeminovou složku (Alarie et al., 1998;Doty et al., 1978). ...
The association between sleep and chemosensory research represents a seemingly unlikely yet all the more fruitful alliance overlapping with other disciplines, such as cognitive and affective science. Olfactory perception in sleep represents an exception among the sensory modalities in that, in contrast to the other senses, suprathreshold olfactory stimulation does not trigger arousal or waking. Under certain conditions odors can even promote sleep. This promises a wide scope of application in the research context as well as clinical practice. The aim of the study is to outline the characteristics of olfactory processing in sleep and present ways in which they may be utilized in the research of dreams or memory consolidation.
... However, suggestive evidence for this phenomenon comes from studies of unconscious olfactory influences on mood or performance. In these studies, only a very small minority of participants were able to correctly answer questions about their olfactory experience, such as recalling the location where they had previously encountered a particular smell (Degel & Köster, 1999) or guessing that the olfactory sense had been manipulated during an earlier phase of an experiment (Lorig, 1992). ...
The human sense of smell is highly sensitive, often conveying important biological signals. Yet anecdotal evidence suggests that we commonly fail to notice suprathreshold environmental olfactory stimuli. The determinants of olfactory awareness are, as yet, unknown. Here, we adapted the inattentional-blindness paradigm to test whether olfactory awareness is dependent on attention. Across three experiments, participants performed a visual search task with either a high or low perceptual load (a well-established attentional manipulation) while exposed to an ambient coffee aroma. Consistent with our hypothesis, results showed that task load modulated olfactory awareness: 42.5% fewer participants in the high- than in the low-load condition reported noticing the coffee aroma. Our final experiment demonstrates that because of unique characteristics of olfactory habituation, the consequences of inattentional anosmia can persist even once attention becomes available. These findings establish the phenomenon of inattentional anosmia and have applied implications for predicting when people may miss potentially important olfactory information.
Volitional respiratory manoeuvres such as sniffing and apnoea play a key role in the active olfactory exploration of the environment. Their impairment by neurodegenerative processes could thus impair olfactory abilities with the ensuing impact on quality of life. Functional brain imaging studies have identified brain networks engaged in sniffing and voluntary apnoea, comprising the primary motor and somatosensory cortices, the insula, the anterior cingulate cortex and the amygdala. The temporal organization and the oscillatory activities of these networks are not known. To elucidate these aspects, we recorded intracranial electroencephalograms in six patients during voluntary sniffs and short apnoeas (12 s). The preparation phase of both manoeuvres involved increased alpha and theta activity in the posterior insula, amygdala and temporal regions, with a specific preparatory activity in the parahippocampus for the short apnoeas and the hippocampus for sniff. Subsequently, it narrowed to the superior and median temporal areas, immediately after the manoeuvres. During short apnoeas, a particular dynamic was observed, consisting of a rapid decline in alpha and theta activity followed by a slow recovery and increase. Volitional respiratory manoeuvres involved in olfactory control involve corticolimbic structures in both a preparatory and executive manner. Further studies are needed to determine whether diseases altering deep brain structures can disrupt these mechanisms and if such disruption contributes to the corresponding olfactory deficits. image
Key points
Both sniff manoeuvres and short apnoeas are associated with oscillatory activity predominantly in low‐frequency bands (alpha and theta).
Preparation of sniff manoeuvres and short apnoeas involve activities in low‐frequency bands in the posterior insula and temporal regions that extend to amygdala during the execution of both manoeuvres.
During short apnoeas, activities in low‐frequency bands initially decline before continuously increasing until the apnoeas end.
Sensory Experiences: Exploring meaning and the senses describes the collective elaboration of a situated cognitive approach with an emphasis on the relations between language and cognition within and across different sensory modalities and practices. This approach, grounded in 40 years of empirical research, is a departure from the analytic, reductive view of human experiences as information processing.
The book is structured into two parts. Each author first introduces the situated cognitive approach from their respective sensory domains (vision, audition, olfaction, gustation). The second part is the collective effort to derive methodological guidelines respecting the ecological validity of experimental investigations while formulating operational answers to applied questions (such as the sensory quality of environments and product design).
This book will be of interest to students, researchers and practitioners dealing with sensory experiences and anyone who wants to understand and celebrate the cultural diversity of human productions that make life enjoyable!
