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Goal Commitment and the Goal-Setting Process: Conceptual Clarification and Empirical Synthesis

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Goals are central to current treatments of work motivation, and goal commitment is a critical construct in understanding the relationship between goals and task performance. Despite this importance, there is confusion about the role of goal commitment and only recently has this key construct received the empirical attention it warrants. This meta-analysis, based on 83 independent samples, updates the goal commitment literature by summarizing the accumulated evidence on the antecedents and consequences of goal commitment. Using this aggregate empirical evidence, the role of goal commitment in the goal-setting process is clarified and key areas for future research are identified.
... The supplier's commitment to the goals defined as performance metrics by the buyer is central to the success of a PBC arrangement. GST examines goals as predictors of performance (Locke and Latham, 2002) and argues that under certain conditions, specific and challenging goals foster higher performance compared to ambiguous or easy goals (Klein et al., 1999;Latham et al., 2017;Locke andLatham, 1990, 2013). However, there are conflicting results regarding the impact of assigned, participative and self-set goals. ...
... While participative and self-set goals generally lead to goal-setting effects, such as goal commitment and higher performance (e.g. Hollenbeck and Klein, 1987;Gollwitzer and Moskowitz, 1996;Klein et al., 1999Klein et al., , 2001Locke and Latham, 1990;Lozano and Stephens, 2010), there are also studies exhibiting equal or better goal-setting effects of assigned goals and set goals with rationales both individual and group level (e.g. Kleingeld et al., 2011;Latham et al., 1982;Harkins and Lowe, 2000). ...
... Kleingeld et al., 2011;Latham et al., 1982;Harkins and Lowe, 2000). Goal commitment is an essential condition for sustainable goal-performance relationships (Klein et al., 1999(Klein et al., , 2020Latham et al., 2020). It refers to the extent to which a goal is accompanied by a determination and motivation to put in the necessary effort to achieve it (Hollenbeck and Klein, 1987;Locke andLatham, 1990, 2013), making it a key concept in GST. ...
Article
Purpose This study aims to empirically test the effects of key characteristics of performance-based contracting (PBC) (i.e. reward/payment scheme, increased supplier autonomy and transfer of responsibilities) on supplier goal commitment. Design/methodology/approach This study developed a conceptual model applying goal-setting theory (GST), expectancy theory (ET) and job characteristics theory (JCT). Survey data were collected and analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) to establish a validated measurement instrument for testing the hypotheses. Findings The findings revealed that PBC positively affects supplier goal commitment due to its unique characteristics, which translates into improved supplier performance. Furthermore, this study validated the mediating role of goal alignment and felt accountability operating between PBC characteristics and supplier goal commitment. Research limitations/implications This study explored the buyer–supplier relationship from the supplier's standpoint. Using a more inclusive data set, future research may involve a dyadic analysis and focus on the effects of the following factors on the supplier goal commitment: relational aspects (e.g. trust and collaboration), the risk transfer from the buyer to the supplier, different incentive schemes and successful PBC implementation factors. Practical implications This study presents new, validated insights for contract selection, design and management. It underlines the importance of choosing the proper contract, having the appropriate contract design based on the desired outcomes and effective contract management by exhibiting the psychological/behavioral effect of fundamental PBC characteristics. Originality/value PBC represents an active research stream, but its psychological/behavioral implications are understudied. Therefore, this research puts forth a conceptual framework with multiple testable hypotheses illustrating the relationship between PBC and supplier goal commitment.
... Per the boundaries of the present research, challenging sales goals which are reinforced by well-designed sales compensation and remuneration schemes 'should' motivate individual salespeople to be more fully committed to bringing about desired action (i.e., selling behavior), which thus assists in achieving those goals. Following the tenets of goalsetting theory, the most effective sales compensation plans should lead to increased performance because salespeople become committed to pursuing those sales tasks that will promote and further ensure goal achievement (Klein, Wesson, Hollenbeck, & Alge, 1999). ...
