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Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and other plant extracts
Abstract
FULL TEXT available free from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00780.x/pdf
The antimicrobial activity of plant oils and extracts has been recognized for many years. However, few investigations have compared large numbers of oils and extracts using methods that are directly comparable. In the present study, 52 plant oils and extracts were investigated for activity against Acinetobacter baumanii, Aeromonas veronii biogroup sobria, Candida albicans, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia col, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotype typhimurium, Serratia marcescens and Staphylococcus aureus, using an agar dilution method. Lemongrass, oregano and bay inhibited all organisms at concentrations of < or = 2.0% (v/v). Six oils did not inhibit any organisms at the highest concentration, which was 2.0% (v/v) oil for apricot kernel, evening primrose, macadamia, pumpkin, sage and sweet almond. Variable activity was recorded for the remaining oils. Twenty of the plant oils and extracts were investigated, using a broth microdilution method, for activity against C. albicans, Staph. aureus and E. coli. The lowest minimum inhibitory concentrations were 0.03% (v/v) thyme oil against C. albicans and E. coli and 0.008% (v/v) vetiver oil against Staph. aureus. These results support the notion that plant essential oils and extracts may have a role as pharmaceuticals and preservatives.
... Staphylococcus aureus NCTC 6571 [40] Lack of data [26] In an ex vivo study of root canal infection by Enterococccus faecalis at different time intervals (1, 7, 14 days), the percentage reduction of colony forming unit (log10) at 7 and 14 days was between 6.3-14.6% for vetiver root essential oil, 7.0-22.6% ...
... The following genera of Gram-negative bacteria were tested against CZEOs: Acinetobacter, Aggregatibacter, Alcaligenes, Bartonella involving the inhibition by CZEO showed a lack of effect with results >1000 µg/mL leading to the conclusion that CZEO may not be effective against Gram-negative bacteria [26,28,31,32,40] . In 2017, an inhibition at a concentration of 600 µg/mL against Escherichia coli was reported [33] . ...
... None None [38] 1 Commercial EO Bartonella henselae 0.032-0.063% v/v [44] 1 Commercial oil; country not specified >2,0% v/v for all species [40] 1 commercial EO; country not specified Acinetobacter sp. Alcaligenes sp. ...
... Plants produce bioactive substances which are antimicrobial, these include: alkaloids, phenolics and polyphenols, flavonoids, quinones, tannins, coumarins, terpenes, lectins and polypeptides, saponins, lanuric acid and a host of others [4,[60][61][62]. Researches have shown that these bioactive molecules are found in many photosynthesising plants and when applied in form of extracts or any other therapeutic form can be used to treat various disorders like hypertension, bacterial infections, cancer, fungal infections, immune suppression, neurological anomalies and viral infections [25,63]. ...
... These are polymeric phenolic bioactive chemicals which exhibit antibacterial and antifungal activities [61,62]. Tannins interact with cell envelope transport proteins and microbial adhesins; this inactivates transport proteins and adhesins [90,91]. ...
... Produces bactericidal effects; it inhibits assembling of proteins involved in cell division [61,151]. ...
The discovery of antibiotics has transformed public health. Yet, the injudicious and unregulated use of these agents for prophylactic, sub-therapeutic and therapeutic purposes both in clinical settings and animal production led to the emergence of antibiotic resistance. As new sets of drugs have appeared, microbes have adjusted, evolving with another resistant protective mechanism to evade and escape the new antimicro-bial assault. Some of the alternatives that have proven potent in addressing the resistance problem include the use of bioactive substances in plant or the bioenhancer approach which integrates both the synthetic and natural products in treating infections caused by pathogenic organisms. This review provides information on the effectiveness of phyto-chemicals to curb the menace of antibiotic resistance.
... These compounds exhibit strong antibacterial and antifungal activities, making oregano and thyme EOs attractive candidates for addressing the growing threat of antibiotic-resistant pathogens [7,8]. For example, their efficacy against multidrug-resistant bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus (including MRSA) and Bacillus cereus has been proven [9,10]. Their ability to inhibit the formation of biofilms-a major factor in persistent infections-further highlights their potential in clinical applications. ...
... Their ability to inhibit the formation of biofilms-a major factor in persistent infections-further highlights their potential in clinical applications. Moreover, these EOs are widely recognized for their antioxidant properties, which can play a supportive role in mitigating oxidative stress during infections [9,10]. ...
... Different inhibitions for the same microorganisms can be explained by different chemical compositions of the EOs, which vary according to the season, the geographical location of the plants, and/or the method used to extract the EOs, as well as the microbial strains used in the assays [34,35]. However, when surfactants are used, several authors have shown that with the use of Tween 80 or DMSO, the MICs were lower than those determined in this study for several microorganisms [9,27,28]. Remmal et al. [36] found that the antibacterial activity of EOs decreased when polysorbate was used. Although there is no consensus in the studies on EOs and the use of surfactants, these compounds appear to be important as polysorbate 80 is used to emulsify the oil, making it miscible with the medium used in the dilutions of the wells [17,37]. ...
Plant-derived essential oils (EOs) possess significant antimicrobial potential against spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. However, their efficacy can vary depending on the test method, making it difficult to standardise results. This study aimed to investigate the effect of polysorbate 80, a common surfactant used to emulsify EOs, on antimicrobial activity and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determinations. The antimicrobial activity of oregano and thyme EOs was tested against 40 microorganisms with and without the presence of polysorbate 80. Antimicrobial activity was qualitatively assessed using the disc diffusion assay (DDA) and quantitatively via broth microdilution to determine MIC values. Both oregano and thyme EOs exhibited antimicrobial activity against all tested microorganisms in the DDA, regardless of the surfactant’s presence. However, MIC determinations revealed that higher EO concentrations were required to inhibit microbial growth when polysorbate 80 was included in the emulsification process. These findings indicate that polysorbate 80 influences antimicrobial test results by reducing EO efficacy while enhancing solution homogeneity and handling in aqueous media. The study highlights the critical role of emulsifiers in antimicrobial testing, as their use can significantly impact the interpretation of results and the perceived effectiveness of EOs in food preservation, pharmaceuticals, and other applications.
... While Escherichia coli and Clostridium perfringens were sensitive to most of the EO tested, also at lower concentrations, Streptococcus epidermis and Salmonella serovars were only sensitive at high concentrations . HAMMER et al. (1999), who did a relatively large study, investigated the antimicrobial effect of 52 EO. Oregano and thyme EO exhibited lowest MIC against E. coli, S. typhimurium and S. aureus. ...
... It is not exactly known why there is a difference in sensivity, but it Table 1. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (μl/ml) of selected essential oils (EO) and of their active components tested in vitro against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (adapted from BURT, 2004) Minimale Hemm-Konzentration (μl/ml) ausgewählter ätherischer Öle und ihrer wirksamen Bestandteile gegen Gram-positive und Gram-negative Bakterien in vitro (BURT, 2004; FARAG et al., 1989;CHAIBI et al., 1997;SMITH-PALMER et al., 1998;COSENTINO et al., 1999;HAMMER et al., 1999;BURT and REINDERS, 2003. may be related to the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria which configures the bacterial surface with strong hydrophilicity and acts as a strong permeability barrier (NIKAIDO, 2003). ...
... "Besides their antioxidant activity, many spices display antimicrobial activities. The antimicrobial potential of spices resides in their essential oils" (Hammer et al., 1999). "Some of antimicrobial components that have been identified in spices and herbs are: eugenol from cloves, thymol from thyme and oregano, vanillin from vanilla, allicin from garlic, cinnamic aldehyde from cinnamon, allyl isothiocyanate from mustard. ...
... https://doi.org/10.1046/j. 1365-2672.1999.00774.x Ileola, A. O., & Omodara, T. R. (2017. ...