Purpose
Measurement scales for sensory experience in retailing exist for sight, touch and sound. In the present study, the authors aim to develop the olfactory experience (OEX) scale in the context of retailing.
Design/methodology/approach
Based on literature review and six studies that follow standard scale development protocols (combined n = 1,203), the authors develop and validate a three-dimensional OEX scale. The scale is further validated in the final study in a different market set-up than the first five.
Findings
The authors found the three dimensions of OEX as (scent) company, congeniality and congruity. The OEX scale is found to be generalizable and valid across different cultural and market set-ups. In addition, the OEX (i.e. the scale) was found to effect psychological and behavioral outcomes of the consumer in a significant manner.
Research limitations/implications
The present study contributes to the domain of sensory experience in retailing with the OEX scale and provides three new dimensions of OEX for the academicians to further explore.
Practical implications
The OEX scale provides a ready to use tool for the retailer to gauge the level of OEX in the store and to predict consumer attitudes and behavior.
Originality/value
The study is the first to develop a scale for OEX in retailing or for that matter in consumer behavior.
In recent decades, the trend or the need for an experience of the effect of immersion
into theatre events, other branches of art, tourism, everyday business and private life
has become quite evident. We are used to audio-visual communication, which, from the
Renaissance onwards, became the dominant channel for delivering messages, while other
senses became less important.
Until the middle of the 20th century, the role of smell in theatre practices was neglected,
and more important senses took over the place of communication and staging. Rarely
it was used as a direct prop, but always very carefully, because, according to many
experts, it cannot be controlled like sound and light. However, we have forgotten that
the smell, especially in combination with the sound, can have a strong emotional impact
on a spectator. Like the other senses, the scent recreates the context of memories and
can evoke an intense reliving of emotions and events. It can also provoke an evaluation
or re-evaluation of the past, thereby affecting the perception of the present. Reality is
perceived through the adaptation of sensory information, which is shaped and interpreted
under the influence of past experiences. Experiences create expectations, and expectations
create our subjective reality considering everyday life and theatrical performance. This
relationship is especially noticeable in sensorial theatre.
In the last decade, an effort has been made to bring scents and other tools of sensorial
theatre back to the stage, just as – according to foreign sources – they were an important
part of events in antiquity. In this way, the stage can be enriched with an additional
dimension of communication and expression. The paper presents various methods and
experiments on the use of scent and other tools of sensorial theatre, evaluating their
phenomenology and effectiveness from the perspective of the performing arts and
psychological science.
Problem imenovanja ni kateri koli filozofski problem, pač pa je osrednjega pomena za
klasično ontologijo, ki se opira na koncept imen (onomata) kot oprijemajočih se reči
(pragmata) v njihovi bistveni biti. Kot tako je bilo ime tradicionalno zvezano s konceptom
resnice kot adequatio, tj. resnice kot ujemanja med vednostjo in bitjo, intelektom in rečjo ali
propozicijo in realnostjo. Na tem mestu bomo vrgli pogled s strani na ta masivni filozofski
problem, tako da se ga bomo lotili s posebnega vidika vonjav in njihovega osupljivega
razmerja do jezika.
This work aims to report the specific interest of experiential walks for smell perception in environmental analyses, using a review of different methods and field actions. The first part of the chapter reviews the main difficulties when one wants to comprehend environmental olfactory phenomenon, emphasizing the importance of semantic considerations and the role of the context accounts (from in vitro to in-situ, including in vivo approaches). By the way, field studies on the topic are scarce, especially if compared to the in vitro experiments profusion. If in vitro approaches allow parameters controls and statistical analysis, they struggle to covert identified ordinary life smell phenomenon. However, expectations and implicit memories are critical in everyday smell experiences. Even in vivo approaches, such as store reconstitutions, often fail to appreciate the magnitude of contexts in olfactory interpretations, especially situational ones. The second part of the chapter therefore, considers the main assets of experiential walks for smell: an in-situ posture implying confrontation of heterogenic data and an in motion specificity. The first one may permit to go a little farer then the simple sources inventory often use in environmental smell analyses. The second one allows renew sensations for a sense for which habituation, that is the rapid and specific olfactory acclimatization when exposed to an odor, is a particulary important feature of everyday smell experiences and movements. The advantages and drawbacks of smell walks are then discussed, to clear some recommendations for smell walks applications.