... When managing and pursuing a high volume of sales opportunities, salespeople will also inherently be motivated by the total potential monetary value (Rubel & Prasad, 2016), and thus change his/her focus and sales approach to that which provides the optimal chance of meeting if not exceeding their sales quota/goal (Bonney et al., 2016;Misra & Nair, 2011). Given this dynamic, salespeople in general should perceive that closing/winning a disproportionately high total volume of sales opportunities is more attainable (Bonney et al., 2020), with this, in turn, driving overall commitment toward sales goal achievement (Chung et al., 2014;Klein et al., 1999). Consequently: ...
... By having a highbut not 'too' highvolume of sales and customer opportunities, salespeople still have the appropriate amount of time, dedication, and commitment to ensure that the most promising buyers are being both catered to and closed (Latham & Locke, 2013). So when things are configured correctly, this successful dedication and diligent effort of managing sales opportunities (Klein et al., 1999;Misra & Nair, 2011) helps the salesperson's commitment toward quota achievement, all the while generating additional financial rewards for the salesperson (Bommaraju & Hohenberg, 2018), while improving firm performance. ...
Article
Sales compensation plans affect salespeople's prospecting activity and sales opportunity coverage because they shape behavior in terms of how reps manage their territory and broader portfolio of customers. Drawing on goal-setting theory, the authors propose and test a theoretical framework which unearths a "double-edged" sword moderating effect whereby the number of pursued sales opportunities impacts the main effect of sales compensation plan type on resultant sales (performance). The reported empirical study examines salesperson data prior to and after the implementation of a new compensation plan. We then utilize the metaphor of the "double-edged" sword to further explicate the findings, whereby the volume of sales opportunities is found to moderate sales goal and quota achievement (i.e., amplifying the main effect). The research also finds that pursuit of too many sales opportunities can become overly burdensome, thereby overloading salespeople and reducing goal commitment and performance. Implications for both research and practice are discussed.
... The goal is the timely achievement of a certain ability, and commitment to a goal refers to the determination to achieve the goal Locke and Latham (2002). The most important result of goal commitment is said to be that it establishes a relationship between goal difficulty and performance Klein, Wesson, Hollenbeck and Alge (1999). Researchers say that people who are dedicated to achieving their goals perform better than others, proving the importance of adherence to goals. ...
... Researchers say that people who are dedicated to achieving their goals perform better than others, proving the importance of adherence to goals. Due to differences in commitment to personal goals, two people may exhibit different attitudes towards the same goal Klein et al. (1999). It cannot be said that all people are equally committed to their personal goals (Locke & Latham, 2002). ...
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The aim of our study is to examine the psychological resilience and goal commitment levels of the students studying at the Faculty of Sport Sciences of Fırat University over various variables. In our study, descriptive scanning methods were used. A total of 330 individuals, 152 women and 178 men, studying at the Faculty of Sport Sciences of Fırat University, participated in our research on a voluntary basis. “Demographic Information”, “Child and Adolescent Psychological Resilience Scale” adapted into Turkish by Arslan (2015) and “goal commitment scale” adapted into Turkish by Senel and Yıldız (2016) were used on the individuals participating in the research. SPSS package program was used for data analysis. Percentage frequencies of the given data were calculated, normal distribution tests were performed, and as a result of these controls, t test was used for those with 2 variables and analysis of variance for multiple variables. Tukey test was used to determine the differences between the groups. The significance level of the study was taken as p
... Mit ansteigender Zielbindungsstärke fällt der Ziel-Leistungs-Zusammenhang zunehmend enger aus. Ist die Zielbindung dagegen gering, schwächt sich der Ziel-Leistungs-Zusammenhang insbesondere bei schwer zu erreichenden Zielen ab (Klein et al., 1999). Ein praktisch sehr relevantes Problem besteht darin, dass Ziele nur dann wirken, wenn man sich an sie gebunden fühlt. ...
... Ein praktisch sehr relevantes Problem besteht darin, dass Ziele nur dann wirken, wenn man sich an sie gebunden fühlt. Hier sind die weiteren Ergebnisse der Metaanalyse von Klein et al. (1999) relevant, in der verschiedene Rahmenbedingungen untersucht wurden. Die Befunde zeigen, dass die Mitsprache bei der Zielfestlegung zu einer deutlich höheren Zielbindung führt (r ¼ 0,40). ...