Introduction: Fermented Parkia biglobosa seed is a popular condiment in Nigeria which is used in enhancing the taste and flavor in soup and dishes. The study was carried out to investigate the influence of Aframomum melegueta, Zingiber officinale, Allium sativum, Myristica fragrans, Curcuma longa, Xylopia aethiopica, Chrysobalanus icaco and Parinari excelsa on the shelf life and sensory parameters of the condiment. Aims: The study was carried out to investigate the effects of different spices on the shelf life and sensory properties of fermented Parkia biglobosa seeds. Methodology: Thirty grams (30 g) of each spice was added to 300 g of previously pressure cooked and dehulled locust beans in separate containers. Each was sterilized and inoculated with Bacillus subtilis. All the samples were fermented at 37oC for 36 h. The fermented products were analysed using the commercially purchased fermented Parkia biglobosa seeds as the control. Results: The addition of garlic during processing of the condiments was more acceptable to the panelist considering the aroma of the fermented products. Based on texture, all the fermented products were rated higher than the commercially purchased ‘iru’. This might be due to the increase in the softening effects of the spices on the seeds. Cocoplum and skinned plum fermented products were preferred to commercially purchased sample based on consistency and overall likening. This suggests that the use of cocoplum and skinplum in the fermentation process not only enhanced consistency of the product but also contributed to a better overall sensory liking among the assessors. Ginger fermented Parkia biglobosa seeds had the lowest shelf life probably due to increased microbial activity which led to spoilage. Alligator pepper, nutmeg and grain of selim fermented Parkia biglobosa seeds products had lower self-life and cannot be recommended as spices that can prolong the shelf life of the condiment. However, galic, tumeric, and skinplum fermented products had the longest shelf life. Conclusion: Addition of garlic, cocoplum and skinplum during processing of the condiments contributed to a more pleasing, desirable aroma and a better overall sensory liking among the assessors. Also, galic, tumeric, and skinplum may be recommended as spices to enhance the shelf life of the fermented Parkia biglobosa seeds.
... Example: Peppermint oil can cause allergic reactions or skin irritation in some people [53]. ...
... Importance: Use herbal remedies supported by scientific evidence to ensure they are effective for the intended use [53]. ...
This chapter examines the therapeutic powers of herbal medicinal plants in treating long-term respiratory diseases like bronchitis, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Millions worldwide suffer from chronic respiratory disorders, which are a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Medicinal interventions are often used in conventional therapies to reduce symptoms and manage the condition. However, herbal medicinal plants offer an alternative method by utilizing their bioactive ingredients and traditional knowledge. The chapter reviews the literature and research on the effectiveness and mechanisms of the action of several herbal medicinal plants in treating respiratory diseases, including their effects on the immune system, mucolytic activity, bronchodilation, antioxidants, and inflammation. Several herbal plants show promise in treatment, such as ginseng, astragalus, marshmallow root, mullein, turmeric, ginger, liqorice, eucalyptus, peppermint, thyme, green tea, oregano, rosemary, and marshmallow root. They aid in symptom alleviation, immune response modulation, mucus clearance, oxidative stress reduction, inflammation reduction, and airway enlargement. In conclusion, herbal medicinal plants are essential for comprehensive care of long-term respiratory conditions, providing a multitude of therapeutic choices with varying mechanisms of action and potential advantages.
... This approach allows us to push the boundaries of food safety, preservation technology, and prevention of infections, including HAIs [27]. There are many reports about antimicrobial and antioxidant films with the addition of bioactive components such as essential oils [28], bergamot, lemongrass, rosemary oils [29], tea tree oil [30], phenolic acids [31], and others. Recently, there has been a spike in research on materials based on the CMC matrix with different additives like amino phenylpropanoic acid, ...
Novel carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) films with liquid products of pyrolysis (LPP) from wood pine were produced. The obtained CMC-LPP films were plasticized with 5% glycerol. CMC-LPP films were a light brown colour with a characteristic smoky scent, and showed a higher oxygen permeability when compared to control film without the addition of the LPP. CMC-LPP exhibited high antioxidant activity (5 and 18 times higher than CMC films). Furthermore, the antibacterial activity of the CMC-LPP films was tested, showing a strong inhibiting growth effect on the seven tested human pathogenic bacteria. The new material had the most substantial bacteriostatic effect on Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Introduction of LPP to plasticised CMC produces an eco-friendly material with biocidal effect and favourable mechanical and structural properties, which shows its potential for possible use in many industries.
... Plants readily synthesize substances for defence against the attack of insects, herbivores and microorganisms (Marjorie, 1999). Recently, there has been an upsurge in demand for natural products for the control and treatment of various infections and diseases as some chemically synthesized drugs have undesirable effects (Hammer et al., 1999). The intake of antioxidant compounds present in food is an important health protecting factor (Fogliano et al., 1999). ...
Extracts of Mondia whytei (M. whytei) root barks were screened for their inhibitory effects against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) (ATCC 25923), Escherichia coli (E. coli) 0157:H7 (PSSCMI 0032), Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger were used as test organisms. From the results it was concluded that activity varied with the solvent used. Contrary to previous reports, the plant seems to lack significant antibacterial activity except against E. coli. The popularity of a herbal recipe is not always a measure for its potency. However, M. whytei had antifungal activity since the ethanol and methanol extracts showed significant activity against the tested strains of fungi. The antioxidant activity of the extracts was also evaluated using the DPPH free radical scavenging assay. M. whytei exhibited substantial inhibition of the DPPH activity with EC 50 of 413mg/l for the crude extracts. This antioxidant activity of the crude extracts can be attributed to the presence of 2-Hydroxy-4-Methoxybenzaldehyde that is a known antioxidant in the root extracts.
... Consequently, the exploration of natural remedies like lemon juice not only holds the promise of therapeutic innovation but also aligns with the imperative of preserving the effectiveness of antibiotics for future generations [8][9][10]. For instance, Hammers, et al., conducted a study exploring the essential oils from various Citrus species, revealing Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MIC) ranging between 5%-2% (v/v) for these oils and extracts [11]. Furthermore, AL-Jedah, et al., investigated a mixture of spices, including lemon and found that this combination exhibited a static effect on a spectrum of assayed bacteria. ...
Background: Numerous foods and environmental sources contain bacteria that are resistant to at least one antimicrobial agent used in medicine and agriculture. Resistance to antibiotics in gram positive bacteria like Staphylococcu saureusis of special concern. Lemon juice has been reported to act as an antioxidant in various biological systems. They were reported to be effective against a variety of bacterial strains. Aim and objective: The aim of this study was to determine the antibacterial activity of lemon juice and to compare with that of the commercially available antibiotic penicillin in inhibiting the growth of Staphylococcus aureus. Materials and methods: The Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion technique was employed to evaluate the effect of lemon juice and commonly used antibiotic Penicillin on bacterial infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Results and discussion: The results indicate that penicillin was superior to lemon juice in inhibiting the growth of Staphylococcus aureus. However, lemon juice has also produced significant inhibitory results against the growth of gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus when compared to penicillin. One-way statistical analysis ANOVA followed by Dunnet's multiple comparison tests and the T test followed by the Mann Whitney test were used to conduct statistical analysis in GraphPad Prism 9.1. Conclusion: Lemon juice extract was shown to be less effective against Staphylococcus aureus than commercially available antibiotic penicillin. Keywords Antimicrobial agent; Staphylococcus aureus; Lemon juice; Penicillin; Gram positive bacteria
... Extracts derived from pumpkin exhibit significant antimicrobial activity, effectively combating gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria [17]. Additionally, pumpkin oil at a concentration of 2.0 % (v / v) has demonstrated potent activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Acinetobacter baumannii, Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [18]. ...
Iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe2O₃ NPs) were successfully Synthesized in a green manner using Cucurbita pepo pulp extract as a natural capping and reducing agent. UV-vis spectroscopy verified the synthesis with a distinct absorption peak at 285 nm, while FTIR analysis revealed functional groups responsible for reduction and stabilization. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed the crystalline nature of the nanoparticles, with an average size of 21.5 nm. SEM and EDX analyses further validated the nanoparticles' spherical morphology and elemental composition. Biosynthesized IONPs exhibited notable antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant bacterial strains such as Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The inhibition zones ranged between 5–22 mm for Klebsiella pneumoniae and from 4 to 12 mm for Pseudomonas aeruginosa, depending on the concentration of the nanoparticles. Hematological evaluations demonstrated strong anticoagulant and thrombolytic properties. Iron oxide nanoparticles effectively inhibited blood coagulation at 40 µg/mL and showed significant thrombolytic activity by dissolving preformed clots at 50 µg/mL. The biosynthesized IONPs showed remarkable antioxidant activity that was comparable to standard. This study underscores the potential of Cucurbita pepo as a sustainable and eco-friendly resource for synthesizing multifunctional IONPs. The results suggest promising applications to address antibiotic resistance and manage blood-related disorders. Furthermore, the findings highlight the critical role of green nanotechnology in the advancement of environmentally sustainable and biocompatible nanomaterials for diverse biomedical applications.
... The resin has also been used in perfumes, flower bouquets and as an ointment for embalming (Batiha et al., 2023). The oil of C. myrrha can inhibit the growth of grampositive bacteria and its ethanolic and ether extracts showed remarkable activity against both grampositive and gram-negative bacteria as well as Candida albicans (Hammer et al., 1999;Omer et al., 2011). A further study reported that crude extracts and pure compounds of C. myrrha possess the biological activities of myrrh, namely anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiproliferative, cardiovascular and hepatoprotective (Shen and Lou, 2008). ...