The human organs of perception are constantly bombarded with chemicals from the environment. Our bodies have in turn developed complex processing systems, which manifest themselves in our emotions, memory, and language. Yet the available data on the high order cognitive implications of taste and smell are scattered among journals in many fields, with no single source synthesizing the large body of knowledge, much of which has appeared in the last decade. This book presents the first multidisciplinary synthesis of the literature in olfactory and gustatory cognition. Leading experts have written chapters on many facets of taste and smell, including odor memory, cortical representations, psychophysics and functional imaging studies, genetic variation in taste, and the hedonistic dimensions of odors. The approach is integrative, combining perspectives from neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics, and is appropriate for students and researchers in all of these areas who seek an authoritative reference on olfaction, taste, and cognition.
The human organs of perception are constantly bombarded with chemicals from the environment. Our bodies have in turn developed complex processing systems, which manifest themselves in our emotions, memory, and language. Yet the available data on the high order cognitive implications of taste and smell are scattered among journals in many fields, with no single source synthesizing the large body of knowledge, much of which has appeared in the last decade. This book presents the first multidisciplinary synthesis of the literature in olfactory and gustatory cognition. Leading experts have written chapters on many facets of taste and smell, including odor memory, cortical representations, psychophysics and functional imaging studies, genetic variation in taste, and the hedonistic dimensions of odors. The approach is integrative, combining perspectives from neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics, and is appropriate for students and researchers in all of these areas who seek an authoritative reference on olfaction, taste, and cognition.
The human organs of perception are constantly bombarded with chemicals from the environment. Our bodies have in turn developed complex processing systems, which manifest themselves in our emotions, memory, and language. Yet the available data on the high order cognitive implications of taste and smell are scattered among journals in many fields, with no single source synthesizing the large body of knowledge, much of which has appeared in the last decade. This book presents the first multidisciplinary synthesis of the literature in olfactory and gustatory cognition. Leading experts have written chapters on many facets of taste and smell, including odor memory, cortical representations, psychophysics and functional imaging studies, genetic variation in taste, and the hedonistic dimensions of odors. The approach is integrative, combining perspectives from neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics, and is appropriate for students and researchers in all of these areas who seek an authoritative reference on olfaction, taste, and cognition.
The human organs of perception are constantly bombarded with chemicals from the environment. Our bodies have in turn developed complex processing systems, which manifest themselves in our emotions, memory, and language. Yet the available data on the high order cognitive implications of taste and smell are scattered among journals in many fields, with no single source synthesizing the large body of knowledge, much of which has appeared in the last decade. This book presents the first multidisciplinary synthesis of the literature in olfactory and gustatory cognition. Leading experts have written chapters on many facets of taste and smell, including odor memory, cortical representations, psychophysics and functional imaging studies, genetic variation in taste, and the hedonistic dimensions of odors. The approach is integrative, combining perspectives from neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics, and is appropriate for students and researchers in all of these areas who seek an authoritative reference on olfaction, taste, and cognition.
The human organs of perception are constantly bombarded with chemicals from the environment. Our bodies have in turn developed complex processing systems, which manifest themselves in our emotions, memory, and language. Yet the available data on the high order cognitive implications of taste and smell are scattered among journals in many fields, with no single source synthesizing the large body of knowledge, much of which has appeared in the last decade. This book presents the first multidisciplinary synthesis of the literature in olfactory and gustatory cognition. Leading experts have written chapters on many facets of taste and smell, including odor memory, cortical representations, psychophysics and functional imaging studies, genetic variation in taste, and the hedonistic dimensions of odors. The approach is integrative, combining perspectives from neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics, and is appropriate for students and researchers in all of these areas who seek an authoritative reference on olfaction, taste, and cognition.
The human organs of perception are constantly bombarded with chemicals from the environment. Our bodies have in turn developed complex processing systems, which manifest themselves in our emotions, memory, and language. Yet the available data on the high order cognitive implications of taste and smell are scattered among journals in many fields, with no single source synthesizing the large body of knowledge, much of which has appeared in the last decade. This book presents the first multidisciplinary synthesis of the literature in olfactory and gustatory cognition. Leading experts have written chapters on many facets of taste and smell, including odor memory, cortical representations, psychophysics and functional imaging studies, genetic variation in taste, and the hedonistic dimensions of odors. The approach is integrative, combining perspectives from neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics, and is appropriate for students and researchers in all of these areas who seek an authoritative reference on olfaction, taste, and cognition.