... Conceptually, the two are very similar but differ sequentially in the goal achievement process. While self-goal setting involves selecting a goal, self-observation involves monitoring one's progress towards achieving the goal, an aspect of goal striving (Oettingen & Gollwitzer, 2007) and a manifestation of goal commitment (Klein et al., 1999). In addition to training in self-goal setting, leadership development programs should also include training in self-observation. ...
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Self-leadership theory predicts that specific self-leadership practices will enable individuals to better accomplish their goals. However, little is known about the role that these practices play in conventional leadership (leading or influencing others). This study compares leaders to non-leaders (N = 318) in nonprofits and examines both the extent to which self-leadership practices are employed and the strength of beliefs concerning their importance. Leaders practiced self-goal setting (d = .47) and self-observation (d = .45) more than non-leaders. Non-leaders practiced more self-reward (d = .33) and self-punishment (d = .37) than leaders. The only differences in belief concerning the importance of the self-leadership practices were due to leaders believing self-goal setting (d = .46) and self-observation (d = .36) were more important than non-leaders did. If self-leadership practices contribute to leadership effectiveness or emergence, this study indicates that goal setting and self-observation (monitoring progress toward goals) may contribute positively to the leadership of others whereas self-reward and self-punishment may contribute negatively. Self-leadership may not be as important to the leadership of others as is often claimed or implied. This is the first study to look at how self-leadership practices differ between leaders and non-leaders.
... Some studies also confounded their results by simultaneously varying another common element of goal-based systems: the framing of the goal, which is used to increase goal commitment. Goal commitment is a key modulator for any effect of goals on performance, especially when tasks are difficult (Seijts and Latham 2000;Klein et al 1999); to increase subject commitment to the goal, experimental studies on goals often instruct subjects that many of their peers were able to attain the goal, or use similar language. When examining the impact of goals on cheating, Schweitzer at al (2004) therefore uses peer comparison language when introducing the goal, as is common in experiments on goal-based systems. ...
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Recent studies suggest that goal-based incentives cause cheating. However, goal-based incentives comprise a number of distinct elements, including statement of a goal, the goal's justification and framing, and rewards for meeting the goal. Previous experimental research has simultaneously varied several of these elements within a single condition, leading to interpretational confounds in assessing the impact of goals on cheating. We use a carefully-designed 2x2x2 experiment that isolated cheating caused by the use of a goal-based system, framing the goal in peer comparison terms, and paying for goal attainment. In this design, the individual impact on cheating of each element and their interactions could be accurately compared. We find that only pay-for-performance and peer comparison framing increased cheating, while the use of goals did not. Our results suggest care needs to be taken when examining the impact of incentive system elements on cheating, and that goals themselves do not cause cheating.
... Conceptually, the two are very similar but differ sequentially in the goal achievement process. While self-goal setting involves selecting a goal, self-observation involves monitoring one's progress towards achieving the goal, an aspect of goal striving (Oettingen & Gollwitzer, 2007) and a manifestation of goal commitment (Klein et al., 1999). In addition to training in self-goal setting, leadership development programs should also include training in self-observation. ...
Article
Full-text available
Purpose Self-leadership theory predicts that specific self-leadership practices will enable individuals to better accomplish their goals. However, little is known about the role that these practices play in conventional leadership (leading or influencing others). This study compares leaders to non-leaders (N = 318) in nonprofits and examines both the extent to which self-leadership practices are employed and the strength of beliefs concerning their importance. Design/methodology/approach Online survey of two groups: leaders and non-leaders of nonprofit organizations. Findings Leaders practiced self-goal setting (d = 0.47) and self-observation (d = 0.45) more than non-leaders. Non-leaders practiced more self-reward (d = 0.33) and self-punishment (d = 0.37) than leaders. The only differences in belief concerning the importance of the self-leadership practices were due to leaders believing self-goal setting (d = 0.46) and self-observation (d = 0.36) were more important than non-leaders did. Research limitations/implications If self-leadership practices contribute to leadership effectiveness or emergence, this study indicates that goal setting and self-observation (monitoring progress toward goals) may contribute positively to the leadership of others, whereas self-reward and self-punishment may contribute negatively. Practical implications Self-leadership may not be as important to the leadership of others as is often claimed or implied. Originality/value This is the first study to look at how self-leadership practices differ between leaders and non-leaders.