Essential oils (EOs), including oregano, habbatus sauda, and myrrh, are increasingly coming into focus as new medicinal strategies against various organisms, including bacteria that cause nosocomial infections. The uncontrolled use of antibiotics is associated with multi-drug resistance. Therefore, it is crucial to find an alternative therapeutic approach to combat nosocomial infections. This study aims to investigate the antibacterial effects of oregano, habbatus sauda, and myrrh essential oils against the bacteria that cause nosocomial infections. The antimicrobial activity of the essential oils against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Pseudomons aeruginosa, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus epidermidis was investigated using the disc and well diffusion method. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) were determined by broth microdilution tests using essential oil concentrations between 100% and 0.19%. Oregano and habbatussauda showed excellent inhibitory effects on nosocomial bacteria. However, myrrh was not effective against nosocomial bacteria. The MIC of oregano against MRSA, P. aeruginosa and S. epidermidis was 3.13%. The MIC of habbatus sauda against MRSA and S. epidermidis was 0.78%, while against P. aeruginosa and E. coli it was 50% and 12.5%, respectively. In conclusion, both oregano and habbatus sauda have excellent antimicrobial activity against nosocomial bacteria and are recommended as new alternative treatments for nosocomial infections.
... The search for novel antimicrobial agents has become necessary due to resistance to currently existing antibiotics [12]. Herbs and medicinal plants are favored sources of active molecules that are used as lead compounds in the production of a range of pharmaceutical products [13].The invitro antibacterial activity of Solanum trilobatum in this investigation demonstrated its inhibitory effect on the examined microorganisms. Significant inhibition of the bacteria was seen in all plant extracts. ...
Solanum trilobatum, a widely used medicinal herb, is known for its antibacterial properties against various bacterial pathogens. This present study investigates the phytochemical constituents and antibacterial activities of solvent extracts (acetone, methanol, ethanol, and aqueous) from the leaves, roots, and fruits of Solanum trilobatum. The bioactive compounds were characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The plant materials of Solanum trilobatum were air-dried and subjected to Cold percolation extraction for 48 hours with intermittent shaking. The Solanum trilobatum extracts were filtered using Whatman No. 1 paper. The antibacterial activity was evaluated using the Disc diffusion method against four pathogenic bacteria: Salmonella typhimurium (ATCC 14028), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), Escherichia coli (ATCC 8739), and Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923). The results revealed that methanol extracts exhibited the highest antibacterial activity among the solvents tested, with significant inhibition zones against all bacterial strains. Staphylococcus aureus was the most susceptible, while Pseudomonas aeruginosa showed the least susceptibility. GC-MS analysis identified 21 bioactive compounds in the methanol extract of the leaves, indicating its rich phytochemical profile. In conclusion, Solanum trilobatum extracts, particularly methanol, demonstrated potent antibacterial properties, suggesting its potential for developing novel antimicrobial agents. This study highlights the therapeutic promise of Solanum trilobatum in combating bacterial infections and provides a foundation for further pharmacological exploration.
... These developments have focused on creating nanofibers infused with natural extracts and ingredients, offering safer and more sustainable alternatives for various applications [21]. Indeed, plants contain various chemical compounds with antimicrobial [22] and antioxidant [23] properties, such as thymol, carvacrol, ferulic acid, etc. According to Fig. 2, we looked up the quantity and trends of papers published on the SCOPUS over the previous years on the topics of "Herbal AND Medicine" (Fig. 2a) and "Electrospinning AND Herbal" (Fig. 2b). ...
Electrospinning offers a versatile method for the synthesis of polymeric nanofibers integrated with natural compounds such as medicinal extracts, antibacterial agents, and antioxidants (e.g., Aloe vera, honey, curcumin). These composite fibers exhibit diverse potential applications spanning wound dressing, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and the food industry. Tailoring nanofiber morphologies and loading techniques enables modulation of release kinetics and controlled diffusion of extracts tailored to specific applications. Recent literature showcases an array of studies exploring the electrospinning of various polymers, including natural ingredients, for biomedical and industrial purposes. This article aims to compile and review methodologies for combining and encapsulating natural extracts within polymers via electrospinning synthesis method, alongside their applications. Our review presents a comprehensive analysis of electrospun nanofibers containing extracts and natural ingredients, encompassing their architectural diversity and factors influencing release kinetics. As more people become interested in natural materials, we expect to see a huge increase in research efforts in this field in the years to come.
... For pharmaceutical intermediates, food supplements, nutraceuticals, and chemical entities for synthesized medications, plants are the most abundant source of drugs in both conventional and modern medical systems [1]. The earliest recorded instances of human civilization involve the use of plants and plant products as medicines. ...
Ocimum gratissimum is used to treat several infectious and non-infectious diseases. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among bacteria to conventional antimicrobials has become a serious challenge and threat worldwide. However, the medicinal plants of Ocimum gratissimum, which are used for two Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis) and two Gram-negative (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) bacteria, were collected from Jimma town of Ethiopia. Therefore, the antibacterial activity of leaf extracts of selected plants was determined in vitro, using disc diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determined against selected zoonotic pathogenic bacteria. Aqueous extraction, ethanol, and methanol were the extraction solvents used in this study. The means inhibition zone among the three, methanolic and ethanolic crude extracts, were higher, and aqueous was the lowest extract as compared using the analysis of significant difference test. The antimicrobial assay showed that the zones of inhibition produced using the disc diffusion method ranged from 2±0.26mm lower to 30±0.34 mm highest for the three extraction methods, with the highest value of 30±0.34 mm obtained with methanol extraction. The zones of inhibition for dried Ocimum grattissimum methanol extract were 15±0.26mm lowest to 30±0.34mm highest and for were 15±0.26 to 28±0.11, Ethanol extract from dried leaf Ocimum grattissimum was 10±0.22mm lowest to 26±0.34mm highest, and 7±0.11mm to 24±0.26mm respectively. Regarding ethanol, methanol extract, and hot and cold aqueous extract, there was a significant difference (P<0.05) seen for all tested bacteria. This study's results suggest that Ocimum grattissimum extracts may be useful in the search for an antibacterial agent to help create novel medications that combat animal pathogenic bacteria that cause life-threatening illnesses.
... The zone inhibition was measured and expressed in millimeters. Antibacterial activity was recorded if the radius of zone of inhibition was greater than 4 mm (Hammer et al., 1999). The antibacterial activity results was considered as inactive if < 4.5mm ; 4.5-6mm as partially active; while 6.5-9 mm as active greater than 9mm as very active (Alves et al., 2000). ...
The present research was aimed to evaluate the antioxidant and antibacterial activities of crude extracts (methanol, acetone and aqueous) of medicinal plant Chrysanthemum coronarium leaves prepared by using different extraction methods. The antioxidant activities of these extracts were determined by using DPPH (1, 1-Diphenyl-2-picryl hydroxyl) radical scavenging method. It was found that the crude extract of aqueous solvent of Chrysanthemum coronarium leaves had significantly highest antioxidant activity as compare to all other crude extracts. All extracts showed lower antioxidant activity compared to ascorbic acid which was used as reference. It was found that the bacteria (S.aureus and P.aeruginosa) were largely inhibited by methanol and acetone extracts where as aqueous extract of Chrysanthemum coronarium showed less inhibition using reference antibacterial drug ampicilin, by agar well diffusion method. The results also showed that the hot (soxhlet) extraction is better than the cold (soaking) extraction method. The present study thus suggested that the use of this medicinal plant may be exploited for health supplement. Citation: Prakash P., Khan A.N., Dar M. S., 2015. Evaluation of antioxidant and antibacterial activities of Chrysanthemum coronarium leaves extract using different extraction methods.
... Absence of Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida albicans confirmed compliance with microbiological quality requirements [59]. The low microbial load was attributed to the natural antimicrobial properties of ingredients such as neem and orange peel [60]. ...