The human organs of perception are constantly bombarded with chemicals from the environment. Our bodies have in turn developed complex processing systems, which manifest themselves in our emotions, memory, and language. Yet the available data on the high order cognitive implications of taste and smell are scattered among journals in many fields, with no single source synthesizing the large body of knowledge, much of which has appeared in the last decade. This book presents the first multidisciplinary synthesis of the literature in olfactory and gustatory cognition. Leading experts have written chapters on many facets of taste and smell, including odor memory, cortical representations, psychophysics and functional imaging studies, genetic variation in taste, and the hedonistic dimensions of odors. The approach is integrative, combining perspectives from neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics, and is appropriate for students and researchers in all of these areas who seek an authoritative reference on olfaction, taste, and cognition.
The human organs of perception are constantly bombarded with chemicals from the environment. Our bodies have in turn developed complex processing systems, which manifest themselves in our emotions, memory, and language. Yet the available data on the high order cognitive implications of taste and smell are scattered among journals in many fields, with no single source synthesizing the large body of knowledge, much of which has appeared in the last decade. This book presents the first multidisciplinary synthesis of the literature in olfactory and gustatory cognition. Leading experts have written chapters on many facets of taste and smell, including odor memory, cortical representations, psychophysics and functional imaging studies, genetic variation in taste, and the hedonistic dimensions of odors. The approach is integrative, combining perspectives from neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics, and is appropriate for students and researchers in all of these areas who seek an authoritative reference on olfaction, taste, and cognition.
Background: Lavender is one type of medicinal plants which have long been used for different purposes.
Objective: The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of fragrances of Lavender on the Quality of Sleep, Mood, Team Cohesion and Performance of Women Volleyball Players.
Methods: The participants in this study were 24 women volleyball players from Junior Clubs First Championship League, whom were selected by easy-access method and grouped into two Experimental and Control groups. The experimental group smelled lavender for 21 sessions and 20 minutes for each session. The control group used placebo in this period. Before and after the intervention, data were gathered using Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Questionnaire, Brunel Emotional Questionnaire, Carron, Widemeyer and Brawley, Team Cohesion Questionnaire, Volleyball Service Accuracy Test of AAHPERD and Sargent Jump.
Results: Data were analyzed using co-variance. Findings showed that smelling lavender could have a positive effect on quality of the sleep, mood and group cohesion. However, it had no effect on the performance.
Conclusion: Findings of the study show that the fragrance of Lavender could have an integral effect on improving quality level of the sleep, mood and group cohesion of sports team athletes.
The global essential oil market has been steadily increasing in size over the past few years, and is estimated to reach ca. $7.5 billion USD per annum by 2018. Lavenders (Lavandula; Lamiaceae) contribute significantly to this market, yielding ca. 1500 tons of essential oils which are primarily used in cosmetics, personal care products, and medicines. Recent literature indicates that these oils may also have applications in food preservation and pest control, among others. The medicinal and pharmaceutical properties of lavenders are chiefly due their essential oils, in particular the major essential oil constituents linalool and linalyl acetate, although certain activities have been attributed to the phenolic compounds. In addition, there is evidence that the major and minor essential oil constituents act synergistically to provide various biological effects. A substantial amount of current research focuses on evaluating the biological activities of lavender essential oils for potential use in traditional and complementary medicine, food systems, cosmetic and fragrance formulations, and insect control products. This review examines recent progress in these areas, and highlights the current and future implications for these economically and medicinally valuable plants. © Copyright 2018 Natural Product Communciations Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The present review is concerned with the effects of noise, especially moderate intensity noise on performance. The review covers recent empirical results and theoretical approaches, and examines the importance of the nature of the noise, individual differences in response to noise, and other factors which modify the effects of noise. A central theme of the review is that it is essential to consider the nature of the task being performed in noise, and a profile of strategies of performance in noise is presented. Finally, recommendations are made about the direction and methodology of future research.