... Consistent with this latter research stream, we acknowledge the importance of emotions whenever individuals confront change and make a case for the centrality of cognitive dissonance as a mechanism for translating how radical change affects both agents' and recipients' motivation. Therefore, to our knowledge, this is the first paper that not only makes a distinction between a radical change's role occupants, but also brings to light a set of overlooked motivational constructs that are related to job performance (Klein et al. 1999;Zhang et al. 2018). ...
Article
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As organizational change becomes more radical, frequent, and unpredictable, our knowledge of the mechanisms governing change at the intrapersonal or within-person level remains limited. In this systematic review of the management and I/O psychology literatures, we offer a novel theoretically based definition of radical change taking place within an individual. Drawing on the theories of dissonance and attitudes toward change, we also present a conceptual model that merges cognitive, affective, and motivational dimensions to explain how an individual’s goal pursuit and achievement are influenced by radical change. In doing so, we move away from studying change at the ‘macro’ organizational level to focus instead on the processes underpinning one’s personal radical change. We further differentiate these processes between two important role occupiers, namely change agents and recipients, and recommend that future scholars consider other boundary conditions and mediating mechanisms. Finally, we conclude with some research-based implications for managerial praxis. We urge future researchers and practitioners to try to better understand the self-transformative experience that is ‘radical change’ and to incorporate this deeper understanding in their theorizing and practice, respectively.
... Mit ansteigender Zielbindungsstärke fällt der Ziel-Leistungs-Zusammenhang zunehmend enger aus. Ist die Zielbindung dagegen gering, schwächt sich der Ziel-Leistungs-Zusammenhang insbesondere bei schwer zu erreichenden Zielen ab(Klein et al., 1999). Ein praktisch sehr relevantes Problem besteht darin, dass Ziele nur dann wirken, wenn man sich an sie In der Zielsetzungsliteratur sind darüber hinaus 408 andere Formeln zu finden, z. ...
Article
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Coaching is considered as a great tool for employees in any organization to understand the goal so as they can work towards it which turns into good performance of the organization. Coaching program was introduced in Rwandan local government entities to see whether employees can improve on these entities’ performance regarding performance contract Imihigo. The present paper intends to study effects of coaching programs in the Imihigo region of Rwamagana district. Researchers applied a case study research design through which a case study was selected and qualitative data were then collected. Information collected by the use of interviews and the content from documents was thematically analysed. The GROW (goals, reality, options and will) model was considered as a theoretical guide for the study. The total of 108 Local government employees from Rwamagana district was the target population from which 85 employees were purposively selected. Saturation was applied as a sample elements selection technique. The findings of the paper showed that there are positive effects of coaching programs on the good performance of Rwamagana district in “Performance Contracts” termed as Imihigo. It was revealed that, there are changes manifested due to collaboration existing between the Coaching Program and Local Government institutions in the budgetary years 2017-2019 when this approach was implemented in all Districts. Coaching interventions administered on organization employees showed their influential effects in performing very well in Imihigo contract of Rwamagana district. Based on the aforementioned findings, the study concluded that the coaching intervention, among other factors, was identified as an agent of significant effects manifested in three consecutive financial years towards better performance of Imihigo of Rwamanagana district. As suggestions to central, local government and partners, there is a need to undertake coaching initiatives to continue enhancing local government entities’ capacity to effectively deliver to their mandate. The national, local government and stakeholders must raise enough money to sustain the implementation coaching approach since it proved to be of importance for local governments. Recipients of the program are supposed to also make the program theirs for its effectiveness and sustainability.
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