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Gender Differences in Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
Two analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in global self-esteem. In analysis I, a computerized literature search yielded 216 effect sizes, representing the testing of 97,121 respondents. The overall effect size was 0.21, a small difference favoring males. A significant quadratic effect of age indicated that the largest effect emerged in late adolescence (d = 0.33). In Analysis II, gender differences were examined using 3 large, nationally representative data sets from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). All of the NCES effect sizes, which collectively summarize the responses of approximately 48,000 young Americans, indicated higher male self-esteem (ds ranged from 0.04 to 0.24). Taken together, the 2 analyses provide evidence that males score higher on standard measures of global self-esteem than females, but the difference is small. Potential reasons for the small yet consistent effect size are discussed.
... Existen algunos estudios que encuentran diferencias de sexo en el autoconcepto general o la autoestima (Chacón-Borrego et al., 2017). Diferentes metaanálisis, que examinaron las diferencias de sexo que incluían múltiples dimensiones del autoconcepto, indicaron que las niñas se ven más favorablemente que los niños en las habilidades verbales, las amistades cercanas y las relaciones con el mismo sexo y, por lo tanto, tenían mejores puntuaciones en el autoconcepto (Kling et al., 1999;Sowislo, & Orth, 2013;Pinquart & Gerke, 2019). Por otro lado, los chicos se ven a sí mismos más favorable que las niñas en las habilidades de matemáticas, la capacidad atlética / coordinación psicomotora, la emoción / afecto, la libertad de la ansiedad y la apariencia física autoconcepto (Kling et al., 1999;Sowislo, & Orth, 2013;Pinquart & Gerke, 2019). ...
... Diferentes metaanálisis, que examinaron las diferencias de sexo que incluían múltiples dimensiones del autoconcepto, indicaron que las niñas se ven más favorablemente que los niños en las habilidades verbales, las amistades cercanas y las relaciones con el mismo sexo y, por lo tanto, tenían mejores puntuaciones en el autoconcepto (Kling et al., 1999;Sowislo, & Orth, 2013;Pinquart & Gerke, 2019). Por otro lado, los chicos se ven a sí mismos más favorable que las niñas en las habilidades de matemáticas, la capacidad atlética / coordinación psicomotora, la emoción / afecto, la libertad de la ansiedad y la apariencia física autoconcepto (Kling et al., 1999;Sowislo, & Orth, 2013;Pinquart & Gerke, 2019). Por lo tanto, en la medida en que el sexo está relacionado con las dimensiones del autoconcepto y, posiblemente, con la autoestima, debe considerarse en la comprensión de la relación entre el uso de la tecnología de la información, el autoconcepto y la autoestima (Kling et al., 1999;Sowislo, & Orth, 2013;Pinquart & Gerke, 2019). ...
... Por otro lado, los chicos se ven a sí mismos más favorable que las niñas en las habilidades de matemáticas, la capacidad atlética / coordinación psicomotora, la emoción / afecto, la libertad de la ansiedad y la apariencia física autoconcepto (Kling et al., 1999;Sowislo, & Orth, 2013;Pinquart & Gerke, 2019). Por lo tanto, en la medida en que el sexo está relacionado con las dimensiones del autoconcepto y, posiblemente, con la autoestima, debe considerarse en la comprensión de la relación entre el uso de la tecnología de la información, el autoconcepto y la autoestima (Kling et al., 1999;Sowislo, & Orth, 2013;Pinquart & Gerke, 2019). ...
Adolescence is the period of growth where major changes occur in all the dimensions that make up the human being. Also, the great current use of new technologies should be considered, specifically for this age group, the video games. The main aim of this study was to explore the relationship between the use of a video game in the field of Physical Education and the development of self-concept in adolescents, taking into account differences by sex. In addition, the effect of the video game used in the practice of the individual technique in basketball was analyzed. The analyses revealed that there was no improvement in self-concept in either the experimental or the control group, but that there were differences between sexes. Girls showed a greater improvement in physical and emotional self-concept than boys. In the case of basketball, there were improvements in individual basketball technique in both groups as well as by sex. In this way, it can be concluded that the use of video games in adolescence can positively influence the improvement of the individual basketball technique and the self-concept of girls.
... However, higher self-evaluation does not necessarily lead to better performance. For example, men usually rate themselves higher than women do, particularly concerning self-esteem (Bleidorn et al. 2016;Kling et al. 1999;Robins et al. 2002). Yet, they typically do not perform better than women, which suggests that men are more likely to be overconfident (Beyer 1990;Niederle and Vesterlund 2011;Soll and Klayman 2004). ...
... The survey results are in line with Bleidorn et al. (2016), who find that men have higher self-esteem than women. Furthermore, they are consistent with previous research showing that individual selfevaluation increases until middle adulthood before it gradually starts to decrease (Bleidorn et al. 2016;Kling et al. 1999;Robins et al. 2002). Finally, they confirm the findings of Croson and Gneezy (2009) and Eckel and Grossman (2008) indicating that women are more risk-averse than men. ...
We analyze the impact of psychological pressure on performance with over 5500 handball
penalties thrown in either the decisive stage or the rest of the game during matches of the
2019/2020 season in the first three German handball leagues. Contrary to the choking under
pressure phenomenon, most of the analyzed players perform best when it matters the most.
The positive effect of pressure on performance is highest when the score is even or when the
thrower’s team is lagging. We control for gender and psychological traits assessed with
a survey. In our sample, female players score with a higher probability than male players. The
positive impact of pressure is not significantly higher for female players.
... Meta-analyses testing for gender differences in self-esteem have pointed to significant but modest differences favoring males. In one meta-analysis (Kling, Hyde, Showers, & Buswell, 1999), there was a small difference with males higher than females (d = .21). When age was considered as a moderator, larger differences occurred during late adolescence (d = .33) ...
... Besides age level, ethnic background appears to be another important moderator (Kling et al., 1999). Significant average gender differences in self-esteem were ...
This chapter presents contemporary theory and research on children's gender development from a social-cognitive perspective. The author first examines contemporary social-cognitive theories and conceptual models pertinent to the study of gender development. These include cognitive-developmental, information-processing, intergroup, and motivational approaches. Second, he summarizes the development of children's gender cognitions and examines their ramifications for a variety of areas, including gender stereotyping, attitudes, prejudice, self-concepts, and gender as a social identity. Third, he considers possible causes and consequences of gender-typed play. In the fourth section, the author reviews research on gender similarities and differences in children's competencies in academic achievement (including verbal, spatial, mathematical, science, and artistic domains), athletic achievement, interpersonal competence, and intrapersonal competence, among others. Fifth, he highlights some of the individual and social-relational influences on gender-related variations in performance and achievement. The chapter closes by advocating for future work that offers more theory-bridging and replications of prior empirical research.
... The failure to include abuse and maltreatment in large-scale studies on self-esteem in children, adolescents and young adults in the US was not because there had been a dearth of research studies in lower self-esteem levels in women and girls. A frequently cited review of research by Kling et al. (1999) [68] examined 216 US studies which reported consistent differences in self-esteem in women and girls, larger differences being recorded in 14-to 18-year-olds. They surmised, without supporting data, that young women put greater stress than men on presenting themselves as physically attractive, their subjective failure to achieve this being reflected in poorer self-esteem. ...
... The failure to include abuse and maltreatment in large-scale studies on self-esteem in children, adolescents and young adults in the US was not because there had been a dearth of research studies in lower self-esteem levels in women and girls. A frequently cited review of research by Kling et al. (1999) [68] examined 216 US studies which reported consistent differences in self-esteem in women and girls, larger differences being recorded in 14-to 18-year-olds. They surmised, without supporting data, that young women put greater stress than men on presenting themselves as physically attractive, their subjective failure to achieve this being reflected in poorer self-esteem. ...
World research has shown that adolescent and young adult women and girls have significantly “poorer” self-esteem than men and boys, on a variety of previously validated self-esteem measures. There is no consensus on reasons for this, and a variety of factors have been proposed: some adolescent girls have a preoccupation with facial and body features, and this leads to a global negative evaluation of self-characteristics; the measures themselves are biased towards describing self-characteristics on which men and boys are likely to evaluate themselves more favourably; and in an often-sexist world, women and girls experience (or anticipate) many structural disadvantages, in education, career and promotion, which lead girls to “internalise” an image of themselves as less able or worthy than men and boys. A separate literature on the sexual abuse and exploitation of children and adolescents has found that (a) sexual exploitation and maltreatment often has a sequel in impaired self-concept and self-esteem and (b) sexual maltreatment is twice as likely to occur in women and girls. It is puzzling that differential levels of child sexual abuse have not been advanced in many studies as an explanation of gender differences in self-esteem in the large-scale studies we review, although this effect is confirmed by clinical and social work literature.
... Adriaensens et al. (2015) extended this result to PWS by showing that also among PWS, adolescent females report lower self-esteem than male PWS of the same age. Furthermore, in the general population, the sex of a person seems to moderate the curvilinear relationship between self-esteem and age, such that self-esteem in adolescent females drops substantially more than self-esteem in agematched males, as supported by large-scale studies and a meta-analysis (e.g., Kling et al., 1999;Robins et al., 2002). ...
... In line with Adriaensens et al. (2015) and Iverach et al. (2017), we found that adolescent females who stutter reported more adverse impact of their stuttering than their male counterparts, but that the sex difference among children (Bernardini et al., 2009) and adults (Bleek et al., 2012;Freud et al., 2017;Vanryckeghem & Brutten, 2011) was marginal. Our results are also in line with other findings in that sex may moderate the curvilinear relationship between psychosocial health and age (Kling et al., 1999;Robins et al., 2002;Salk et al., 2017). Underlying factors contributing to why female adolescent PWS are more negatively affected by their stuttering than males may be analogous to what is considered by Hyde and Mezulis (2020) to be factors contributing to the sex difference in the development of depression (a difference that appears at the age of 12 years), which is found to be twice as common in females than in males. ...
Purpose
We aimed to cross-sectionally describe the impact of stuttering on persons who stutter (PWS): children, adolescents, and young adults. Based on previous research on PWS and psychosocial health in the general population, we hypothesized that (a) the adverse impact of stuttering in PWS would be larger among adolescents than children and young adults and that (b) females, especially adolescent females, would report being more adversely impacted by their stuttering than males.
Method
We pooled samples of Swedish PWS, obtaining 162 individuals (75 females and 87 males), aged 7–30 years. We measured the impact of stuttering using age-relevant versions of the Overall Assessment of the Speaker's Experience of Stuttering (OASES). The relationship between OASES score, age, and sex was described using a polynomial model with an interaction term between age and sex to allow for potential differences between females and males' age-related curves.
Results
The average trends were that (a) the impact of stuttering was greater for the adolescents than for the children and young adults, and (b) females, especially adolescent females, were on average more impacted by their stuttering than males. Taking self-reported speech fluency into account did not change this pattern.
Conclusions
In line with findings on psychosocial health, communication attitude, and self-esteem in the general population, the impact of stuttering seems to be particularly adverse among adolescents, especially female adolescents. Thus, clinicians need to be aware of the risk that young girls who stutter may develop a negative attitude to speech and communication, and this should also be communicated to caregivers and teachers.
Supplemental Material
https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.21554877
... Earlier studies show that there are gender differences in the level of self-esteem (Kling et al., 1999;Robins & Trzesniewski, 2005;Damota et al., 2019). McMullin & Cairney (2004) confirm that in groups of higher age the level of self-esteem is lower for both, men and women. ...