A novel herbal bath powder formulation was developed using nine natural ingredients including green gram, rice, red gram, rose petals, neem, orange peels, soap nuts, vetiver, and bakuchi. The formulation aimed to create an effective natural alternative to chemical-based cleansing products while providing skin whitening and therapeutic benefits. The ingredients were carefully selected based on their traditional medicinal properties and processed through systematic drying and blending procedures. The formulated powder underwent extensive physicochemical characterization including pH analysis, solubility testing, microbial evaluation, and ash value determination. Sensory evaluation and skin compatibility studies were conducted to assess user safety and product efficacy. The pH of the formulation was found to be weakly acidic, suitable for skin application. Solubility studies confirmed complete dissolution in water without residue formation. Microbial analysis revealed the absence of pathogenic growth, while ash value remained within acceptable limits of 5%. Patch tests demonstrated no adverse reactions and confirmed the powder's cleansing and skin-brightening properties. The foaming characteristics exhibited smooth and creamy consistency. All evaluation parameters met the prescribed specifications, indicating a stable and safe formulation. The developed herbal bath powder showed promising potential as a natural cleansing agent with additional benefits of skin whitening and nourishment, offering a viable alternative to synthetic bath products.
... Therefore, the spread and uplift of anti-microbial materials have flourished in the therapy of diseases [51]. Plant extracts and oils have several anti-microbial activities, which have been accepted for several ages [52]. The extracts of Tinospora cordifolia have several antibacterial activities [53]. ...
Tinospora cordifolia, or "guduchi," is a reported medicinal plant of high therapeutic value. Historically, it was utilized in Ayurveda and other herbal medicinal therapies, where it is valued for its efficacy in treating a range of diseases, such as metabolic disorders, infectious diseases, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. This manuscript presents the pharmacological significance of T. cordifolia, where its multi-dimensional bioactive molecules, such as alkaloids, diterpenoid lactones, and steroids, are responsible for its therapeutic actions. Recent scientific studies show its chemopreventive value, especially in regulating cellular proliferation and apoptosis. With the growing interest in the world for plant-based therapeutics, more studies are needed to prove its efficacy, to explain its mechanisms of action, and to determine its potential in today's medicine.
... The essential oils and the individual terpens and terpenoids compounds are extensively used in the pharmaceutical [2], food, flavor [3], fragrances and cosmetics industries [4]. Terpenes and terpenoids exhibit a range of bioactive effects, including antibacterial and antimicrobial [5][6][7], anti-inflammatory [8,9], antioxidant [8], anticancer [10][11][12], antiviral [13,14], anti-SARS-CoV-2 [15], analgesic [16], and anxiolytic properties [17]. In our research, we focused on menthol and fenchol, which are bicyclic monoterpenoids particularly notable for their bioactivity. ...
... Hammer and coworkers [31] investigated the antimicrobial activity of extracts and EOs of several plants and reported that plant extracts are effective for the inhibition of bacteria and Candida spp. [32]. ...
... However, their interactions may sometimes impair their effectiveness. For instance, combinations of thymol with carvacrol or carvacrol with myrcene and p-cymene showed diminished antimicrobial effects compared to their individual use [23,24]. Additionally, linalool may reduce the efficacy of mixtures by decreasing the bioavailability of active compounds [1]. ...
Introduction: Growing antibiotic resistance is driving the search for natural alternatives, such as essential oils (EOs), which are known for their antimicrobial properties. This study evaluated the antimicrobial efficacy of 20 EOs on bacterial and fungal strains and the impact of their combinations.
Materials and methods: Twenty EOs were selected to evaluate their antimicrobial potential in vitro. Stock solutions were prepared and tested on three bacterial strains (Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and three yeast strains of the genus Candida. The antimicrobial activity of EOs was initially evaluated by aromatogram, making it possible to classify oils according to their effectiveness. The sensitivity of microorganisms to EOs was then determined by measuring the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). EO combination tests were also performed to detect synergistic or antagonistic effects.
Results: Tests revealed that Origanum vulgare, Cymbopogon citratus, and Thymus leptobotrys were particularly effective against Gram-positive bacteria and yeasts, while others, such as Citrus limon, showed negligible activity. The combinations of oils generally produced indifferent or antagonistic effects, especially against P. aeruginosa.
Conclusion: The results could open new perspectives for natural antimicrobial treatments, thus contributing to the fight against antibiotic resistance. In addition, the study will highlight the importance of judicious use of EO combinations to avoid interactions that could compromise their effectiveness.
... Applications of plants aresuch as digestive issue, carminative, stomachic, constipation, haematinic, cough remedies, liver protection [2][3][4][5], muscle spasm, bronchospasm,and antigout [6]. It possesses various pharmacological activities such as anthelmintic [7], antimicrobial [8], diuretic [9] and antioxidant activity [10]. Triphala is one of the for the most partadmired tonics in Ayurveda. ...
Nutraceuticals are the pharmaceutical products that hold both nutritional in addition to the medicinal value. Such a creation is deliberate to advance the objective health, clash daily challenges such as stress, increase longevity, etc. Current days, importance is given to those herbs which are used as food and medicine due to its superior acceptance. The Demand of nutraceuticals among general public as well as healthcare providers has been gained over medicines and health supplements due to versatile action, Current literature review credentials herbs with a ample variety of salutary values like immunity jab, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-microbial, and gastro protective. So from various researches it was found out that herbs could be well again options to create as nutraceuticals. Numerous nutraceuticals are described based on their accessibility as food, chemical nature, and mechanism of action.
... 3.6. Antimicrobial Activity Assays [37]. The disk diffusion test, a widely employed method, was used to evaluate antimicrobial activity [38]. ...
The genus Knautia (L.) (Caprifoliaceae) is widely distributed in the Mediterranean region and is represented by 11 species of flora in Turkey. This study conducted a detailed phytochemical investigation of the methanol extract of the whole plant of K. integrifolia using a combination of LC-ESI-FT-MS and NMR analyses. According to the results of this analysis, 25 compounds were identified in the methanol extract of K. integrifolia. The extract is particularly rich in phenolic secondary metabolites, including phenolic acid derivatives, flavonoid glycosides, and flavones, along with the presence of triterpenoid compounds. Additionally, the total phenolic content of the K. integrifolia methanol extract was evaluated. Considering the pharmacological activities reported for Knautia species, the antioxidant potential of the methanol extract was assessed using the DPPH radical scavenging assay, resulting in a value of 77.5% when compared to the ascorbic acid standard. In this study, antimicrobial activity tests were performed on K. integrifolia methanol extract for the first time. The results indicated that the extract demonstrated greater susceptibility to Staphylococcus epidermidis compared to the control group. At the same time, Pseudomonas aeruginosa exhibited a minimum inhibitory concentration value, indicating high sensitivity to the methanol extract.
... Anisomeles R.Br. is a genus belonging to Lamiaceae subfamily Lamioideae [1]. Its species are shortlived perennial shrubs distributed in northern Australia, Malesia and southern Asia. ...
This study investigates the pharmacognostic and phytochemical properties of Anisomeles malabarica, a medicinal plant from the Lamiaceae family. A comprehensive analysis was performed, encompassing macroscopic, microscopic, and numerical taxonomic studies. The anatomical observations revealed distinctive traits such as unicellular trichomes, collenchymatous and parenchymatous ground tissue, and vascular bundles with concentric arrangements. Quantitative microscopy parameters, including stomatal index and vein islet number, were documented. Physiochemical analyses showed values within Ayurvedic pharmacopeia standards, ensuring the plant's purity and quality. The presence of essential inorganic elements like calcium, potassium, and iron was confirmed, with no detection of toxic heavy metals, underscoring its safety for medicinal use. DNA barcoding validated the species identity, enhancing its taxonomic classification. These findings highlight A. malabarica's potential for therapeutic applications and its importance in pharmacognostic standardization.
... However, previous work showed a low activity of thyme oil and extract against C. albicans and Salmonella typhimurium. 32 Our result showed that Tunisian T. capitatus essential oil from the mountains of Matmata could be a new chemotype of thymol (high content of thymol and low content of carvacrol) and not have selective antimicrobial activity on the basis of the cell well differences of bacterial microorganisms tested as reported previously. 15 These preliminary results concerning antimicrobial and antioxidant activities were obtained for the first time, and they give the opportunity to continue the study by more 41 47 29 35 35 40 -40 Ampicillin ------20 35 Nalidixic acid ----28 30 --Nystatin 31 24 25 29 ----A dash indicates the absence of inhibition zone detected. ...
Thymus capitatus Hoff. et Link. essential oil was constituted by thymol (89.06%) as a major component followed by p-cimene (5.04%) and g-terpinene (3.19%) after analysis by gas chromatography-flame ionization detection and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The antioxidant activity assays of the essential oil used in the inhibition of the radical cation 2,2 0-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) and the free radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl showed high 50% inhibitory concentration values of 1.24 ± 0.05 mg=L and 0.59 ± 0.02 mg=L, respectively. The essential oil of T. capitatus was tested for antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria (Salmonella analum, Listeria monocytogenes), Gram-negative bacteria (Escherchia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae), fungi (Mucor ramamnianus, Aspergillus ochraceus), and yeast species (Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida albicans) using the agar well diffusion method. It seemed that L. monocytogenes, E. coli, and K. pneumoniae bacteria were inhibited by the essential oil tested. A strong activity was also observed against fungi and yeasts. KEY WORDS: antimicrobial activity antioxidant activity 2,2 0-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl essential oil gas chromatography-mass spectrometry Thymus capitatus Hoff. et Link.