One theme in discussing physical activity and stress is the relationship between emotional arousal and motor performance. Different research models have produced converging evidence for the notion that motor performance relates to a state of optimal arousal. Themes emerging from the literature and recommendations for future consideration are examined. (SM)
Memory for a recent event can be expressed explicitly, as conscious recollection, or implicitly, as a facilitation of test performance without conscious recollection. A growing number of recent studies have been concerned with implicit memory and its relation to explicit memory. This article presents an historical survey of observations concerning implicit memory, reviews the findings of contemporary experimental research, and delineates the strengths and weaknesses of alternative theoretical accounts of implicit memory. It is argued that dissociations between implicit and explicit memory have been documented across numerous tasks and subject populations, represent an important challenge for research and theory, and should be viewed in the context of other dissociations between implicit and explicit expressions of knowledge that have been documented in recent cognitive and neuropsychological research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In Experiment 1, some odorous solutions (e.g., strawberry) were rated as smelling stronger when colored (e.g., red) than when colorless. Experiment 2 showed this effect to be due to a perceptual change rather than a response to experimental demand characteristics. Experiment 3 showed that the color-induced increase in odor intensity is not due to subjects' preexperimental experience with particular color-odor combinations, because the increase occurred with novel ones. We conclude that color induces a weak olfactory percept that combines with odorant-induced percepts. The effect may be due to conditioning or may be the result of residual intersensory neural connections left over from infancy.
In order to examine the effect of energy intake at breakfast on school performance the same morning, the parents of ten parallel school classes of 10-year-old school children at five different schools were persuaded to alter their child's breakfast regimen at home over a period of 4 successive days. A total of 195 families were provided with standard breakfasts with either low or high energy content. Uneaten food was returned and weighed. Individual children were randomly assigned to breakfast alternative on any given day. The teachers who carried out the performance assessments at school were blind to treatment condition. Voluntary physical endurance and the performance of a creativity test were significantly better after a breakfast from which children derived over 20% of their recommended daily energy intake than after a breakfast from which they obtained less than 10% of recommended values. The error rate in an addition task was negatively correlated and the rate of working in a number checking task was positively correlated with individual energy intake from the low-energy breakfast. Significantly fewer children reported feeling bad and self-estimates of hunger sensation were lower during the morning at school after the high energy breakfast. Estimates of energy intake at breakfast based on 24-h dietary recall interviews with the children carried out by telephone at their homes showed good correlation with estimates based on returned food (r = 0.89). Energy intake at breakfast as estimated from returned food had no significant effect on energy intake at school lunch as estimated by dietary recall.
There have been several attempts to measure objectively the psychological effects of odours (Dodd and Van Toller, 1983), but as yet no electrical brain wave responses to odours have been confirmed (Allison and Goff, 1967; Pattig and Kobal, 1979; Tonoike and Kurioka, 1982). In this chapter we will look at the psychological effect of odours on brain activity. We will concentrate on odours that are stimulating or sedative.
The effects of various encoding tasks on long-term recognition of odours were examined. Different groups of subjects were instructed (a) to form visual images of the source of the odour, (b) to generate the name of the odour and provide a dictionary-like definition, or (c) to describe a life episode of which the odour reminded them. A no-strategy control was simply told to try to remember the odours for a subsequent recognition test. One week later, subjects performed a yes–no recognition test for the odours. The second and third groups displayed significantly higher recognition than the controls. The visual imagery group did not differ significantly from the control group. The results seem to be accounted for best by dual coding theory.
In order to examine the effect of energy intake at breakfast on school performance the same morning, the parents of ten parallel school classes of 10-year-old school children at five different schools were persuaded to alter their child's breakfast regimen at home over a period of 4 successive days, A total of 195 families were provided with standard breakfasts with either low or high energy content. Uneaten food was returned and weighed. Individual children were randomly assigned to breakfast alternative on any given day. The teachers who carried out the performance assessments at school were blind to treatment condition. Voluntary physical endurance and the performance of a creativity test were significantly better after a breakfast from which children derived over 20% of their recommended daily energy intake than after a breakfast from which they obtained less than 10% of recommended values. The error rate in an addition task was negatively correlated and the rate of working in a number checking task was positively correlated with individual energy intake from the low-energy breakfast. Significantly fewer children reported feeling bad and self-estimates of hunger sensation were lower during the morning at school after the high energy breakfast. Estimates of energy intake at breakfast based on 24-h dietary recall interviews with the children carried out by telephone at their homes showed good correlation with estimates based on returned food (r = 0.89). Energy intake at breakfast as estimated from returned food had no significant effect on energy intake at school lunch as estimated by dietary recall.