... As this gender gap persists into adulthood, adult women are likely to have lower self-esteem than adult men. Numerous studies address the reasons why womens' self-esteem declines in adolescence (Kling et al., 1999;Robins & Trzesniewski, 2005). The following trend is shown: Self-esteem is high in childhood, drops during adolescence, rises throughout adulthood, and declines in old age. ...
Purpose: Successful completion of higher education is a significant factor of both individual and national development. Self-esteem has been neglected in previous empirical research as a constraint in course completion. We investigate this factor as a basis to develop suitable interventions. Design/Method/Approach: We use secondary, administrative data of course completion from fully accredited Bachelor- and Master-courses at an Austrian higher education institution. Findings: Self-Esteem, using measures of social comparison and gender as proxies, lead to reductions of successful completion of higher education. Theoretical Implications: Internal constraints, i.e. fragile self-esteem, impacts course completion in higher education. Practical Implications: National and educational institutions aiming at supporting students should focus on emotional support programs alongside professional support programs. Originality/Value: We offer tentative first evidence of a novel theory on the impact of fragile self-esteem on intertemporal choices, applied to the context of higher education. Research Limitations/Future Research: An empirical analysis of higher education performance based on a model unifying both ability and self-esteem constraints would provide an ambitious, but interesting avenue for further research. Acknowledgement: We thank the participants of the Coffee, Cake & Research seminar in the department for Business Administration Online for insightful comments and feedback. We thank Brigitte Auer, Christina Hackhofer and Maria Pammer for helpful conversations. We thank Jochen Frühwirth for data retrieval. Paper type: Empirical
... Meanwhile, body image is how one views his physical self, including whether one feels that he is attractive and whether others like his looks. A meta-analysis of selfesteem studies, conducted in Western industrialized nations have confirmed that women's self-esteem is moderately, but significantly lower than men's; moreover the average gender difference is greatest during middle adolescence, peaking at around 16 years of age [14]. This is reinforced by a self-esteem growth-curve analysis, which modeled developmental patterns over seven years both between and within adolescents in a metropolitan area of the Midwestern US [15]. ...
For a long time, men and women have been bedazzled by their own image or self-concept, primarily because it has conversely been shaped by the demands of society. Adolescence is characterized by considerable changes in terms of physical, social, cognitive, and emotional development. For adults, they gain broader and tempered perspectives brought by some measures of maturity, better exposure to various influencing agents like media, family, peer and colleague and other socializing agents, and improved sense of identity. This study compared the adolescents and adults' perspectives on body image to further understand the intricacies of body image as people go through domains of physical, emotional, cognitive and social maturity. Findings revealed that the adolescents considered self-aggrandizement as having modest influence on body image perspectives. However, body acceptance, physical contact, sex and sexuality and vitality greatly contributed to their perspectives on body image. The adolescents manifested great self-esteem and self-optimism but had moderate valuation of their self-outcome while the adults had displayed great valuation self-esteem, self-optimism and self-outcome. The adolescents and adults had similar ranking of factors that influence body image perspectives. Among adolescents in descending order, the top-three most influential factors on body image perspectives were: parents, peers, and sibling while adults considered the top-three influencing factors as: parents, siblings and peers. Therefore, home factors such as the influence of parents, siblings and peers remained to be rich fertile areas where perspectives on body image are formed.
... As mobile phone use and self-esteem are negatively associated (Hong et al., 2012), female university students may have low self-esteem. Despite the small difference, males have higher scores on the standard measures of global self-esteem when compared to females (Kling et al., 1999), and a cross-cultural comparison showed that males report higher self-esteem than females (Bleidorn et al., 2016). ...
p style="text-align: justify;">Due to the notably increased penetration of smartphone use among university students and the alarming risk it poses to both physical and mental health, this study investigated mobile phone addiction among university students concerning student characteristics, mobile phone usage behaviors, and mobile phone use purposes and situations. The participants of this study were 600 university students, who were selected according to the convenience sampling method from different departments in Türkiye. The data were collected using the student characteristics form and the Mobile Phone Addiction Scale. The correlational research method was followed in the study. The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results showed that students clustered as addicted and non-addicted had different mobile phone use behaviors on account of daily smartphone use duration, internet use duration on a smartphone, and daily smartphone check frequency. Being a female at a lower grade level and using mobile phones mostly at night made students more vulnerable to mobile phone addiction. Additionally, the results indicated a significant positive moderate correlation between internet use duration, daily smartphone use duration, daily smartphone check frequency, and mobile phone addiction scores. Lastly, checking social media apps, messaging, and editing photos significantly contributed to mobile phone addiction scores. Among the mobile phone use situations, when getting bored, during lessons, when watching TV or movies, and when being alone significantly contributed to mobile phone addiction scores. This study provided a thorough discussion and a set of recommendations. </p
... The most important question that emerges from our data is why female physicians feel less confident and insecure while working in their OBGYN discipline. As self-esteem is one of the most widely studied constructs in the social science, Manne-Goehler et al. was one of the first studies that explored the relationship among self-esteem, gender, and career outcomes in academic medicine [21][22][23]. Although the author demonstrated that female doctors generally have a lower self-esteem compared to their male counterparts, the magnitude of the difference was small; making them argue that this construct seems not to be the missing mediator between gender and professional Fig. 2 Feeling of confidence in being prepared for working as a specialist stratified by gender and country. ...
Introduction
Gender disparities exist in the OBGYN discipline. This study investigates, for the first time, whether gender impacts on the confidence of practical and surgical skills among OBGYN residents, and of being prepared to work as a specialist.
Methods
The gynecological societies of Austria, Germany, and Switzerland established a web-based survey of 30 questions that was sent to all registered OBGYN members-in-training from August to September 2020. Data collection, controlling and analysis were performed by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (ETH).
Results
A total of 422 participants took part in the survey, of which 375 (88.9%) were female, 46 (10.9%) were male, and one (0.2%) was divers. The diverse participant was excluded from further analyses. The gender distribution was comparable in all three countries. Multiple regression analyses showed that gender is an independent variable significantly impacting on the confidence levels in performing standard gynaecological (p = 0.03) and obstetric (p < 0.001) procedures. Similarly, the feeling of confidence in being prepared for working as a specialist in a clinic showed to be gender-dependent (p < 0.001), however, not the feeling of being prepared for working as specialist in an outpatient setting (p = 0.37). The “female factor” significantly decreases the confidence rating for surgical and practical skills and for working in a hospital. Covariates including year of training, country, workload, receiving regular feedback, and implemented simulation training were included in all analyses.
Discussion
Improvements of residency programs to promote female doctors to overcome factors reducing their confidence in their own OBGYN skills are highly warranted.
... These results are consistent with previous research that found no significant gender differences in self-esteem levels. The authors of the meta-analysis conducted by Kling, Hyde, Showers, and Buswell (1999) [11] concluded that there were no significant differences between males and females in terms of self-esteem levels. Similarly, Twenge and Crocker (2002) [12] found no significant differences in self-esteem between males and females in their sample. ...
This research paper investigates the relationship between body shape and self-esteem among students. The study used BMI to assess body shape and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale to measure self-esteem among 80 participants. Statistical tools such as mean, standard deviation, and correlation were utilized to determine the relationship between the two variables. The results showed that body shape did not significantly impact self-esteem, challenging societal norms that emphasize the importance of achieving a certain body shape to improve self-esteem. The study suggests that interventions aimed at improving self-esteem should consider individual factors such as social support and personality traits. This article provides valuable insights that may inform interventions aimed at enhancing self-esteem in individuals and represents a significant contribution to the field of psychology.
... First, women are more likely to receive prejudice in their work (Eagly and Karau, 2002), which may damage their CDSE. Second, early studies found that men tend to report higher levels of self-esteem (Kling et al., 1999) and academic self-efficacy (Huang, 2013) than women. Finally, early studies found that women report lower CDSE than men Xin et al., 2020), further suggesting potential gender differences in this construct. ...
Purpose
This study aims to examine the antecedents of career decision self-efficacy (CDSE) and provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence this critical construct in career development and decision-making.
Design/methodology/approach
This study employed a meta-analysis of 43 independent studies, comprising 90 correlations and 17,143 participants. The Hunter-Schmidt method meta-analysis was used to analyze the data and identify the factors associated with CDSE. Random-effect meta-regression analysis was applied to detect the potential moderators.
Findings
The study found that CDSE is positively associated with social support ( ρ = 0.41), age ( ρ = 0.05), agreeableness ( ρ = 0.23), conscientiousness ( ρ = 0.48), emotional intelligence ( ρ = 0.48), extraversion ( ρ = 0.41), openness ( ρ = 0.35) and proactive personality ( ρ = 0.68), while negatively related to neuroticism ( ρ = −0.33). Furthermore, the results indicate that sample gender (%female) and mean age partially moderate the relationship between CDSE and age, core-self evaluations and neuroticism.
Originality/value
In this study, the authors have contributed significantly to the existing research on CDSE antecedents by conducting a thorough analysis of the various factors associated with this critical construct. The findings offer an accurate understanding of the factors that influence CDSE, and this paper's moderation analysis sheds light on the boundary conditions in the CDSE literature. Moreover, this research has practical implications for practitioners such as teachers, parents and career counselors. By leveraging the insights gained from this study, practitioners can provide more effective career support and intervention to young people, which can help increase their CDSE and improve their overall career development and well-being.
... According to social set up of our general public males are probably going to have more opportunities to foster a regard and deference about themselves, it very well may be the explanation of higher selfesteem in male sportspersons. The findings of this study are supported by the studies of Kling, Hyde, Showers and Buswell (1999) [9] , Twenge and Campbell (2001) [22] , Robins, Trzesniewski, Tracy, Gosling and Potter (2002) [19] , Polce-Lynch, Myers, Kliewer and Kilmartin (2000) [18] , Frost and McKelvie (2004) [7] , Orth, Robins and Widaman, (2012) [14] , Shaw, Liang and Krause (2010), Malik and Sadia (2013) [11] , Nupur and Mahapatro (2016) [13] , Parmar (2014) [16] . However, no significant difference found between male and female sportspersons with regard to sub-variables positivity and learning orientation. ...
The purpose of this study was to measure the level of self-esteem of college sportspersons and to compare the attributes of self-esteem between male and female sportspersons. Total sample of 182 college sportspersons, studying in different colleges affiliated to Panjab University, Chandigarh from the regions of Sri Muktsar Sahib and Fazilka districts of Punjab state, were selected for this study. The purposive sampling was utilized to pick male and female college sportspersons. All the selected subjects were aged 19 to 25 years. Self-esteem Scale (SES-DSDU) developed by Dhar and Dhar (2015) was applied to survey the self-esteem of college sportspersons. To figure out the total self-esteem level of college sportspersons, percentage method was applied. Independent t-test was used to know the difference between male and female college sportspersons. The significance level was set at 0.05. Most of the college sportspersons (55%) had normal self-esteem. While 31% of sportspersons had high and 14% had low self-esteem. Male college sportspersons had significantly higher level of competence, humility, self-worth and self-esteem (total) as compared to female college sportspersons. No significant difference was found with regard to positivity and learning orientation between male and female college sportspersons.
... In contrast, women have more collectivistic attitudes towards self, wherein the representation of others and significant relationships constitute a distinctive part of the self. Various factors including gender roles, peer interactions and cultural emphasis on a woman's physical appearance (27) could also impact the selfesteem. ...