... Specifically, when both cinnamon and garlic in dissimilar forms were dissolved in 20% DMSO, larger inhibition zones against C. perfringens ATCC13124 were detected (11.6-16.1 mm and 15.5-26.5 mm, respectively), compared with those formed when SDW was used as a solvent. However, it is important to understand that the agar well diffusion assay is a rapid and easy method to obtain and analyze data [38,39], and parameters, such as product diffusion, medium composition, and incubation conditions, may affect the extent of the inhibitory zone and the susceptibility of the microorganism under study [38,40]. Although not as sensitive as other antibacterial activity analyses, this method is commonly used for rapid screening and enables the evaluation of results obtained using different methods [40]. ...
Clostridium perfringens type F is a spore-forming bacterium that causes human illnesses, including food poisoning (FP) and non-foodborne gastrointestinal diseases. In this study, we evaluated the antimicrobial activities of 15 natural products against C. perfringens spore growth. Among them, garlic, onion juice, and undiluted essential oil constituents (EOCs) of clove, rosemary, and peppermint showed the strongest activity. Therefore, we examined the inhibitory effects of these products on each stage of the life cycle of C. perfringens FP strains, including spore germination, spore outgrowth, and vegetative growth, in laboratory media and chicken meat. Both clove and peppermint oils (at 0.5%; v/v) inactivated C. perfringens spore germination in nutrient-rich trypticase–glucose–yeast extract (TGY) medium. Furthermore, EOCs at (0.1–0.5%) arrested the spore outgrowth of C. perfringens in TGY medium. Interestingly, EOCs at 0.5% completely inhibited the vegetative growth of FP isolates during a 6 h incubation in TGY medium. However, even at 4-fold higher concentrations (2%), EOCs were unable to inactivate C. perfringens spore growth in contaminated chicken meat stored under abusive conditions. Although some of the natural products inhibited C. perfringens spore germination, outgrowth, and vegetative growth in TGY medium, no such inhibitory activity was observed when these products were applied to C. perfringens spore-inoculated chicken meat.
... This work contributes to the intersection of traditional plant health management and modern computational tools, providing a sustainable solution to increase crop productivity and reduce disease spread in medicinal plants II. LITERATURE OVERVIEW Hammer et al. (1999) highlight the role of plants as sources of antimicrobial compounds in traditional and modern medicine. This foundational knowledge supports the therapeutic potential of Ocimumtenuiflorum, underlining its importance in both health and agricultural contexts. ...
The agricultural landscape of India, a cornerstone of its economy, faces significant challenges in the early detection of leaf diseases, particularly in the cultivation of Ocimum tenuiflorum, widely revered for its medicinal properties. This study innovatively employs advanced image-processing techniques combined with machine learning algorithms to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of identifying infections in Holy Basil plants. Utilizing a comprehensive dataset sourced from Plant Village, which includes various infected leaf types and healthy specimens, we implemented a robust framework for image augmentation, preprocessing, and feature extraction. Our evaluation of multiple machine learning classifiers reveals that the random forest algorithm achieves the highest accuracy of 99.86%, effectively outperforming other models such as linear discriminant analysis and support vector machines. By merging traditional agricultural knowledge with modern computational tools, this research not only demonstrates a novel approach to disease management in Ocimumtenuiflorum but also underscores the potential for technology to transform agricultural practices, promoting sustainability and enhancing crop productivity in India.
... Antibacterial effects were evaluated according to the inhibition zone diameters that will occur around the well after an overnight incubation (Hufford et al., 1975). Additionally, the MIC and MBC values for the bacterial strains were determined using the broth dilution method (Hammer et al. 1999). ...
A safe and sustainable food is only available through sustainable agriculture; this is also possible with organic farming. Then, as Hippocrates said centuries ago about safe food: “Let food be your medicine, and let medicine be your food”; foods containing antioxidants replace natural medicine. Therefore, antioxidant sources should be natural, and even more so, organic. This study has shown that this is very possible and we believe that it will pave the way for new studies. Therefore, in this study, it was revealed that different organic fertilizer sources significantly affected the antioxidant content of sweet corn grain, and that the application of leonardite, one of these organic fertilizers, ensured the maximum transfer of almost most antioxidant properties to the grain. In addition, FRAP capacity, one of the antioxidant properties, was found to be at the maximum level in grain of sweet corn at the application of farm manure. These results have shown, with the example of sweet corn, that healthy and sustainable food sources are only possible by growing with organic fertilizers. This study serves as an example for organic plant cultivation for other sustainable food sources.
... Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), a potent aromatic and therapeutic herb, has gained attention as a potential feed additive in the poultry industry. Belonging to the Lamiaceae family, lavender essential oil (LEO) has been extensively used, revealing antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidative properties (Hammer et al. 1999, Guidi and Landi 2014, Barbarestani et al. 2020. Studies suggest that lavender possesses immune-stimulatory, anxiolytic, sedative, hypnotic, analgesic, and anticonvulsant effects (Adaszyńska-Skwirzyńska and Szczerbińska 2018, Salarmoini et al. 2019). ...
The research was conducted at Animal Production Department, College of Agricultural Engineering Sciences, University of Duhok, Iraq. A total of 400 Ross 308 eggs were incubated, and 348 chicks were hatched. From the hatched chicks, 240 were randomly divided into 5 treatment groups, each with 4 replicates and 12 birds per pen. The treatments included a control group (no additive or injection), eggs injected with 0.05 mL of Lavender essential oil (T1), eggs injected with 0.1 mL of lavender essential oil (T2), birds fed with 0.5% lavender powder (T3), and birds fed with 1% lavender powder (T4). Results indicated that during days 0-10, birds injected with lavender essential oil (T1) exhibited significantly higher body weight gain as compared to T3 and T4. By day 24, the body weight of birds in T2 was significantly increased compared to control and T4. Treatments T1, and T3 showed significantly higher body weight gain compared to T4. Additionally, T1 and T2 reported significantly higher body weight and increased feed intake with no significant differences in feed conversion ratio among treatments by day 35. Villi height, crypt depth, tip, basal, and villi/crypt ratio was increased significantly in birds of T1 group compared to those fed a control diet. All treatments showed a higher villi height/crypt depth ratio over the control. The concentration of AST serum in control group was higher than overall treatments. It was concluded that the in-ovo injection and dietary supplementation of lavender essential oil or powder had a positive effect on broiler performance and gut health.
... Plant extractions have been tested for antimicrobial activity since time immemorial. The anticandidal effect of various plants, for example, aloe vera, lemon grass, etc. has already been proved [11][12][13]. However, studies on the effect of plants on adhesion of C. albicans to HBEC are sparse. ...
... Several studies have demonstrated that essential oils possess antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-parasitic properties [71][72][73][74][75][76], which has led to a significant increase in their usage ( Table 2). ...
Transforming agri-food wastes into valuable products is crucial due to their significant environmental impact, when discarded, including energy consumption, water use, and carbon emissions. This review aims to explore the current research on the recovery of bioactive molecules with antimicrobial properties from agri-food waste and by-products, and discusses future opportunities for promoting a circular economy in its production and processing. Mainly, antibacterial molecules extracted from agri-food wastes are phenolic compounds, essential oils, and saponins. Their extraction and antimicrobial activity against a wide spectrum of bacteria is analyzed in depth. Also, their possible mechanisms of activity are described and classified based on their effect on bacteria, such as the (i) alteration of the cell membrane, (ii) inhibition of energy metabolism and DNA synthesis, and iii) disruption of quorum sensing and biofilm formation. These bioactive molecules have a wide range of possible applications ranging from cosmetics to food packaging. However, despite their potential, the amount of wastes transformed into valuable compounds is very low, due to the high costs relating to their extraction, technical challenges in managing supply chain complexity, limited infrastructure, policy and regulatory barriers, and public perception. For these reasons, further research is needed to develop cost-effective, scalable technologies for biomass valorization.