This study examined memory for common odors and odor names that were encoded with visual, verbal, and olfactory elaborations. In the first experiment, subjects elaborated olfactory stimuli by processing a picture of the odor's source, a name for the odor, or both. Two control groups were also included: One group was presented only with the odors, and another group was presented only with odor names. One week later, all subjects were given both a free recall test of odor names and an olfactory recognition test. In general, the elaboration groups outperformed the control groups, with the visual and verbal elaboration group demonstrating the best performance. In a second experiment, olfactory imaginal encoding of odor names was compared with visual imaginal encoding of the same names to measure the relative efficacy of same versus different modality encoding on later stimulus recognition. The results showed that olfactory imaginal encoding aided later recognition of odors, and visual imaginal encoding aided later picture recognition. It is suggested that different modalities contribute unique and mnemonically independent information to episodic memory performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Measures of emotional state, physical well-being, performance, and room odor were obtained from subjects given the suggestion of a pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral ambient odor (n= 30 per condition). The hedonic quality of the feigned odor altered self-reports of pleasure, but not dominance or arousal. Subjects given the pleasant suggestion reported a more positive mood. The number of reported physical health symptoms differed as a function of the hedonic quality of the feigned odor. The category corresponding to the fewest number of physical symptoms was predominated by subjects in the pleasant condition, while subjects in the unpleasant condition predominated the category with the greatest number of symptoms. Subjects predicted higher task performance in the unpleasant condition, but no differences were found among conditions in actual performance. Room odor ratings differed in directions consistent with the hedonic quality of the feigned odor. The effects of olfactory suggestion may be relevant to the psychosomatic component of sick building syndrome and to the perception and marketing of fragrance.
In a paired-associate paradigm using odors as stimuli and pictures for multiple-choice responses, the first of two associations to an odor was retained far better than the second over a 2-week period. The persistence of first-learned associations may be responsible for the long lasting nature of odor memories. Subjects reported constructing mediational schemes for mnemonic devices to link the odors and pictures. Latencies for a task of naming odors indicated that although naming odors is difficult, labels could be generated sufficiently fast that they could be employed as mediators in the paired-associate task. A third task investigated the phenomenon of knowing that an odor was familiar but being unable to name it. Subjects in this tip-of-the-nose state were questioned about the odor quality and the name of the odor and were given hints about the name. These subjects were found to have information available about the odor quality but none for the name as found in the tip-of-the-tongue state. However, as in the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, hints given to the subjects in the tip-of-the-nose state often led to the correct name.
Odors were identified by 141 persons before and after a nonolfactory cue was presented. The context cue was a color concept,
either relevant or irrelevant to the odor identity. The color concept was presented as a word or as the color itself. The
familiarity of each odor was judged prior to each identification. The relevant color concepts facilitated identification to
a slight, but reliable, degree. Irrelevant color concepts evoked an increase in wrong identifications. Relevant cues increased
correct second identifications and increased them to an even greater degree if the odors were judged to be highly familiar.
The effects of ambient odor (pleasant, unpleasant, none); odor suggestion (present, absent); and sex of subject on mood and performance measures were explored in a 3 x 2 x 2 experimental design. A total of 40 men and 40 women performed a clerical task and a speed and accuracy task (digit deletion), filled out self-evaluations of mood, predicted performance, and rated the odor quality of the test room. Ambient odor conditions significantly affected room smell ratings, but they had no effect on performance or mood. Odor suggestion produced a significant sex-related interaction effect on the digit deletion task, irrespective of actual ambient odor. The results are discussed with respect to sex differences observed in laboratory studies and in epidemiological investigations of multiple chemical sensitivity and sick building syndrome.
In an experiment 143 subjects were instructed to assign odors to contexts which were displayed in a slide session. The slides depicted contexts from three areas of everyday life which partly contained visual cues related to a presented odor. After rating the fit of each odor to a context, the subjects rated the odors for pleasantness. Analysis showed a strong influence of the visual cue on the rating of fit for the contexts containing an odor-related visual element. In contexts without a visual cue, rating of fit showed an influence of implicitly learned memories of odor. The rating was not affected by the pleasantness of the odors. The 1995 work of Schab and Crowder is critically reviewed, and results are discussed within the framework of new, more ecologically oriented research on memory for odor.
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