Background:
The Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES) is the most commonly used tool for measuring global self-esteem. Till date, RSES has been translated into different languages and the reports are good for their validity and reliability. Telugu being the fourth most spoken language in India, it is timely to translate and validate the Telugu version of RSES. The aim of this study thus is to assess the psychometric properties of the Telugu version of Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES-T).
Study design:
Cross-sectional study.
Methods:
This study was carried out to assess the psychometric properties of RSES-T among undergraduate students of a dental college. For this purpose, the English version of RSES was translated into Telugu and was administered to the participants along with the revised English version of Self-Liking/Self-Competence Scale (SL/SC-R) to evaluate the construct validity. The internal consistency of RSES-T was assessed using Cronbach´s α and the temporal stability was tested by test-retest reliability. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to examine the underlying dimensional structure of the questionnaire by assessing the cor-relation of RSES-T with SL/SC-R.
Results:
Confirmatory factor analysis revealed a positive one-factor structure with Model 3 showing the best fit to data. Internal consistency for RSES-T was found to be good with Cronbach's α of 0.82 at follow-up and the test-retest reliability was found to be satisfactory (0.42) after a two weeks' interval. Furthermore, the item-wise mean score differences showed higher scores for male students than females. Likewise, the item-total correlation of RSES-T showed positive correlation with scores varying from 0.17 to 0.69 at the follow-up.
Conclusion:
The Telugu version of RSES exhibited a unidimensional structure and showed good psychometric properties in terms of internal consistency, construct validity and reliability. Hence, these findings provide empirical support to evaluate global self-esteem among Telugu speaking population in future.
... This area pertains to the relationship that women have with themselves and presents questions regarding self-esteem, as indicated by previous authors, which defines global self-esteem as the positivity of one's overall regard for oneself as a person [66]. This gender gap is also aligned with the studies of Zuckerman et al., which highlighted that at every stage of life, there is a difference in self-perception in favor of males, both in terms of global and specific self-esteem [69][70][71]. So, taken together, these observations suggest that gender-gap-related issues are far from being solved and should be a priority in the policymakers' agenda. ...
Happiness is receiving more and more interest both as a determinant of health and a measure of outcome in biomedical and psychological sciences. The main objective of this study was to assess how the levels of happiness vary in a large sample of Italian adults and to identify the socio-demographic conditions which impair happiness domains the most. The participants of this survey consisted of 1695 Italian adults (85.9% women; 14.1% men) who completed the Measure of Happiness (MH) questionnaire online. In this study, the differences between groups in total and single domain (life perspective, psychophysical status, socio-relational sphere, relational private sphere, and financial status) happiness levels were examined through a propensity score matching analysis with respect to socio-demographic conditions, including gender, age, annual income, relationship status, having children, and education level. The results show that low income has a negative impact on happiness levels, whereas being in a relationship has a positive effect. Having children appears to have a negative impact on male happiness. Males appear to be happier than females, especially with regard to the psychophysics status. This evidence emphasizes the urgency for Italian policymakers to take actions on removing obstacles to people’s happiness, especially with regard to financial distress, parenthood, and gender gaps.
... For example, self-esteem, including gender, may also include previous research on gender differences in self-esteem related to self-awareness emotions or gender. Strong, self-esteem female students of male students (McMullin & Cairney, 2004),but in some of the studies, the gender related results are different (Kling, Hyde, Showers & Buswell, 1999). In the development of self-esteem, demonstration, and performance influence, gender is often asserted. ...
Self-esteem and test anxiety have been studied closely on the premises of academic settings, since researchers has shown that they have a close interaction with each other. The major drive of the present study was to explore the level of test anxiety and self-esteem of the students of university regarding their gender difference and to determine the relation between test anxiety and self-esteem. Random sample of 73 students (30 male and 43 female) of two leading public sector universities were selected. Data for the present study were collected from the departments of social sciences only with the help of two types of inventories which were: Self Esteem by Todd. F. Heatherton and Spielberger's State Anxiety Inventory. After collection of data, it was statistically treated and scores of male and female students were compared. T-test, correlation and mean analyses were run for statistical significance of data. Results of the study revealed that a significant negative relationship exists between test anxiety and self-esteem of students. It was also found that female students have significantly higher level of test anxiety as compared to male students. Further a significant difference was found between male and female students on self-esteem, which indicates that male students have high score on self-esteem as compared to female students. By keeping in view, the findings of present research it is concluded that test anxiety is one of the factors which are responsible for students' self-esteem.
... The small number of participants is the first limitation, and it would be appropriate to replicate such a study by increasing the number of (male and female) adolescents. In particular, this would make it possible to test for gender differences in these effects of selfesteem on health and social outcomes (e.g., Kling, Hyde, Showers & Buswell, 1999;Reid, 2004). We also mentioned the potential interest in examining the effects of domain-specific self-esteem instead of general self-esteem to capture at best what is at stake in the adolescents' health outcomes relative to a specific context of life. ...
Can self-esteem reduce the deleterious effects of solitude on adolescents' mental and social health? Solitude is twofold because it can be chosen (self-determined) or forced (not self-determined). When it is not a chosen behavior (e.g., social ignorance, exclusion, or fear of others' judgment), individuals experience higher levels of anxiety and depression and feel the deleterious effects of loneliness more. On the other hand, the level of self-esteem relates positively to lower levels of anxiety and depression as well as to good social relationships. We hypothesized that self-esteem moderates the effects of unchosen solitude. Eighty high school students participated in this study by filling out a self-report booklet of questionnaires. We first examine the links between unchosen solitude and anxiety, depression, loneliness, hopelessness, and quality of the connection to family and peers; next, we examine the moderating role of self-esteem in these links. Regression analyses confirm the classic negative effect of not-self-determined solitude on the health outcomes considered, and moderation analyses show that a good level of self-esteem decreases this effect, at least on depression, hopelessness, and connection to peers. We suggest further studies to complete and refine these results and propose to assess more systematically the adolescents' self-esteem and to reinforce it to prevent negative mental and social health outcomes.
... Finally, the gender comparison of self-esteem scores revealed no significant differences between men and women, both when using the RSES or the A-SISE. In the original and German validations of the SISE [50], as well as other previous research using different measures (e.g., [82,83]), male participants generally exhibit significantly higher self-esteem scores than females. However, gender differences in self-esteem have been shown to vary across cultures, and to be more pronounced in Western industrialized high-income countries [84]; which might explain our findings. ...
Background: Meta-analytic findings documented a substantial impact of self-esteem on a broad range of psychological and behavioral indicators, thus highlighting its high clinical relevance. Proving a simple and cost-effective measure of global self-esteem to the Arabic-speaking community, who mostly live in low- and middle-income countries, and where research may be challenging, would be highly valuable. In this context, we sought to investigate the psychometric characteristics of an Arabic translation of the Single-Item Self-Esteem Scale (A-SISE) in terms of factor structure, reliability, and construct validity.
Methods: A total of 451 participants were enrolled between October and December 2022. An anonymous self-administered Google Forms link was shared on WhatsApp. To examine the factor structure of the A-SISE, we used the FACTOR software. We conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA), using a principal component analysis on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) items first, then after adding the A-SISE.
Results: The results of the EFA of the RSES revealed two factors (F1=negatively-worded items; F2= positively-worded items), which explained 60.63% of the common variance. When adding the A-SISE, the two-factor solution obtained explained 58.74% of the variance, with the A-SISE loading on the second factor. Both RSES and A-SISE correlated significantly and positively with each other, as well as with extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, open mindedness and satisfaction with life. Moreover, they correlated significantly and negatively with negative emotionality and depression.
Conclusion: These results suggest that the A-SISE is a simple-to-use, cost-effective, valid and reliable measure of self-esteem. We thus recommend its use in future research among Arabic-speaking people in Arab clinical and research settings, particularly when researchers are limited by time or resources constraints.
... First, gender differences in psychological variables (e.g., self-esteem and computer self-efficacy) can vary across different periods over the life span. For instance, a metaanalysis has shown increases in gender differences in self-esteem from childhood to adolescence, yet smaller differences in older populations (Kling et al., 1999). Second, context (e.g., type of instruction and knowledge of being observed) influences the magnitude of gender differences found in different domains (e.g., helping and aggression). ...
... The gender-specific differences made us think that girls might have more negative assessments of self and life than boys. Nevertheless, our finding on self-esteem is consistent with previous research (Bachman et al., 2011;Baldwin & Hoffmann, 2002a, b;Bleidorn et al., 2016;Frost & McKelvie, 2004;Kling et al., 1999;Moksnes & Espnes, 2013). On the other hand, the findings on gender-specific differences in life satisfaction are remarkable. ...
Although previous research demonstrated that greater mindfulness may contribute to life satisfaction, less is unclosed about such an association and the mechanisms potentially explaining it during adolescence. The present study aimed to explore the role of self-esteem and social competence in the mindfulness-life satisfaction relationship in a sample of Turkish adolescents. The sample consisted of 406 adolescents aged 14–18 years (Mage = 16.01, SD = 1.15; 62.32% girls). We collected the data using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale-Adolescent (MAAS-A), the Perceived Competence Scale (PCS-S), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). The findings revealed significant positive correlations between mindfulness, social competence, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. Our findings support two ways of explaining this relationship: the mediating role of self-esteem (indirect effect = 0.04; 95% CI: 0.03—0.06), accounting for a total effect of 0.06 and a ratio of 66.67%, and the serial mediating role of social competence and self-esteem (indirect effect = 0.02; 95% CI: 0.01—0.03), accounting for a total effect of 0.06 and a ratio of 33.33%. In addition, the results of the multi-group analysis showed no significant difference between boys and girls in a model where mindfulness predicts life satisfaction. Overall, our study may shed light on a possible process in which mindfulness boosts life satisfaction among adolescents.
... Thus, we hypothesised that self-esteem moderates the link between psychological growth and subjective well-being (H3). As self-esteem is gender-specific favouring males [70][71][72][73][74], we used divorced individuals' gender as a covariate. ...
Prior research has mainly examined non-adaptive responses to divorce, with less attention being paid to positive changes following the adversity of marital dissolution, especially posttraumatic growth and its consequences. The aim of this paper was to analyse the relationship between posttraumatic growth and subjective well-being, as well as the mediating and moderating role of self-esteem in this relationship among divorced men and women. The sample consisted of 209 divorcees (143 females, 66 males) aged 23–80 (M = 41.97, SD = 10.72). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI), the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES) were used in the study. Positive associations between overall posttraumatic growth, specific growth dimensions, subjective well-being and self-esteem were found. Self-esteem was confirmed as a mediator in the relationships between changes in perception of self and subjective well-being (SWB), between changes in relating to others and SWB and between appreciation for life and SWB. Self-esteem moderated the association between spiritual changes and subjective well-being; namely, changes in spirituality were positively related to happiness in individuals with lower and average self-esteem but not with high self-esteem. We found no differences between women and men in the obtained results. Self-esteem might be considered a possible psychological (mediating rather than moderating) mechanism in the transmission of PTG onto SWB in divorcees, regardless of their gender.
... Diseth et al. (2014) detail their study of 6-8 th grade students, describing that despite better academic performance girls had lower levels of self-esteem. A meta-analysis by Kling et al. (1999) demonstrates a difference across all ages (including adults) in self-esteem in favour of males, and most importantly, that this difference varies greatly by age, with adolescence being the time when the greatest gender gap in self-esteem was measured. The more recent meta-analysis of Zuckerman et al. (2016) found similar outcomes, with self-esteem in favour of males, and that the difference is greatest during adolescence. ...