The increasing resistance of Trichomonas vaginalis to the only approved chemical family of drugs for treatment, the 5-nitroimidazoles, has prompted the exploration of new therapeutic agents against this prevalent non-viral sexually transmitted infection. Natural products have emerged as a significant source of novel treatments for trichomoniasis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-T. vaginalis activity of citral (3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienal), the main constituent of the essential oil of Cymbopogon species, commonly known as lemongrass. Our findings indicate that citral exhibits a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 100 μM, effectively inhibiting the growth of T. vaginalis trophozoites within 12 h of exposure, and a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of approximately 40 μM after 24 h. Furthermore, the evaluation of nitric oxide (NO) levels suggests that citral possesses antioxidant properties. Molecular docking studies reveal a weak interaction with three parasite proteins: thioredoxin reductase (TvTrxR), purine nucleoside phosphorylase (TvPNP), and methionine gamma lyase (TvMGL). The present study highlights the potential of citral as a candidate for the development of no-nitroimidazole drugs, offering new avenues for trichomoniasis treatment and underscoring the importance of further investigation into citral’s mechanism of action.
Traditional Medicine in North East Africa: Research on Traditional Healer Preparations and Herbs explores the rich tapestry of traditional healing practices in North East Africa. This comprehensive work compiles the profound knowledge of indigenous herbalists and explores the intricate relationship between traditional healing and medicinal plants.
From combating diseases like cancer and diabetes to managing snakebites and obesity-related conditions, each chapter offers a detailed examination of plant-based remedies. Highlighting the contributions of plants like Moringa oleifera and Citrullus colocynthis, this book bridges the gap between ancient wisdom and modern research, making it essential for academics, researchers, and anyone interested in the healing powers of nature. Join us on this enlightening journey as we celebrate cultural diversity and uncover the enduring legacy of traditional medicine.
Key Features:
- In-depth studies on bioactive compounds and therapeutic properties of key African plants.
- Ethnobotanical insights into traditional healer practices.
- Comprehensive reviews linking traditional plant use to modern medical applications.
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a global health threat, with multidrug-resistant (MDR) Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa contributing to the burden, especially in Bulgaria. This study investigates recent resistance trends of these pathogens in Bulgaria and evaluates the antibacterial effects of commercially available oregano (Origanum vulgare) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) essential oils (EOs), both alone and in combination with conventional antibiotics. The chemical composition of the EOs was analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), revealing carvacrol (84.2%) as the main component in oregano EO and thymol (45.74%) in thyme EO. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values of the EOs were determined using the serial dilution method. Oregano EO exhibited lower MIC and MBC values (0.039–1.250%) compared to thyme EO (0.156–5.000%) against both pathogens. The disk diffusion assay showed that oregano EO exhibits more potent antibacterial effects than thyme EO in Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains. The findings highlight the potential of EOs as adjunctive therapies to enhance the efficacy of conventional antibiotics against MDR Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains in Bulgaria.
The activity of Chrysopodium zizanioides root essential oil (CZEO) against bacteria and 10 fungi was first reported in the late 1970s. Since then, numerous studies have been published on the subject. Significant inhibitory effects have sometimes been observed, especially after 2017, against certain strains of Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, or fungi. Compared to the inhibitory effects of other essential oils (EOs), CZEOs were sometimes highly effective, but sometimes not at all. Very few of the main chemical components of CZEOs are known for their antimicrobial properties. Work in this area is still limited and needs to be continued. The present review provides a compilation of the scientific literature on the antimicrobial properties of CZEO and sheds light on their effects.
The present research aimed to investigate the individual and combined antimicrobial potential of plant essential oils (EOs) viz., tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), basil (Ocimum basilicum), and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) against bovine wound isolates. Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. were isolated from bovine wound samples. Inhibition of microbial growth via disk diffusion method and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was analyzed for EOs and standard antibiotics both individually and in combination. Tea tree and clove produced significantly higher (p≤0.05) inhibitory effects against all the bacteria compared to one or other EOs and standard antibiotics. Basil+ neomycin, thyme+ ampicillin and tea tree+ ampicillin exhibited synergisms against all the wound isolates except Klebsiella spp. The MIC result indicated that clove followed by basil and tea tree exhibited significantly lower (p≤0.05) MIC values against tested isolates compared to one or other EOs and antibiotics. The combination of thyme neomycin and clove norfloxacin exhibited a significantly lower (p≤0.05) MIC against S.pyogenes and E.coli compared to other combination of EOs and antibiotics. Likewise, the combination of basil oxytetracycline and clove norfloxacin exhibited a significantly lower (p≤0.05) MIC against S.pneumoniae compared to one or other combinations of EOs and antibiotics. These results demonstrated the significant antimicrobial potential of EOs against wound isolates; individually tea tree and clove showed superior effects, whereas combinations of basil+ neomycin, thyme+ ampicillin and tea tree+ ampicillin showed synergisms compared to one or other EOs and antibiotics. Key Words: antibacterial, bovine wound, plant essential oil, synergistic effect
This chapter delves into the therapeutic possibilities of bioactive compounds derived from plants. This chapter explores the therapeutic potential of bioactive compounds sourced from plants. These compounds have attracted significant interest in the medical, pharmaceutical, and nutritional fields because of their diverse biological effects and possible health benefits. The chapter offers a comprehensive examination of the various classes of bioactive mixtures present in plants, such as polyphenols, alkaloids, terpenoids, and flavonoids, elucidating their bioavailability, pharmacological properties, and mechanisms of action, all of which underscore their potential efficacy in preventing and treating diverse illnesses. Moreover, it investigates how bioactive compounds can enhance human health and well-being under their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties. The chapter underscores the significance of sustainable sourcing and extraction techniques for procuring plant bioactive compounds, aligning with the escalating global demand for natural, plant-based remedies. It also addresses forthcoming research prospects and challenges in exploring and leveraging bioactive compounds from plants, underscoring the necessity for interdisciplinary partnerships and innovative strategies to tap into the therapeutic potential of these natural compounds fully. In essence, this chapter presents a valuable reservoir of knowledge for researchers, academics, and professionals in the fields of pharmacology, natural products chemistry, and phytotherapy, offering profound insights into the promising applications of bioactive mixtures derived from plants in enhancing human health and propelling medical advancements.
The increasing interest in foods that can have a positive influence on the health of human is highlighting certain goods that have been traditionally utilized within local communities for generations, but have recently garnered global recognition. Current research suggests that pumpkin seed oil, that has long been utilized in traditional medicine as well as cooking, may potentially find application in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. Furthermore, certain sources classify it as a prospective functional food due to its derivation from pumpkin seeds, which are rich in various functional constituents. Nevertheless, the oil’s production procedure might impact the composition of these elements, hence influencing the oil’s biological activity. The purpose of this review is to offer a brief summary of the scientific literature examining potential of pumpkin seed oil (PSO) as a functional food ingredient. This chapter provide an extensive analysis of the safety, biological activity, phytochemical content, as well as chemical composition of PSO. The primary bioactive compounds found in pumpkin seed oil that have health-promoting effects include polyphenols, phytoestrogens, and fatty acids. Furthermore, tocopherols, minerals, carotenoids, and squalene have the potential to contribute to the diverse benefits of health associated to this oil. The majority of investigations have been carried out in a controlled laboratory environment and provide evidence to support the assertion that PSO possesses antioxidant as well as antibacterial properties. Empirical research has demonstrated that PSO may have advantageous effects in addressing cardiovascular issues in menopausal women and conditions linked to an irregularity in sex hormones.
Background/Objectives: This study aimed to develop cinnamon bark essential oil (CEO), orange peel essential oil(OEO) and the combination of these two essential oils (OEO-CEO) loaded PLGA nanoparticles to prevent dental caries and to investigate their effectiveness in silico and in vitro methods. Methods: EO loaded PLGA nanoparticles were produced by single emulsion method. Detailed characterization studies were performed using different methods, and the controlled release profile was obtained. The antibacterial activity of the developed formulations was investigated on S. mutans and L. casei strains by in vitro and in silico methods. Additionally, the interaction mechanisms of EOs with DNA were evaluated. Results: Our findings showed that the average droplet size of EO-loaded PLGA nanoparticles varied between 243.1 ± 0.60 nm and 219 ± 4.49 nm, while PdI values varied between 0.069 ± 0.039 and 0.032 ± 0.01. In addition, the developed nanoparticles had high encapsulation efficiency (85.14% to 66.28%) and released the active ingredient in a continuous and controlled manner. Ames test showed that the genotoxicity of EOs was eliminated due to the encapsulation of EOs in PLGA nanoparticles and antibacterial tests showed that OEO-CEO-loaded PLGA nanoparticles were effective on L. casei and S. mutans. The antibacterial activity of EOs was also supported by in silico studies. Finally, it was revealed that EOs showed potential as antibacterial agents by interacting with DNA. Conclusions: The results showed that OEO-CEO-loaded PLGA nanoparticles have the potential to be a suitable nanoformulation for developing mouthwash or toothpaste for the prevention and treatment of dental caries.