There are many ways in which communication practices can be gendered. It is important to recognise and understand how, why, and in what contexts these can be observed. This paper focusses specifically on children and the context of formal schooling, analysing the empirical data and connecting it with theoretical analyses to provide an overall picture of gendered communication amongst children in educational contexts, especially with regard to classroom discussion. This paper demonstrates that masculine dominance in communication is present in children’s communication, and explanations for this occurrence fall on traditional gender stereotypes that still linger, to greater and lesser degrees, in all parts of our society, including education. Therefore, it is incumbent upon educators to be aware of this threat to gender equitable learning and plan accordingly.
... It is quite difficult to find the direct connection between Self-acceptance and gender in existing research, however, aggregating cross-sectional studies state that men have higher self-esteem than women (Huang, 2010;Kling, Hyde, Showers, & Buswell, 1999.;Orth & Robins, 2014;Robins & Trzesniewski, 2005;Trzesniewski, Donnellan, & Robins, 2013). ...
When talking about human well-being, Unconditional Self-acceptance represents one of the cores. Although researchers have focused on various predictors of Acceptance, there is not a clear understanding of personal values impacting the process of accepting oneself. The aim of the research was to explore the association between basic values and unconditional self-acceptance, and to find out the role of psychological flexibility in this relationship. 370 participants filled the questionnaires to explore basic values, unconditional self-acceptance and psychological flexibility. As data showed, self-transcendence and openness to change predict higher level of psychological flexibility, however, only openness to change possesses positive predictive power for unconditional self-acceptance. Mediation model indicates that basic value system of openness to changes is the one, which reflected on individual’s higher psychological flexibility, and through this flexibility she/he achieves higher level of unconditional self-acceptance. The research confirmed a unique role of openness to change in association with self-acceptance which might be an important insight for clinical psychologists as well as for mental health professionals. Keywords: basic value systems, psychological flexibility, quantitative research, unconditional self-acceptance.
... This applies in principle to both males and females. Incidentally, evidence shows that males appear to have higher self-esteem (Srivastava & Joshi, 2014;Bagley et al., 1997) while other studies emphasize that self-esteem differences between both genders are not significant (Kling et al., 1999). An examination of the relevant literature, however, consisting in part of an abundance of evidence which shows that males tend to report consistently higher self-esteem compared to females (e.g. ...
This study aims primarily to investigate the relationship between Self-esteem (SE) and Reading Motivation (RM) among EFL university students in Morocco. Another aim of this research is to examine the role of gender in shaping this relationship. A questionnaire on SE, RM and socio-biographical data was completed by one hundred and eighty (N = 180) participants of undergraduate and graduate levels. Bivariate statistical analyses showed low significant correlational results using standardized summed scores of SE and RM. Moderately significant results have been observed based on SE and RM factors extracted using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) after both constructs were shown to have acceptable internal consistency. Using structural equation modeling (SEM), we evaluated a direct effect measurement model to investigate the unidirectional impact of SE on RM and its concordance with the structural model. Corresponding results revealed acceptable goodness-of-fit indexes indicating the validity of the structural model and demonstrating a positive effect of SE on RM. The examination of gender-based scores showed that there was no significant difference between males and females both in SE and RM.
... Während das Selbstbewusstsein in der Kindheit noch hoch ausfällt, findet ein drastischer Abfall in der Adoleszenz, besonders bei Mädchen, statt. Dafür werden unter anderem Geschlechterrollen in den Medien und die unterschiedlichen Veränderungen der Köperproportionen in Fett-respektive Muskelmasse verantwortlich gemacht(18). ...
... Par ailleurs, des différences femmes-hommes concernant les relations entre une estime de soi faible ou forte et différentes mesures sont pointées dans la littérature (Kling et al., 1999). Par exemple, l'estime de soi des hommes varie selon le succès ou l'échec de leur conjointe à diverses tâches alors que l'estime de soi des femmes reste inchangée (Ratliff & Oishi, 2013). ...
... Psychological research provides several findings that men and women think differently (Kling et al., 1999;Johnson & Whisman, 2013). Business related builds on that perspective and explores gender diversity influencing decision making, as risk-averse women (Zalata et al., 2019) are more conservative (Zeng et al., 2015) and show greater ethical sensitivity to various situations (Cohen et al., 1998). ...
This study used audit fees as a moderating variable to examine how gender diversity on the board of directors, board of commissioners, and audit committee affects the quality of financial statements. In this study, financial statements for a sample of LQ 45 companies listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange from 2019 to 2021 were employed to collect the data, which were then analyzed using Eviews 9. Gender diversity of the board of commissioners, board of directors, committee board audit, employed the percentage of the number of the board of directors, board of commissioners, female audit committee compared to the total number, audit fee to logarithmic audit fee, and quality of financial statements to proxy for Discretionary Accrual modified by Jones model. The findings demonstrate that gender and women play a key role in the Corporate Governance process, particularly on the board of directors, board of commissioners, and audit committee. The role of women in supervision, such as the board of commissioners and audit committee, was able to enhance the quality of the company's financial statements, despite the inability of the board of directors' to increase the quality of financial statements when examined. The role of women in supervision, such as the board of commissioners and audit committee, was able to improve the quality of the company's financial statements, despite the board of directors' ability to increase the quality of financial statements in their function not being examined. The role of audit fees also appeared to be pivotal in overseeing the quality of the presentation of the financial statements of the company. Service fees are procured for carrying out financial statement audit services and detecting the possibility of fraud committed by the board of directors. If the audit fee is compensated highly, it tends to be more professional, therefore minimizing Discretional Accrual and strengthening the supervision carried out by the board of commissioners and female audit committee. Similarly, it can enhance the quality of financial reports. The findings of this study will: (1) give investors, professionals, and stakeholders’ information about the factors that affect gender diversity; (2) give capital market authorities guidelines for taking into account gender diversity on corporate boards of directors, commissions, and audit committees while taking into account the effect on the quality of financial reports; and (3) help accountants in developing countries like Indonesia develop more suitable accounting guidelines. This study contributes to the gender diversity literature. Additionally, this study adds to and broadens the literature by presenting empirical data from a single emerging market, such as Indonesia, on the impact of audit fees and gender diversity between gender diversity and financial reporting quality, as this relationship has not previously been studied.
... The present study was conducted to investigate the relationship between self-esteem and residual symptoms/ neurocognitive functioning in clinically stable outpatients with chronic schizophrenia. Next to affective symptoms and premorbid intelligence, female sex emerged as a significant predictor of lower self-esteem, which corroborates the findings of earlier studies both in individuals with schizophrenia [7,26,28] and healthy subjects [51,52]. ...
Low self-esteem is regarded as a barrier to recovery from schizophrenia and the identification of factors affecting this psychological characteristic may help to implement effective therapeutic interventions. To this end, the present study aimed to assess whether residual symptoms of the disorder and performance on a comprehensive neuropsychological test battery might differently impact self-esteem among 70 stabilized outpatients with chronic schizophrenia from public outpatient mental health services. Self-esteem inter-correlated with the severity of overall symptomatology, affective and negative symptoms, with premorbid intelligence, and with performance in the domains of verbal learning and memory, visual memory, working memory, and verbal fluency. Residual affective symptoms, premorbid intelligence, and female sex predicted poorer self-esteem in multiple linear regression analysis. The findings of this study implicate that next to psychological interventions therapeutic strategies that specifically target affective symptoms of schizophrenia may have a beneficial impact on patients’ self-esteem.
... Diversity in the workplace is defined as the dispersion of personal traits among reliant, workingunit members. If compositional impacts are also examined, existing studies have examined differences between members of groups that are classified from a sociology perspective, for instance, males and females, and different nations from various parts of the world [6]. The effect of diversity has been studied since an earlier time than we thought. ...
This paper is developed under the background of globalization and the development of the concept of workplace diversity. It is shown that workplace diversity has been beneficial for organizations’ development however it is a challenge for managers. For solving this problem, people started to focus on the issue of Diversity and Inclusion management. The management of diversity is a business technique used by firms to attract, maintain, and develop personnel from diverse backgrounds, and inclusion is a concept focused on employees‘ engagement. This article introduced organizational culture building, an invisible management method, which can create an invisible atmosphere that simulates the emergence of the developing goal, direction, and guiding concept, into the Diversity and Inclusion management process. It also brought up the opinion that the influencing mechanism between Diversity and Inclusion management and Organizational culture building is mutual, and especially focused on why and how to bring the idea of Diversity and Inclusion management into organizational culture development. It also provided several suggestions for companies to make the better implementation of this policy.
... to other studies (Haque & Khan, 1998;Hirsch & Rapkin, 1987;Schulte & Wegner, 2021) that found no significant difference in the academic self-concept with respect to gender. However, other research found gender differences in the academic self-concept (Herrera, Al-Lal & Mohamed, 2020;Jaiswal & Choudhuri, 2017;Skaalvik & Rankin, 1990). For example, Kling et. al. (1999) noted that male students had a higher academic self-concept than female students. Eshteewe (2016) found statistically significant differences in self-concept in favor of female students. ...
This research sought to study the academic self-concept and the relationship between the academic self-concept and students’ academic achievement among university Qatari students. Research of the academic self-concept is well documented in Western cultures, but the academic self-concept research is limited among Qatari students. A sample composed of 274 undergraduate university students was utilized in this study. Tools of data collection consisted of demographic characteristics such as gender and age; students’ cumulative Grade Point Average (GPA) as academic achievement; and the Academic Self-concept Questionnaire (Byrne, 1996) to measure the academic self-concept, which was composed of 40 items, distributed in 4 subscales namely Maths, Verbal, Academic, and Problem Solving. The result of the study revealed a significant but weak relationship between the academic self-concept and the academic achievement.
... Although Maccoby and Jacklin's (1974) study of gender differences identified males as more assertive, aggressive and less anxious, the effect size of the difference between the genders regarding self-esteem was very small (Feingold, 1994, p.449). Subsequent meta-analyses have confirmed that gender differences in self-esteem range from small to medium and emerge across cultures (e.g., Bleidorn et al., 2016;Kling, Shibley Hyde, Showers, & Buswell, 1999). Similarly, Harter, Waters and Whitesell (1997) and Harter, Waters, Whitesell and Kastelic (1998) analysed 'voice' in adolescent girls and boys to determine which group felt more able to express their opinions openly. ...
An overview of the research on gender differences in educational testing
... In light of this, our results may not be as generalizable to male or non-binary collegiate populations. However, as gender differences have been noted in self-esteem (Kling et al., 1999) and FoMO (Gezgin et al., 2017), future research in this area would benefit from exploring gender differences within the context of the need to belong, self-esteem, and FoMO. ...
The purpose of this study was to explore how meeting belongingness needs through social media use may impact one’s fear of missing out (FoMO) and self-esteem. It was predicted that individuals with increased levels of FoMO would have higher levels of the need to belong. It was also predicted that individuals with lower levels of self-esteem would have higher levels of FoMO and the need to belong. A total of 592 participants (447 female, 137 male) in various psychology courses at a community college and a university participated in an online survey. Consistent with the hypothesis, increased FoMO is related to a higher level of need to belong. Additionally, lower levels of self-esteem are related to higher levels of FoMO and a higher level of the need to belong. Based on these findings, perhaps lower levels of self-esteem further exacerbate the positive feedback loop between one’s desire for belongingness and their FoMO when utilizing social media. As such, these results may caution college students from meeting their need for belongingness through social media usage, and more so, those with a lower level of self-esteem.
... Por otra parte, diversos estudios han observado que el nivel de autoestima (Bleidorn et al., 2016;Kling et al., 1999;Quatman y Watson, 2001), depresión (Hyde et al., 2008;Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990) y ansiedad (Lewinsohn et al., 1998;McLean et al., 2011) varían en función del sexo. Sin embargo, cuando se examina la relación entre estos constructos, hay estudios que encuentran efectos de sexo (Gao et al., 2022;Moksnes y Espnes, 2012;Russo et al., 1993) y otros en los que no se observan diferencias entre chicos y chicas (Sowislo y Orth, 2013). ...
Bullying is a serious psychosocial problem that impacts negatively on victims, and it is one of the main risk factors for the development of psychological problems and psychopathological symptoms in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. This study analyzes the mediating effect of self-esteem on the relationship between bullying victimization and the development of anxiety and depressive symptoms. The sample comprised 550 children and adolescents (56.5% women) aged between 10 and 17 years (M = 12.20; SD = 1.75) from the Basque Country, each of whom completed a battery of instruments consisting of a sociodemographic variables data sheet, a questionnaire for evaluating peer victimization, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Educational-Clinical Questionnaire: Anxiety and Depression. Results from structural equation modeling indicated that bullying victimization is a risk factor for developing anxiety and depression in childhood and adolescence, and also that the relationship between bullying victimization and these two emotional problems is mediated by self-esteem. This mediating effect of self-esteem is especially important in the case of depression, insofar as the effect of bullying victimization on depression is greater when mediated by self-esteem. The implications of the results are discussed, both for the field of educational psychology and in in relation to the psychological wellbeing of children and adolescents.
... Por otra parte, diversos estudios han observado que el nivel de autoestima (Bleidorn et al., 2016;Kling et al., 1999;Quatman y Watson, 2001), depresión (Hyde et al., 2008;Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990) y ansiedad (Lewinsohn et al., 1998;McLean et al., 2011) varían en función del sexo. Sin embargo, cuando se examina la relación entre estos constructos, hay estudios que encuentran efectos de sexo (Gao et al., 2022;Moksnes y Espnes, 2012;Russo et al., 1993) y otros en los que no se observan diferencias entre chicos y chicas (Sowislo y Orth, 2013). ...
Resumen
El bullying constituye un problema psicosocial muy grave que conlleva consecuencias negativas, siendo uno de los principales factores de riesgo para el desarrollo de problemas psicológicos y sintomatología psicopatológica tanto en la niñez y la adolescencia como en la edad adulta. En el presente estudio se pretende analizar el efecto mediador de la autoestima en la relación entre padecer acoso y desarrollar síntomas ansiosos y depresivos. Han participado 550 niños y niñas y adolescentes (56.5% mujeres) de entre 10 y 17 años (M = 12.20, DT = 1.75) de la Comunidad Autónoma del País Vasco, que han cumplimentado una batería de instrumentos compuesta por un cuestionario de variables sociodemográficas, un cuestionario para la evaluación de la victimización escolar, la escala para la medición de la autoestima de Rosenberg y el cuestionario Educativo-Clínico: Ansiedad y Depresión. Los resultados de los modelos de ecuaciones estructurales reflejan, por un lado, que sufrir bullying es un factor de riesgo para desarrollar ansiedad y depresión en la niñez y en la adolescencia. Por otro lado, confirman que la autoestima es una variable que media la relación entre el bullying y ambos problemas emocionales. Esta acción mediadora de la autoestima resulta de gran relevancia en el caso de la depresión, dado que el efecto que tiene el bullying sobre la depresión aumenta cuando está mediatizado por la autoestima. Se discuten las implicaciones de los resultados, tanto en el ámbito de la psicología educativa, como en el ámbito del bienestar psicológico de niños y niñas y adolescentes.
... There is some long-standing evidence that girls perceive themselves more positively in stereotypically feminine areas (i.e., reading and writing), but judge themselves more harshly on stereotypically masculine subjects (i.e., math and science) (Ruble et al., 1993). Moreover, girls evaluate themselves more negatively on measures of general self-worth (Kling et al., 1999) and report higher levels of school-related worry compared to boys (Silverman et al., 1995). Explanations for this discrepancy may, in part, centre on differences on how boys and girls develop a sense of cognitive competence. ...
School performance and cognitive competence can be conceptualized as social and relational constructs. Thus, we expect their association to vary as a function of other socially-embedded variables which have proven meaningful in the academic domain. The present study takes a critical theory approach to assess gender-related and contextual variability in the association between peer-assessed school performance and self-perceived cognitive competence. The sample consisted of 719 preadolescents (M age = 9.5 years, range = 9 to 12.5 years) living in lower- and upper-middle-class neighborhoods in Montreal, Canada and Barranquilla, Columbia. Multigroup comparisons revealed that (a) peer-assessed school competence was more strongly associated with self-perceived cognitive competence for upper-middle-class than lower-middle-class participants from Barranquilla, whereas the opposite pattern was observed with Montreal participants, and (b) that the association between communal orientation and self-perceived cognitive competence was stronger for girls than for boys across the sample, especially in the upper-middle-class school in Montreal. These findings highlight the nuanced degree of gender differences in preadolescents’ perceived academic competence and emphasize the role of SES in shaping self-perceptions.
... greater proportion of males at the low and high end of score distributions, was found across various areas of functioning, such as intellectual abilities (Feingold, 1992;Hedges & Nowell, 1995;Johnson et al., 2008) or self-esteem (Kling et al., 1999). ...
Studies examining gender differences in creative abilities remain inconsistent and call for further research using diverse measures. The current study examined gender differences in mean performance, as well as differences in variability on different performance criteria for male and female participants. The study includes a sample of children and early-to-mid adolescents (N = 678; 1st-10th grade in primary and secondary schools) and uses tasks in verbal (storytelling) and figural domains (incomplete figures) scored for six performance criteria (creativity, novelty/originality, likability, elaboration, humor, and emotion use). Similar to previous research, when mean differences in performance emerged, they favored girls; however, these differences tended to be small and not consistent across all performance criteria. The greater male variability hypothesis in performance was not supported for any of the performance measures. These results point to the limits of the greater male variability hypothesis and the need to examine gender differences in creative abilities across a broad range of tasks and domains and investigate developmental factors that could be related to the emergence of gender differences.
... For the purpose of this meta-analysis, we extracted cultural country scores from the Hofstede Insights Country Comparison database (Hofstede Insights, 2022). When a study did not provide information about the country, we asked the authors for additional information, or if this was not possible, we used the first author's institutional affiliation to determine the country (Kling et al., 1999). Due to the number of moderator analyses (2), a Bonferroni correction was applied to correct the p-values. ...
Although employees are an important means of detecting and preventing misconducts through whistleblowing, many witnesses choose to remain silent. One reason to remain silent is the discomfort of reporting a colleague. Intuitively, employees should be less likely to report a close or trusted colleague, but a previous review suggests that the opposite may actually be true. However, later studies have shown mixed effects of social closeness on whistleblowing. To gain a better understanding of how social closeness affects whistleblowing, we meta-analyzed 22 experimental studies on intentions to blow the whistle. Overall, the studies show no effect of social closeness on whistleblowing intentions, d = − 0.21, p = .05. However, when separating the studies by type of closeness, we find that psychological closeness has a negative effect, d = − 0.46, p < .001, while hierarchical closeness has a positive effect, d = .34, p < .001 on whistleblowing intentions. This means that employees are most likely to report misconduct if the perpetrator is at the same hierarchical level in the organization and not a close or trusted friend. Since close psychological bonds are more likely to develop between employees at the same hierarchical level, the two types of closeness may counteract each other. This dilemma could be part of the explanation why so many witnesses choose to remain silent.
Dalam era informasi yang semakin berkembang, keahlian dalam mengolah dan menganalisis data menjadi suatu kebutuhan yang tak terelakkan. Buku “Statistik Dasar: Teori & Kajian Praktis” membawa pembaca dalam perjalanan mendalam ke dunia statistik, dari dasar-dasar hingga penerapan praktis dalam analisis data.
Buku ini dimulai dengan konsep dasar statistik, seperti pengertian data, jenis-jenis data, serta ukuran pemusatan dan penyebaran data. Pembaca akan diajak memahami pentingnya statistik dalam memberikan pandangan lebih jelas terhadap fenomena yang ada di sekitar kita. Dengan gaya penulisan yang lugas dan jelas, buku ini mengupas konsep-konsep rumit menjadi pemahaman yang lebih mudah dicerna.
Pengenalan terhadap distribusi probabilitas memberikan landasan penting untuk memahami uji hipotesis, yang menjadi fokus bab berikutnya. Pembaca akan diberikan panduan langkah demi langkah dalam merancang dan mengimplementasikan uji hipotesis, serta interpretasi hasil yang didapatkan. Penerapan analisis regresi untuk melihat hubungan antara variabel-variabel juga dijelaskan dengan contoh kasus yang konkret. Tertulis dengan penuh dedikasi dan keahlian, buku ini adalah panduan tak tergantikan bagi siapa saja yang ingin menjelajahi dunia statistik dengan keyakinan. Jika Anda ingin mengasah kemampuan analisis data Anda, buku ini adalah teman setia yang siap menemani perjalanan Anda.
The aim of the present research was to study the relationship between modernization and self-esteem of adolescent students. To carry out the study, stratified random sampling technique was used on a sample of 200 adolescent students from Karnal division (Haryana).” Comprehensive Modernization Inventory (CMI) revised designed by Dr. S.P. Ahluwalia and Ashok Kalia (2010)” and self-esteem Inventory for senior secondary school students (SEI) by Dr. Sudha Kumari Sharma and Md. Sarwar Hossain (2015) were used as research tools for the purpose of collection data. The data was analyzed by mean, standard deviation, Pearson’s product moment method and t-test. The findings of the study, with reference to coefficients of correlation between modernization and self-esteem of adolescent students and its sub-dimensions “i.e. general self-esteem”, “social self-esteem” and “cognitive self-esteem” found positive and significant. Results also highlighted that significant mean differences were found on overall modernization of adolescent students as well as its six sub-dimensions i.e. “education, parent child relationship, politics, status of women, religion and socio-cultural factors” with regard to their gender and locality and no significant difference was observed on marriage as sub-dimension of modernization with respect to gender and locality. “Results further revealed that significant difference was found on high level of self-esteem of adolescent students with reference to their gender and locality. No significant difference was found on low level of self-esteem of adolescent students with reference to their gender and locality
There is growing knowledge about how self-concept develops in adolescence and contributes to the onset of depression, but researchers have only recently begun investigating the neural mechanisms that underlie self-referential cognition in adolescents with and without depression. This paper reviews task-related functional neuroimaging (fMRI) research on self-referential neural processing in both healthy and depressed adolescents (Mage range = 12-18 years), with a focus on elucidating brain activation that may subserve adolescent self-perception and related associations with depression. Drawing on conclusions from the affective neuroscience literature and developmental theory, we propose a neurobehavioral model and future research recommendations to address how social factors might shape self-referential neural processes and self-concept in ways that confer risk for depression. We review the operationalization of self-concept, developmental theory (i.e., symbolic interactionism) on self-concept development, and the role of self-concept in adolescent depression. We then review empirical studies assessing neural activation during healthy and depressed adolescents' processing of self-relevant information, and the limited studies assessing links between social factors and neural self-referential processing.