The increased population of antibiotic resistant bacteria limits the successful treatment of infectious diseases. The World Health Organization reports the antibiotic resistance shows a serious risk to public health since the bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics for two main reasons. This makes it harder to treat infections and highlights the need for better monitoring solutions. Eugenol a secondary metabolite obtained from clove buds has high potential in the field of biomedicine. Natural products are appealing due to their effectiveness, lower toxicity, and easy availability. Historically, these remedies have been used for treatment since ancient times, before the advent of modern antibiotics. Therefore this study aims to evaluate the antibacterial activity of eugenol as an alternative remedy for antibiotic resistance.Two pathogenic bacteria were tested: Streptococcus mutans and Escherichia coli. The inhibitory effect of commercially available eugenol was screened by Kirby Bauer method, Minimum Inhibitory Concentration, Maximum Bactericidal Concentration (MIC and MBC). Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy(CLSM) are utilized to distinguish between live and dead bacterial cells by using fluorescent dyes on biofilms. In contrast, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is used to examine the surface structure and material makeup of the cells.The following day after culturing, zones of inhibition were observed and measured in millimeters from the culture plates. Both bacteria showed zones of inhibition, but a larger zone was observed for S. mutans compared to E.coli. Images from Confocal and scanning microscopy indicated a higher proportion of red fluorescence that signifies dead cells, suggesting that cell membrane disruption contributes to cell death. The study reveals that eugenol effectively control the growth of these pathogenic bacteria and can be exploit as a natural antibiotic with lesser side effects.The present study differs by focusing on the bacterial strains that are responsible for many infectious diseases worldwide. By examining these specific pathogens, this research aims to provide new insights into the effectiveness of eugenol against a broader range of infectious agents.
The increasing prevalence of antimicrobial resistance and adverse effects from systemic treatments calls for urgent reevaluation of current methods that rely on excessive, uncontrolled drug administration. In recent years triggerable...
The excessive exploitation of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial illnesses has resulted in the emergence of several strains that are resistant to different drugs. Due to the widespread occurrence of antibiotic resistance and the emergence of bacterial strains that are resistant to various drugs, significant efforts are being made to identify appropriate alternative medicines to combat harmful microorganisms. Given the observed link between biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance, recent efforts have been directed towards a promising strategy that aims to control and prevent biofilm formation. This strategy involves targeting and inhibiting the quorum sensing system, which has been extensively shown to play a central role in biofilm formation. The conventional approach to controlling infectious disorders involves the use of substances that are designed to either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics poses a significant challenge to public health. This therapeutic target has been extensively explored globally. However, the scientific data on it are not up-to-date, and only recent studies have begun to explore its potential as a target for combating infectious diseases. An important issue with this strategy is the commonly observed emergence of resistance to antimicrobial agents. This paper aimed to present a comprehensive overview of the quorum sensing system in bacteria, focusing on its role in biofilm formation and the development of antibiotic resistance. Additionally, it provides an update on the significance of targeting this system with natural substances for therapeutic purposes.
This review examines the effectiveness and dosages of chemical and herbal disinfectants used against fungal infections encountered by trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) eggs during incubation. Formalin, potassium permanganate and copper sulfate are prominent chemicals among disinfectants. Formalin provides effective antifungal treatment when used in concentrations of 1000-2000 ppm, but it can have toxic effects in excessive doses. Potassium permanganate can control fungal pathogens when applied at concentrations of 1-5 ppm, but it can have negative effects on fish at high doses. Copper sulfate helps prevent fungal infections when applied at a dosage of 0.5-1 ppm. Herbal disinfectants include tea tree oil, thyme oil and garlic extracts. It has been observed that tea tree oil and thyme oil can be effective against fungal infections when used at 0.5-1%. It has been determined that garlic extracts can reduce fungal infections when used at 1-2% on trout eggs. Plant-based disinfectants are compounds that generally have lower toxicity and may reduce adverse environmental impacts, but their effectiveness may be variable compared to chemical disinfectants. Future research should focus on evaluating the effectiveness of chemical alternatives and developing more sustainable methods.
The escalating challenge of microbial resistance to conventional antimicrobial drugs has spurred a quest for alternative treatments, with plant-based extracts emerging as promising candidates. Over recent decades, plants and their extracts have been harnessed for various purposes, including medicinal applications, flavoring agents, food preservation, and disease prevention. Ocimum gratissimum , a locally abundant plant, has garnered attention for its multifaceted therapeutic and nutritional properties. O. gratissimum , commonly known as clove basil, has a rich history of culinary and medicinal use. Its essential oils are prized for their diverse applications, from culinary flavorings to toiletries and cosmetics additives. Extracts derived from O. gratissimum leaves have demonstrated efficacy against various ailments. Water extracts of the leaves exhibit anti-malarial properties, alleviate catarrh and stomach pain, and possess anticonvulsant and antitussive effects. Conversely, oil leaf extracts showcase potent antibacterial, antiseptic, and antifungal activities. This comprehensive review explores the therapeutic potential of O. gratissimum extracts, shedding light on their diverse pharmacological properties and potential applications in combating microbial infections. By harnessing the bioactive compounds present in O. gratissimum , novel avenues for addressing the growing threat of antimicrobial resistance may be unveiled. Further research is warranted to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the observed effects and optimize the utilization of O. gratissimum extracts in clinical settings.
Diffusion and dilution methods have been employed to study the antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants. A number of modifications have been made in the technique in order to obtain better results. Since some factors (culture medium composition, microorganisms tested, extractive method, pH, solubility of the sample in the culture medium, etc.) can change results, it is difficult using these methods to standardize a procedure for the study of antimicrobial plants. Bioautography is another method for studying antimicrobial activity. With it, previously chromatographed principles are diffused to the agar. The results can also change according to the method employed. All the various techniques are reviewed here and, in order to unify the different criteria and parameters, standard methods to study the antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants are proposed.
A broth micro-dilution method was used to examine the susceptibility of Escherichia coli (n = 110) and Staphylococcus aureus (n = 105) to the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree oil). The detergent Tween 80 was used successfully to enhance the solubility of tea tree oil in the test medium. The MIC90 of tea tree oil for E. coli was 0.25% while for S. aureus it was 0.50%.
A new microdilution method has been developed for determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of oil-based compounds. The redox dye resazurin was used to determine the MIC of a sample of the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) for a range of Gram-positive and -negative bacteria. Use of 0.15% (w/v) agar as a stabilizer overcame the problem of adequate contact between the oil and the test bacteria and obviated the need to employ a chemical emulsifier. A rapid version of the assay was also developed for use as a screening method. A comparison of visual and photometric reading of the microtitre plates showed that results could be assessed without instrumentation; moreover, if the rapid assay format was used, rigorous asepsis was not necessary. Accuracy of the resazurin method was confirmed by plate counting from microwells and MIC values were compared with results obtained using an agar dilution assay. The MIC results obtained by the resazurin method were slightly lower than those obtained by agar dilution.
The influence of the number of bacterial cells inoculated and the emulsifying agent used to disperse essential oils (EO) into the culture media on the measurement of the antibacterial activity of EO in an agar medium was determined. The results showed that EO (oregano, thyme and clove) were most effective as antimicrobial agents when the bacterial load was low. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were found to vary as a function of the emulsifying agent used. However, MICs obtained by dispersing EOs into 0.2% agar solution without the use of solvents and detergents were greatly reduced compared to when they were used. This demonstrates the fact that solvents and detergents often used in antimicrobial studies significantly decrease the antibacterial activity of EO.
This paper describes modifications of the Food and Drug Administration's 1991 proposed rule for topical antimicrobial drug products for over-the-counter human use, affecting first aid antiseptic drug product testing for recovery of test bacteria from tea tree oil. Because the FDA's proposed method provided for the testing of water soluble and/or miscible products, along with the use of a chemical neutralizer, Mitech Laboratories, Inc. developed a new method for testing of water insoluble oils using a non-toxic solvent. In a bactericidal assay, specific sterile diluting fluids are used as a non-toxic solvent followed by a rinse. The bacteriological retentative membrane filtration method, rather than chemical neutralization, is used for recovery of bacteria along with accurate organism counting. This new method provides a mechanism to enable general recognition of effectiveness for oil-based antiseptic drug products in compliance with the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.