This qualitative research explores the experiences and sense-making of self-worth of 1857 South African women academics during the enforced pandemic lockdown between March and September 2020; the study was conducted through an inductive, content analysis process. Since worldwide lockdowns were imposed in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, women academics, in particular, have reported a unique set of challenges from working from home. Gender inequality within the scientific enterprise has been well documented; however, the cost to female academics’ self-esteem, which has been exacerbated by the pandemic, has yet to be fully realized. The findings of the study include negative emotional experiences related to self-worth, engagement in social comparisons, and the fear of judgement by colleagues, which were exacerbated by peer pressure. Finally, the sense-making of academic women’s self-esteem as it relates to their academic identity was reported. Beyond being the first comprehensive national study on the topic, the study’s insights are more broadly useful for determining what support, accommodation, and assistance is needed for academic women to sustain performance in their academic and research duties at universities worldwide.
Background:
In the general population, low self-esteem has been linked with poorer mental and physical health. This systematic literature review aimed to summarise and evaluate the findings of studies that examined self-esteem in adults with intellectual disabilities and links with mental health outcomes.
Method:
A systematic search of PsycINFO, Web of Science and CINAHL was conducted to identify studies published between 1990 and 2021. The studies were appraised using the QualSyst tool.
Results:
Twenty-six articles were identified of which two studies were removed from the review due to low quality. Studies reported mixed evidence regarding levels of self-esteem compared with the general population. Engagement in activities appeared to be linked with positive self-esteem, and perception of negative interpersonal life events as having a negative impact was associated with lower self-esteem. There was evidence of co-occurrence of low self-esteem and depression, but no studies examined the relationship between self-esteem and anxiety.
Conclusion:
Reviewed studies provided mixed evidence on levels of self-esteem in this population, suggesting that factors such as engagement in life were related to higher self-esteem and demonstrating the co-occurrence of low self-esteem and depression. However, clear causal links have yet to be identified, and more research is needed using longitudinal designs to answer questions about trajectory.
Υπάρχει σημαντικός αριθμός ερευνών για την επίδραση της γονικής συμπεριφοράς στην αυτοεκτίμηση των εφήβων· ωστόσο, η Διαγενεακή Μεταφορά της αυτοεκτίμησης παραμένει ακόμη ένα ανοικτό πεδίο έρευνας. Η παρούσα μελέτη επικεντρώνεται στη μελέτη της Διαγενεακής Μεταφοράς της αυτοεκτίμησης από τη μητέρα στο εφηβικής ηλικίας τέκνο της, με πιθανούς ρυθμιστικούς παράγοντες το φύλο και τη σειρά γέννησης του εφήβου καθώς και διαμεσολαβητικούς παράγοντες τη γονικότητα της μητέρας και τον τρόπο που την αντιλαμβάνεται ο έφηβος. Συμμετείχαν 201 δυάδες μητέρων-εφήβων ηλικίας 14 ετών, οι οποίοι συμπλήρωσαν μέσω ηλεκτρονικών φορμών την «Κλίμακα Αυτοεκτίμησης του Rosenberg», το «Ερωτηματολόγιο Γονικής Συμπεριφοράς» και την «Κλίμακα Συναισθηματικής Σύνδεσης». Όσον αφορά την αυτοεκτίμηση, τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν ηλικιακές και διαφυλικές διαφορές, όπως και διαφορές σχετικά με τη σειρά γέννησης, καθώς και σημαντική αλληλεπίδραση μεταξύ τους. Η αυτοεκτίμηση της μητέρας φάνηκε να επιδρά σημαντικά στην αυτοεκτίμηση του εφήβου, επιβεβαιώνοντας την υπόθεση της Διαγενεακής Μεταφοράς. Ο ρυθμιστικός ρόλος του φύλου, καθώς και η αλληλεπίδραση του φύλου με τη σειρά γέννησης έδειξε ισχυρότερη επίδραση ανάμεσα στην αυτοεκτίμηση μητέρας-κόρης, ιδίως της πρωτότοκης. Επιπλέον, επιβεβαιώθηκε ο διαμεσολαβητικός ρόλος της γονικότητας όπως την αντιλαμβάνεται ο έφηβος, αλλά όχι η μητέρα, εξηγώντας μερικώς τη Διαγενεακή Μεταφορά της αυτοεκτίμησης.
Following a review of psychological theories of gender development, this chapter summarizes the processes of gender development and is organized in chronological order, beginning with the prenatal period and extending through adolescence. Within each developmental period, evidence on gender/sex differences and similarities is reviewed, and the multiple forces that contribute to gender development are considered, including biology, parents, peers, and culture, especially the media. Data on the intersection of gender and race/ethnicity are presented. In addition to consideration of these typical developmental processes for cisgender youth, what is known about gender development for transgender youth is summarized.
This study aimed to examine the longitudinal causal relationship between depression and self‐esteem (SE) in older Koreans and analyze gender differences in this correlation. Participants were 4742 older adults aged ≥65 years in baseline 2018 from the Korea Welfare Panel Study. Depression and SE were measured every year from 2018 to 2021. This study estimated causal relationships using the autoregressive cross‐lagged model and analyzed gender differences using a multigroup approach. The findings indicate that depression and SE in older adults support the reciprocal causal model, but there are no gender differences. The study recommends that both depression and SE should be considered in the design of social work intervention programs for older adults but can disregard gender differences.
W teorii zachowania zasobów (Conservation of Resources Theory COR) Stevan Hobfoll przyjmuje założenie, że motywacja ludzkich zachowań jest skoncentrowana na zachowaniu posiadanego kapitału adaptacyjnego, a człowiek doświadcza stresu w okolicznościach związanych z utratą – faktyczną lub przewidywaną – dóbr niezbędnych do przetrwania w określonym środowisku społecznym lub też w sytuacji, gdy zainwestowane zasoby nie przynoszą mu satysfakcjonującego zysku. Dynamika zachowywania zachowania zasobów jest podporządkowana czterem regułom opracowanym na gruncie koncepcji COR. Reguła prymatu straty przyjmuje założenie, że strata zasobowa jest dla człowieka nieproporcjonalnie bardziej znacząca w stosunku do odczuwanego zysku zasobów. Zgodnie z tą regułą inwestowania w zasoby ludzie dokonują inwestycji zasobowych po to, aby skompensować realne lub ewentualne straty. Na podstawie reguły paradoksu można stwierdzić, że w sytuacji doświadczania strat ludzie zaczynają przypisywać zyskom zasobowym większe znaczenie niż ponoszonym stratom. Istota zasady desperacji polega na tym, że wyczerpanie lub znaczne nadwyrężenie zasobów prowadzi ludzi do zachowań obronnych. Niniejsza monografia służy osiągnięciu kilku celów. W kontekście teoretycznym ma na celu empiryczną weryfikację zasad opracowanych w teorii zachowania zasobów oraz wskazanie mechanizmów psychospołecznych, jakie decydują o poziomie udzielanego wsparcia społecznego w stresujących okolicznościach.
Analiza zależności decydujących o poziomie dostarczanej pomocy została dokonana na gruncie teorii COR. Zaś w aspekcie praktycznym – wskazanie możliwości budowania kapitału wspierającego uczniów
w systemie szkolnym. Uzyskane wyniki stanowią ważny wkład w literaturę przedmiotu z kilku ważnych powodów. Pierwszy z nich
polega na wskazaniu takich mechanizmów adaptacyjnych, dzięki
którym człowiek nie tylko wykazuje się odpornością na występowanie stresu i jego negatywnych konsekwencji, ale również potrafi konstruktywnie funkcjonować w stresujących okolicznościach,
m.in. wspierać inne osoby. Po drugie, rezultaty dokonanych analiz
wskazują na specyfikę pomagania podopiecznym przez nauczycieli i specjalistów (psychologów i pedagogów szkolnych). Trzeci powód odnosi się do próby znalezienia czynników, które optymalizują
działania polegające na dostarczaniu specjalistycznego wsparcia
w ramach systemu szkolnego.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship of career goal and self-esteem among adolescents. A sample of 221 high school sophomores and juniors was administered the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE). Their teachers also were asked to rate the students' self-esteem using the Self-Esteem Rating Scale for Children (SERSC). It was found that, on both the RSE and SERSC, adolescents with some career goals had significantly higher self-esteem than did those without any career goal.
Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.
We explore gender differences in the importance of reflected appraisals, self-perceived competence, and social comparisons as sources of self-esteem. Gender differences are expected for several reasons: sex role socialization may lead men and women to develop abilities to exploit different sources of self-esteem; men and women may learn to embrace different criteria for self-evaluation; and opportunities to experience self-enhancement in various ways may the distributed unequally between men and women. We find that women attach greater importance to reflected appraisals than do men, and that men attach greater importance to social comparisons than do women. No difference is found for self-perceived competence. Men and women are also much alike, we find, in that reflected appraisals are the most important source of self-esteem for both groups, followed by self-perceived competence and then by social comparisons. These finding are interpreted in terms of compensation/availability dynamic that is hypothesized to underlie self-esteem formation. Some implications of this analysis for modifying identity theory are discussed.
This paper examines the roles of gender identity and self-esteem in both physical and sexual abuse in dating relationships. A sample of heterosexual college dating relationships is examined. Data are collected on both inflicting and sustaining physical and sexual abuse for men and for women. No support is found for the long-held theory that abuse is a result of compulsive masculinity. Instead, in accordance with identity theory, we find that physical and sexual abuse are associated with the playing out of a less masculine (more feminine) identity for both males and females. In addition, low self-esteem appears to be associated with inflicting physical abuse for men and sexual abuse for women only in a spurious fashion: both low self-esteem and inflicting abuse result from a more feminine gender identity.
In this book, Joseph Pleck examines and analyzes the full body of research literature on the male role that has appeared since the 1930s and subjects it to a devastating critique. He identifies the components of the "male sex role paradigm" which has been the basis of research for the past forty years, and notes numerous instances of blatant misrepresentation of data, twisted reinterpretations of disconfirming results, misogyny, homophobia, and class bias. He proposes a new theory, the "sex role strain paradigm," offers a reinterpretation of sex role stereotyping, and a critique of research by sociobiologists that allegedly demonstrates a biological basis for male aggression.
This study is an extension of the contentanalysis conducted by K. Peirce [(1990) “AFeminist Theoretical Perspective on the Socialization ofTeenage Girls Through Seventeen Magazine,” SexRoles, Vol. 23, pp. 491-500]. Her study examined thecontent of Seventeen magazine for the years 1961, 1972,and 1985, and the impact of the feminist movement fromthe 1960s through the 1980s. The present study explored the content of Seventeen magazine in the years1945, 1955, 1965, 1975, 1985, and 1995 to determine ifthe articles that are presented have changed in responseto the feminist movement from the 1940s to the present day. These results would supportthe contention that there is a relationship between thecontent of Seventeen magazine, in terms of traditionalvs. feminist messages, and the women's movement. However, these changes are slight and still donot reflect the various roles of teenage girls.Implications for further research arediscussed.
This paper examines single‐ and mixed‐sex elementary schooling in its effects upon the well‐being of girls and boys. Well‐being is defined in terms of adaptation to school life as reflected by affective characteristics such as self‐esteem, sense of mastery, stress, fear of failure, sense of belonging in school, study‐ and school commitment. Use was made of data concerning 2095 sixth‐grade pupils‐‐1130 boys and 965 girls‐‐in 60 private elementary schools. The results indicate that it is not the gender composition of the pupil population in se that exerts an influence but the gender composition of the teaching staff. Particularly, it is found that primary school boys are negatively affected by a school environment characterised by a preponderance of female teachers. Girls do not seem to be affected by the gender organisation of the school.
The Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale (RSE) is a widely used measure of global self‐esteem. Although its psychometric properties have found considerable support, its relationship to a multidimensional scale of self‐concept has yet to be investigated. The sample for this study consisted of 150 adolescents randomly drawn in equal numbers and equated by gender from grades 8 to 12. Along with the RSE, Harter's Self‐Perception Profile for Adolescents was administered to assess the adolescents' self‐concept in nine separate domains. Correlational and cross‐validation multiple regression analyses found that the RSE total score and both its factor scores were strongly related to Global Self‐Worth, supporting Rosenberg's conclusions that his scale is a measure of global self‐esteem and that its two identified factors are essentially measuring one rather than two different constructs. Other findings include a gender difference, with females reporting significantly lower RSE scores, and modest correlational support for a grade level rise found in the literature.
N. Betz and G. Hackett's (see record 1982-02194-001) career self-efficacy model was extended using an ethnically mixed (White, Hispanic, American Indian) rural high school population (467 girls and 426 boys). A modified form of Betz and Hackett's interest and self-efficacy instrument was used as well as measures of ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), stressful life events, and self-esteem. Gender differences were observed in interest and self-efficacy estimates for same-gender and cross-gender occupations, marked by boys' restricted consideration of cross-gender options. Ethnic differences were noted as well, particularly regarding self-efficacy estimates, with American Indian efficacy lowest for 7 of 18 occupations studied. Stepwise multiple regression analyses with interest and efficacy as the dependent variables yielded equations that varied by ethnicity.
Four meta-analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known personality inventories (1940-1992). Males were found to be more assertive and had slightly higher self-esteem than females. Females were higher than males in extraversion, anxiety, trust, and, especially, tender-mindedness (e.g., nurturance). There were no noteworthy sex differences in social anxiety, impulsiveness, activity, ideas (e.g., reflectiveness), locus of control, and orderliness. Gender differences in personality traits were generally constant across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations.
Low self-esteem people have always been a puzzle to researchers. For years, many theorists began with the plausible yet probably false assumption that people with low self-esteem were generally the opposite of those with high self-esteem; by this reasoning, if people with high self-esteem want to succeed and be liked, then people with low self- esteem must want to fail and be disliked. More recent theorists (e.g., S. Jones, 1973; Shrauger, 1975) have suggested that the notion that low self-esteem people desire failure and rejection is false. The question remains, however: What do these people want?
This research addresses a prominent issue in the field of self-esteem research: Do women and men with higher self-esteem have communally and agenlically oriented self-schemas, respectively, as various theories predict? This research utilized self and peer Q-sort inventories via the California Q-set (Block, 1978; Bein & Funder, 1978) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory (Rosenberg, 1965). Contrary to predictions, it found that females do not have communally oriented self-schemas. Instead, they have a predominant composition of agentically oriented traits similar to males. We believe that these similarities between men and women are a product of the university environment from which our participants were drawn. This unique environment promotes individual goals and motivations for both sexes, unlike mainstream society which tends to encourage interdependence for women and individuation for men.
Identity formation is thought to be one of the major developmental tasks of adolescence. However, relatively little attention has been paid to the role of leisure activities in this critical developmental process. This study provides an initial examination of the relationship between participation in various categories of leisure activity and level of identity development for male and female adolescents. Survey (n = 73) and interview (n = 20) data were collected from a sample of grade 10 students (mean age = 15.8 years). The questionnaire included measures of time use, identity development status, and self esteem, while the interviews focused on attitudes towards self and towards leisure activities. Analysis showed that level of participation in sports and physical activities was positively associated with identity development for females (r =.45, n = 35, p <.05) but not for males, even though females were less likely than males to self identify as “physically active”. Time spent watching television was negatively associated with identity development for males (r =.41, n = 38, p <.05), but not for females. Participation in social and other free time activities was not significantly associated with identity development for either gender. The findings suggest that different leisure activities can have either beneficial or detrimental effects on the identity formation process. Moreover, the relationship between leisure and identity development seems to depend on both gender and the gendered nature of leisure activities.
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Using a middle-school age sample of 120 an investigation of the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale's construct validity was undertaken. Specifically, the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale total score and two factor scores were correlated with scores on Harter's (1985) multidimensional Self-perception Profile for Children. Using a series of stepwise multiple regression analyses, for both factors of the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and total score, the first identified predictor variable was Global Self-worth among Harter's six subscales. Other findings were the high internal consistency (α .84) and the lack of statistically significant differences by gender or grade. Findings are supportive of the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale as a unidimensional measure of global self-esteem with middle-school age children.
For three independent samples (mean age = 12.33 years, n = 711; mean age = 10.89 years, n = 225; and mean age = 12.05 years, n = 534, respectively), young adolescents who had experienced 0, 1, 2, and multiple parenting transitions were compared on adjustment scores that were derived from self-reports of grades, health, drug abstinence, self-esteem, and self-mastery (Sample 1); peer reports of peer acceptance (Sample 2); and parent reports of well-being (Sample 3). Overall, there was qualified evidence of a negative linear relation between the number of parenting transitions experienced and adjustment. With controls for parenting transition effects, parenting practices regarding involvement and supervision accounted for unique variability in adjustment in each sample.
Previous research, especially that of Gecas and Schwalbe (1986), relating adolescent self-esteem to parental support, control, and participation is extended in the present investigation, which examines the effects of parent-adolescent communication and investigates dimensions of parent-adolescent interaction that predict parents' self-esteem. The findings suggest that (a) adolescents and their parents have similar but distinct perceptions of their relationships; and (b) self-perceptions of these relationships, especially self-judgments of communication, are important in predicting levels of self-esteem for both adolescents and their parents. Our discussion focuses on gender differences in the relationships reported, the central role of communication within the family unit, and the reciprocal character of parent-adolescent socialization.
The social climate for women has changed considerably since the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS; Spence & Helmreich, 1972a) was developed in the early 1970s, but the pattern of change in AWS scores throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s is unclear. Published reports of data from 71 samples of American undergraduates responding to the AWS were located and analyzed for differences across time (1970–1995) and region (South and non-South). Women's AWS scores were strongly correlated with year of scale administration (r= .78, p < .001), and men's scores showed a similar trend toward more liberal/feminist attitudes (r= .60, p < .001). Scores show a steady trend toward more liberal/feminist attitudes, with no appreciable reversal or slowdown during the 1980s. Gender differences steadily increased from 1970 to 1985 and decreased from 1986 to 1995. Southern samples were marginally more conservative/traditional. The results are discussed in terms of generational differences, the effects of maternal employment on attitudes, and the individual's experience of cultural change.
The relationship of self-esteem to attribution of responsibility for problem cause and problem solution was studied in a sample of 205 college undergraduates. The results revealed a tendency for self-esteem to be negatively associated with the endorsement of an attribution style that features high responsibility for problem cause but low responsibility for problem solving. This result may be due to the lack of instrumentality and the feelings of failure associated with such an attribution style. The results are also discussed with reference to previous research on self-esteem and attribution of responsibility.
In this study, we correlated scores on three self-report measures of creativity and three self-report measures of self-esteem for 55 male and 63 female college students (N = 118) to test the hypothesis that these two constructs are positively related. No differences between the sexes were detected in mean scores on any of the scales. Analysis of the data with Pearson correlation coefficients and by a confirmatory factor analysis showed that the hypothesis was supported for both males and females, although the relationship seemed to be stronger for females than for males.
The purpose of this research was to compare the self-images of male and female children in order to determine whether females were at a particular disadvantage and, if so, why. A random sample of 1988 children from grades 3-12 were interviewed in Baltimore in 1968. Findings show more disturbance among White adolescent females than among White males or Black females: White girls become much more self-conscious and show greater self-image instability and somewhat lower self-esteem. Three sets of factors appear to explain part of these differences: (1) attitudes toward present and future sex role, (2) peer relationships in general and opposite sex relationships in particular, and (3) attitudes toward changing looks in adolescence.
The present study examined gender differences in late adolescents' future narratives.Thirty-nine male and 43 female late adolescents (M=20.01 years) completed 90-minute individual interviews assessing dimensional and thematic aspects of the future narrative as well as psychological profile characteristics (abstract reasoning, psychological distress, self-concept, and self-esteem). As predicted, gender differences emerged in the anticipation and projected timing of adulthood transition events. More females than males anticipated marriage and parenthood; females also anticipated younger ages at marriage and parenthood than males. Examination of adolescents' narratives of the life course beyond the adulthood transition revealed greater extensionoverall among males than females. No gender differences in extension or densitywere obtained for the anticipated occupational domain, and no gender differences were obtained in extension in the family domain. Female adolescents, however, anticipated more events in the family domain than did males. The findings are discussed in terms of the implicit theories of adulthood that inform adolescents' future narratives.
The present study was designed to assess the relationship between adolescent loneliness and the following factors commonly associated with adult loneliness: attributional style, self-esteem, social anxiety, and social skills. Subjects were 186 ninth-grade students (107 males and 79 females) who were asked to complete seven different paper-and-pencil measures. Data were analyzed by calculating separate stepwise multiple regression equations for the total sample, males and females. Three significant predictors were found for the total sample: student social skills rating scale, self-esteem, and the perception of stability in interpersonal situations (attributional style). A different pattern of predictors emerged for males and females. Loneliness could be predicted for males from three variables: low self-esteem, the perception of uncontrollability in noninterpersonal situations, and self-perceptions of poor social skills. The best multiple predictors of loneliness for the females were self-perceptions of poor social skills, high social anxiety, and stable attributions for interpersonal situations.
As a result of China's one-child-per-family policy, concern has been expressed in China regarding the effect of that policy on children. One hundred and sixty-four children, aged 11-13 years, in the same grade in an elementary school in Guangzhou, China, completed the Self-Perception Profile for Children. Sociometric measures were also completed by the children and their teachers. Of the 164 children, 51 were from one-child families, while 113 had siblings. No significant differences were found on the six subscales of the Self-Perception Profile. Gender effects were noted, however. Student and teacher evaluations on the sociometric measures tended to favor the only children. The results of the study provide no support for existing stereotypes concerning only-children, one-child families in China.
Contemporary research on sex differences in intellectual abilities has focused on male-female differences in average performance, implicitly assuming homogeneity of variance. To examine the validity of that assumption, this article examined sex differences in variability on the national norms of several standardized test batteries. Males were consistently more variable than females in quantitative reasoning, spatial visualization, spelling, and general knowledge. Because these sex differences in variability were coupled with corresponding sex differences in means, it was demonstrated that sex differences in variability and sex differences in central tendency have to be considered together to form correct conclusions about the magnitude of cognitive gender differences.
Developmental patterns of school-identified learning disabled (LD) and normally achieving (NA) students' responses to the Perceived Competence Scale for Children (PCSC) were investigated in this longitudinal study. Relative to the NA group, LD children were more negative about themselves; however, their self-evaluations did not become more negative over a two-year interval. Analysis of response patterns across PCSC subscales suggested that most of the LD sample was not appropriately characterized by persistent, globally negative self-evaluations. A subgroup of LD children who were very negative about themselves at both test administrations was identified. The characteristics of this subgroup were subsequently examined.