The essential oils obtained from two mint species, Mentha pulegium and Mentha spicata, exhibited antimicrobial properties against eight strains of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The essential oils of these mint species at high concentration (1/100 dilution) were extremely bactericidal, whereas lower concentrations (1/1000) caused a dose-dependent decrease in bacterial growth rates. The main p-menthane components of the tested essential oils showed a variable degree of antimicrobial activity not only between different bacterial strains but also between different strains of the same bacteria.
Fifty plant essential oils were examined for their antibacterial properties against 25 genera of bacteria. Four concentrations of each oil were tested using an agar diffusion technique. The ten most inhibitory oils were thyme, cinnamon, bay, clove, almond (bitter), lovage, pimento, marjoram, angelica and nutmeg. The most comprehensively inhibitory extracts were angelica (against 25 genera), bay (24), cinnamon (23), clove (23), thyme (23), almond (bitter) (22), marjoram (22), pimento (22), geranium (21) and lovage (20).
Determination of the minimum inhibitory concen-trations (MIC) of 212 common soap fragrance raw materials demonstrated that
the paper disc-petri plate technique does not reflect the relative anti-microbial activity of these materials. Commonly used
soap bacteriostats were shown to be 100 to 1000 times more effective than the most active fragrance materials. Of 521 fragrance
materials initially screened by the petri plate method, 44% were inhibitory against one of the three test organisms, and 15%
were effective against all three(Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Candida albicans). Of a selected number (212) of these positive materials, subsequently screened against a lipophilic diphtheroid organism(Corynebacterium sp.), 64 materials (30%) were positive against all four test organisms. However, only nine materials (4%) had a MIC as low
as 50 ppm compared to the common soap bacteriostat TCC, which had a MIC of 0.08 ppm (vs.S. aureus). In hand-degerming tests, no reduction of bacterial counts was obtained with a soap containing the most active fragrance materials.
These results demonstrate that creation of a practical antimicrobial soap fragrance does not appear to be possible.
The data given in the literature published during 1976-1986 concerning antimicrobial activities of essential oils are treated from an experimental point of view and with regard to a possible practical application. Attention is paid to four factors which are important when testing essential oils: the assay technique; the growth medium; the micro-organism; the essential oil.
Infectious diseases are of ancient origin, and mankind has a venerable history of use of higher plant extracts for the therapy of such infections. Some such agents survive in use from earlier times--quinine, emetine, and sanguinarine, for example--but the modern use of fermentation-based antibiotics has greatly overshadowed work on agents from other sources. After a brief review of the present status of the field of antibiotics, this review focuses upon the present status of antimicrobial agents from higher plants with particular reference to agents from plants with a folkloric reputation for treatment of infections. In particular, recent work on the tropical genus Erythrina is emphasized. The use of modern microbiological techniques demonstrates that higher plants frequently exhibit significant potency against human bacterial and fungal pathogens, that many genera are involved, that many folkloric uses can be rationalized on this basis, that the active constituents are readily isolated by bioassay-directed techniques, that their chemical structures are types uncommon amongst fermentation-based agents but are familiar to natural product chemists, that their antimicrobial spectra are comparatively narrow but that their potency is often reasonable, that they are comparatively easy to synthesize and the unnatural analogues so produced can possess enhanced therapeutic potential and, thus, it is concluded that such work generates a gratifying number of novel lead structures and that the possibility of finding additional agents for human or agricultural use based upon higher plant agents is realistic.
The bacteriostatic and fungistatic activities of 22 volatile oils were evaluated. The results showed that the oils tested varied in their antimicrobial activity. Cinnamon oil showed the highest activity against the tested bacteria and fungi. A comparison was made between the biostatic and biocidal activity of each oil. The results also showed that the bacteriostatic results as obtained by the agar-diffusion and serial dilution methods were not always parallel. The data obtained can be made use of clinically as well as for the preservation of liquid preparations liable to microbial contamination.
During screening of essential oils for their antifungal activities against Aspergillus flavus, the essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus was found to exhibit fungitoxicity. The MIC of the oil was found to be 1,000 ppm, at which it showed its fungistatic nature, wide fungitoxic spectrum, nonphytotoxic nature, and superiority over synthetic fungicides, i.e., Agrosan G. N., Thiride, Ceresan, Dithane M-45, Agrozim, Bavistin, Emison, Thiovit, wettable sulfur, and copper oxychloride. The fungitoxic potency of the oil remained unaltered for 7 months of storage and upon introduction of high doses of inoculum of the test fungus. It was thermostable in nature with treatment at 5 to 100 degrees C. These findings thus indicate the possibility of exploitation of the essential oil of C. citratus as an effective inhibitor of storage fungi.
The purpose of this study was to determine the susceptibility of a range of transient and commensal skin flora to the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia, or tea tree.
A modified broth microdilution method was used. Polyoxyethylene sorbitan mono-oleate detergent was added to the test medium to enhance solubility of the tea tree oil.
Serratia marcescens had the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC90) of 0.25%. The highest MIC90 was 3% for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The lowest minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC90) was 0.25% for S. marcescens and Klebsiella pneumoniae, whereas the highest was 8% for Staphylococcus capitis.
S. aureus and most of the gram-negative bacteria tested were more susceptible to tea tree oil than the coagulase-negative staphylococci and micrococci. These results suggest that tea tree oil may be useful in removing transient skin flora while suppressing but maintaining resident flora.
Fifty-one essential oils extracted from plants of known origin were tested for their antimicrobial activity against three bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and four yeasts, Torulopsis utilis, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae using the drop diffusion method. All showed antimicrobial activity against at least one of the micro-organisms. Following this preliminary screening, 13 essential oils showing antimicrobial activity against at least five of the micro-organisms were tested in the range 50 micrograms ml-1 to 500 micrograms ml-1 using broth micro dilution techniques with dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) as a dispersing solvent. The concentration of most of the oils required for total inhibition of growth was > 500 micrograms ml-1. Further studies on the antimicrobial action of cinnamon oil in the range 10-150 micrograms ml-1 showed that 50-fold higher activity was found when no dispersing solvent was used.
Ninety-three different commercial essential oils were screened for activity against 20 Listeria monocytogenes strains in vitro and the results correlated against the actual chemical composition of each oil. There was a substantial difference in the activity between different essential oils as expected, but there was also a difference in activity between different samples of the same essential oil. Strong anti-Listeria activity was often correlated with essential oils containing a high percentage of monoterpenes, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, thymol, and sometimes with citronellol, limonene and geraniol. However, as there was often no correlation between the anti-Listeria activity and the main chemical components, it is possible that either there is a more complex relationship with the chemical composition (which includes the minor components) or that substantial adulteration had occurred in some essential oil samples.
The antimicrobial properties of 21 plant essential oils and two essences were investigated against five important food-borne pathogens, Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes. The oils of bay, cinnamon, clove and thyme were the most inhibitory, each having a bacteriostatic concentration of 0.075% or less against all five pathogens. In general, Gram-positive bacteria were more sensitive to inhibition by plant essential oils than the Gram-negative bacteria. Campylobacter jejuni was the most resistant of the bacteria investigated to plant essential oils, with only the oils of bay and thyme having a bacteriocidal concentration of less than 1%. At 35 degrees C, L. monocytogenes was extremely sensitive to the oil of nutmeg. A concentration of less than 0.01% was bacteriostatic and 0.05% was bacteriocidal, but when the temperature was reduced to 4 degrees, the bacteriostatic concentration was increased to 0.5% and the bacteriocidal concentration to greater than 1%.
The Herb User's Guide
- D L Hoffman
Hoffman, D.L. (1987) The Herb User's Guide. Wellingborough, UK: Thorsons Publishing Group.
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils. Shaftesbury, UK: Element Books Ltd Bioactivity of selected plant essential oils against Listeria monocytogenes
- J Lawless
- M Lis-Balchin
- S G Deans
Lawless, J. (1995) The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils. Shaftesbury, UK: Element Books Ltd. Lis-Balchin, M. and Deans, S.G. (1997) Bioactivity of selected plant essential oils against Listeria monocytogenes. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 82, 759–762.
The Merck Index, an Encyclopedia of Chemicals
- M Windholz
- S Budavari
- R F Blumetti
- E S Otterbein
Windholz, M., Budavari, S., Blumetti, R.F. and Otterbein, E.S. (1983) The Merck Index, an Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs and Biologicals 10th edn. Rahway, NJ: Merck and Co. Inc.
Herbal Medicines, a Guide for Health-Care Professionals
- C A Newall
- L A Anderson
- J D Phillipson