Middle-aged mothers (n = 149) and fathers (n = 127) completed self-report measures of gender-linked attributes (the PRF-Andro), self-esteem (Rosenberg), sense of mastery, and psychosomatic symptom distress (the SCL-90), as part of a larger interview study of inter generational relations. Factor analyses revealed three major factors in the masculinity and three in the femininity scales. Factor scores were significantly related to sex and occupational status; some factor scores were associated with age. Mental health measures were related to the gender factors, with distinctive relationships for each group defined by sex, occupational status, and age. Gender-linked attributoons were most predictive of mental health measures among older (55+), upper status “gender sensitive” men. The older upper status women seemed most “gender-transcendent,” since none of the gender factor scores significantly predicted their mental health scores.
Much research has shown that negative feedback has different motivational consequences for low- and high-self-esteem persons (low and high SEs, respectively). Primarily on the basis of laboratory experiments of task performance, it has been suggested that low SEs are much more likely than high SEs to become demotivated in the face of negative feedback. The present studies sought to explore the generalizability of such findings to (1) a more naturalistic setting (Study 1) and (2) a behavioral domain different from task performance (Study 2). Study 1 explored the impact of students' self-esteem and feedback from an initial course examination on their subsequent exam performance. As expected, low SEs performed much worse than high SEs subsequent to the receipt of negative feedback; following positive feedback the two groups performed equally on the subsequent exam. In Experiment 2, participants played the role of managers who had just received feedback that their willingness to communicate certain information either elicited negative outcomes (negative feedback condition) or did not (control condition). As predicted, low SEs expressed much less motivation than high SEs to communicate related information in the former than the latter condition, especially if the negative feedback was more threatening to their well-being in the organization. There were no differences between the two groups in the control condition. Theoretical and practical implications and limitations of the findings are discussed.
Changes in self-perceptions of fitness, appearance, and self-esteem among adolescents were assessed in a 4-year follow-up study. Both the changes in the mean levels across time (profile analysis), and the changes in the reliability and stability of individual differences (i.e. covariance stability as test-retest correlations) were examined. The subjects (64 boys, 49 girls) were 11 years old at the first annual measurement. Self-esteem was assessed using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, as well as self-assessment questionnaires specifically designed for this study to assess Perceived Fitness and Perceived Appearance. MANOVA-and Simplex-models were used in the analysis. Our results among the girls were in accordance with the gradual consolidation hypothesis, so that self-perceptions become more fixed with increasing age. The boys showed highly stable self-perceptions throughout the follow-up, which may indicate the early emergence of a fixed self-concept. Self-esteem increased with age but changes in perceived fitness were small over time. The decrease in perceived appearance found among the girls but not among the boys was in accordance with the gender intensification hypothesis.
The purpose of this study was to assess howwomen's perceptions of themselves and their bodies varyby race/ethnicity and class. One hundred and fourteenfemale students (45 African-American, 69 Caucasian) from two Connecticut community colleges weresurveyed. We predicted that African-American women willreport higher levels of self-esteem and a more positivebody image than Caucasian women. These predictions were supported. Also as predicted,African-American women report possessing more masculinetraits and that men of their race tend less to preferthin, small figured women. Controlling for these“protective factors” substantially reduces therelationship between race/ethnicity and self-concept.African-American women's racial identity and exposure tothe dominant culture did not relate to self-conceptmeasures.
The Self Description Questionnaire II (SDQ II) was administered to 901 students (11 to 18 years old) in grades 7 through 12 who attended one public coeducational high school. Factor analysis clearly identified the 11 SDQ II scales, each scale was reliable (median alpha = .86), and correlations among the factors were small (median r = .17). All of the SDQ II scales were significantly correlated with sex and/or age, though the effects of sex and age were small and independent of each other. The direction of the sex effect varied with the particular scale, and was not significant for the sum of all the SDQ II scales. This total score, and most of the separate scales, had a quadratic age effect where self concepts started out high, reached their lowest level in grade 9, and then increased. At every grade level academic criterion measures were significantly correlated with every academic scale, but not with the nonacademic scales. Verbal achievement was most highly correlated with Verbal self-concept, while mathematics achievement was most highly correlated with Math self-concept. These findings not only demonstrate the multidimensionality of self-concept, but also show that its relationship to other constructs cannot be adequately understood if this multidimensionality is ignored. The findings have important implications for the study of adolescent self-concept and support the construct validity of the SDQ II and the Shavelson model on which it is based.
This paper analyzes relationships between sexuality and gender in the experiences of nine to eleven year-old children, based on participant observation in four different elementary schools. Children's gender arrangements help lay the foundation for the more overtly sexual scripts of adolescence and adulthood. Extensive segregation between girls and boys, and distinctive social relations within their separate groups, provide gender-differentiated contexts for learning. Groups of boys experience shared excitement and bonding focused on public rule transgression. Girls are organized in friendship pairs linked in shifting coalitions and bond more through mutual self-disclosure; they teach and learn strategies for maintaining and ending intimacy. Heterosexual teasing (“like”; “goin with”) and rituals like “chase and kiss” heighten gender boundaries. Separate gender groups – which sustain somewhat different meanings of the sexual – and ritualized and asymmetric relations between girls and boys, prepare the way for the sexual scripts of early adolescence.
Self-perceptions of specific domains of competence, judgments of the importance of these domains, and perceptions of global self-worth were examined among children with learning disabilities (LD), low achievement (LA), and normal achievement (NA) in a full-time integrated classroom setting. Results showed that children with LD and LA held lower self-perceptions of scholastic competence than children with NA, and children with LD had lower self-perceptions of behavioral conduct than children with LA and NA. Both children with LD and children with LA had significantly larger discrepancies between perceived competence and importance in the scholastic domain than did children with NA. We found little evidence that children with LD employ a discounting mechanism to protect their self-worth. Overall, results offer little support for the use of importance ratings or discrepancy scores in understanding the relation between children's self-perceptions of competence and global self-worth.
Based largely on social comparison theory, it was hypothesized that self-perceptions of scholastic competence, behavioral conduct, and global self-worth are (a) lower among children with learning disabilities (LD) in integrated classes than among nonhandicapped (NH) children in the same classes, and (b) higher among NH children in integrated classes than among NH children in nonintegrated classes. Scores of 341 third graders (52 LD Integrated, 164 NH Integrated, and 125 NH Nonintegrated) on the Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 1985) provided general support for the first hypothesis, but limited support for the second hypothesis. Sex differences were found, as were Placement Group x Sex interactions. Results also indicated that measures of self-perceptions of scholastic competence, behavioral conduct, and global self-worth provided redundant information in the discrimination between LD Integrated and NH Integrated groups. Findings suggest that integration is unlikely to have a positive effect ...
Upper primary gifted boys and girls were compared with nongifted children on self-perceptions of competence in four areas: cognitive, physical, social, and general self-worth. Gifted students perceived themselves as more competent than their nongifted peers in the cognitive and general self-worth areas, but not in the physical and social areas. Of the gifted children, those in a full-time segregated program had relatively lower perceived cognitive and physical competence than those in a part-time extension program. Sex differences were also observed.
In basing results on ratios of properties of two groups, it would be undesirable for conclusions to be affected by the arbitrary choice of which group’s properties should be the numerator and which the denominator. From this point of view, using means of ratios is undesirable; medians are somewhat better, and mean logarithms seem the best choice. The geometric mean is a descriptive statistic that shares the desirable properties of the mean logarithm in that it is not adversely affected by the arbitrary choice of numerator.
Studies involving gender differences in cognitive ability have almost exclusively examined mean differences. In a recent article, Feingold (1992a) addressed this deficiency in the literature with an examination of variability differences between males and females on several cognitive test batteries. His analyses consisted of calculations of variance ratios: dividing male variances by female variances. Averaging these variance ratios, however, can yield misleading conclusions. The creation of log-transformed variance ratios is a simple solution to this problem.
A cross-sectional survey study examined commitment processes in the dating relationships and cross-sex friendships of young adults residing in the United States or Taiwan. Feelings of commitment were stronger in relationships with greater satisfaction, poorer quality alternatives, greater investment size and greater centrality of relationship. However, there was little evidence that commitment was influenced by normative support for a relationship. The relationship between commitment and satisfaction was stronger for dating relationships than for friendships, as was the relationship between commitment and alternatives. Dispositions appeared to affect commitment primarily in indirect ways. For example, self-esteem, psychological femininity and perspective-taking were associated with features of interdependence such as perceived alternative quality or willingness to invest, which in turn were related to feelings of commitment. Finally, Americans reported weaker commitment than would be expected given other features of their interdependence with partners. The port and extend the generalizability of Rusbult's investment model.
This study examined the role of athletic participation in the social system of adolescent males and females. Social status was measured by criteria for remembrance after high school, type of sport participant preferred for a date or friend, and self-esteem. The sample consisted of 422 high school and 319 college students. There were significant differences between and among males and females on all three social status measures. Participants who were identified with sex-appropriate sports received greater social status than did participants in sex-inappropriate sports.
The disruption of communication behaviors as a result of aging led to the hypothesis that elderly subjects would exhibit more problematic social skills than younger subjects. These social skills deficits were further hypothesized to be associated with rejection from others and a number of psychosocial problems. Elderly and young subjects engaged in two different interactions, with an age-matched partner, and an age-unmatched partner, from which social skills and interpersonal rejection were assessed. Subjects also completed self-report measures of social skills and psychosocial problems. Elderly subjects did not differ from young subjects on most measures of social skill, nor on the measure of interpersonal rejection. However, the elderly reported more symptoms of dysphoria and lower self-esteem than did young subjects. The lack of young-elderly differences in social skills may be due to the high level of functioning evident in the elderly sample.
The present study investigated 575 10th grade students’ attributions of their perceived general results in school and how attributions of perceived results related to self‐esteem. Strong self‐serving attributional biases were found for both males and females, showing more attributions to effort and fewer attributions to ability for students who perceived themselves to achieve poorly in school, while no self‐serving bias in terms of more external explanations of poor than of good results was found. Self‐esteem varied significantly with attributions for students who perceived themselves to achieve poorly in school, but not for students who perceived themselves to achieve well.
Sex differences were examined on the Multidimensional Self-Esteem Inventory which measures global self-esteem, specific components of self-esteem, defensiveness, and identity integration. Significant sex differences were obtained on 10 of the 11 scales with the direction of the differences generally consistent with sex-role stereotypes (298 men scoring higher in global self-esteem, competence, body-image; 487 women scoring higher in lovability and likability). However, the magnitudes of the sex differences were quite small, with sex accounting for 1 to 7% of the total variance in scale scores.
It has been speculated that the prevalence of eating disorders in women has risen because of increases in women's body dissatisfaction. We conducted a meta-analysis of gender differences in attractiveness and body image using 222 studies from the past 50 years. The analysis shows dramatic increases in the numbers of women among individuals who have poor body image. Moreover, these trends were found across multiple conceptualizations of body image, including self-judgments of physical attractiveness.
The study investigated the relationships of problem behaviors, emotions, and psychosocial factors. Self-report measures of the variables were obtained from 711 junior high school students from 12 to 16 years of age. A multidimensional scaling (MDS) of the data identified a three-dimensional model "positive coping resources/negative coping re-sources," "rebellion from adult norms/conformity to adult norms," and "secretive! obvious") that fit both for males and for females and accounted for 85% of the variance in the data. The model suggested that males who do not have positive coping resources (adult support inside or outside of the family and high self-esteem) may externalize (act out) their problems whereasfemales who lack positive coping resources may internalize their problems and report depressive symptoms. Intervening with these adolescents to increase their positive coping resources, particularly supportive adults in their environment, may assist them to limit their internalizing and externalizing behaviors.