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Vol. 21 No. 1 INFECTION CONTROL AND HOSPITAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 33
A
NTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF HOME DISINFECTANTS
AND
NATURAL PRODUCTS AGAINST POTENTIAL
HUMAN PATHOGENS
William A. Rutala, PhD, MPH; Susan L. Barbee, MS, MSPH; Newman C. Aguiar, BS;
Mark D. Sobsey, PhD; David J. Weber, MD, MPH
OBJECTIVE: To assess the efficacy of both natural prod-
ucts (vinegar, baking soda) and common commercial disinfectants
(Vesphene IIse, TBQ, Clorox, Lysol Disinfectant Spray, Lysol
Antibacterial Kitchen Cleaner, Mr. Clean Ultra, ethanol) designed
for home or institutional use against potential human pathogens,
including selected antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
DESIGN: A quantitative suspension test was used to assess
the efficacy of selected disinfectants following exposure times of 30
seconds and 5 minutes. Activity was assessed against Staphylococcus
aureus, Salmonella choleraesuis, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Selected disinfectants were also tested
against poliovirus, vancomycin-susceptible and -resistant Enterococcus
species, and methicillin-susceptible and -resistant S aureus.
RESULTS: The following compounds demonstrated excel-
lent antimicrobial activity (>5.6-8.2 log
10
reduction) at both expo-
sure times: TBQ, Vesphene, Clorox, ethanol, and Lysol
Antibacterial Kitchen Cleaner. Mr. Clean eliminated 4 to >6 logs
10
and Lysol Disinfectant ~4 logs
10
of pathogenic microorganisms at
both exposure times. Vinegar eliminated <3 logs
10
of S aureus and
E coli, and baking soda <3 logs
10
of all test pathogens. All tested
chemical disinfectants completely inactivated both antibiotic-
resistant and -susceptible bacteria at both exposure times. Only
two disinfectants, Clorox and Lysol, demonstrated excellent activ-
ity (>3 log
10
reduction) against poliovirus.
CONCLUSIONS: A variety of commercial household
disinfectants were highly effective against potential bacterial
pathogens. The natural products were less effective than com-
mercial household disinfectants. Only Clorox and Lysol disin-
fectant were effective against poliovirus (Infect Control Hosp
Epidemiol 2000;21:33-38).
Emerging infectious diseases that have raised grow-
ing concern in recent years include foodborne infections,
nosocomial infections, and infections associated with child-
care centers.
1
More than 30,000,000 foodborne infections
are estimated to occur per year, resulting in more than
9,000 deaths (The New York Times. July 4, 1998:A1), and
more than 2 million nosocomial infections are estimated to
occur each year, causing or contributing to more than
75,000 deaths.
2
In the hospital, environmental contamina-
tion has been linked to transmission of some important
nosocomial pathogens, including methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus,
3-5
vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus
species,
6,7
and Clostridium difficile.
8-11
In day-care centers,
environmental contamination with fecal pathogens has
been linked to acquisition of diarrheal diseases.
12,13
Studies
on the extent of environmental contamination in the home
and its role in the transmission of infectious diseases are
limited, but the frequency and level of microbial contami-
nation of home environmental surfaces have been investi-
gated.
14,15
Environmental surfaces, especially those in
kitchens and bathrooms, frequently have been found to be
contaminated with potential pathogens, including enteric
gram-negative bacilli.
14,15
Human challenge studies have shown that contami-
nated surfaces may serve as the source for transmission of
infectious agents. Contact with experimentally contaminat-
ed coffee cups has led to acquisition of rhinovirus infec-
tion,
16
and contact with experimentally contaminated sur-
faces has led to acquisition of rotavirus infection.
17
Many human pathogenic viruses and bacteria may sur-
vive in a sufficient dose and for an appropriate duration to
serve as a source of human exposure.
6,18,19
In experimental
trials, disinfection of environmental surfaces has been shown
to decrease or eliminate potential pathogens and thereby
decrease or eliminate acquisition of disease.
17
The purpose of
this study was to evaluate both natural products and com-
mercial disinfectants for home use for their efficacy against
potential human pathogens. In addition, we evaluated the
activity of these products against antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
METHODS
Bacterial Isolates
Bacterial isolates were obtained from American
Type Culture Collection (ATCC; Rockville, MD): S aureus
(ATCC strain 6538), Salmonella choleraesuis (ATCC strain
6539), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC strain 1542), and
From the Division of Infectious Diseases (Drs. Rutala and Weber), University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Medicine; the Department of
Hospital Epidemiology (Drs. Rutala and Weber), UNC Hospitals; and the Departments of Environmental Sciences (Drs. Barbee and Sobsey; Mr. Aguiar)
and Epidemiology (Dr. Weber), UNC School of Public Health, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Address reprint requests to William A. Rutala, PhD, MPH, 547 Burnett-Womack Bldg, CB 7030, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7030.
This study was supported by the Statewide Program for Infection Control and Epidemiology.
99-OA-009. Rutala WA, Barbee SL, Aguiar NC, Sobsey MD, Weber DJ. Antimicrobial activity of home disinfectants and natural products against
potential human pathogens. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:33-38.
ABSTRACT
34 INFECTION
CONTROL AND H
OSPITAL
EPIDEMIOLOGY
January 2000
Escherichia coli O157:H7 (ATCC strain 11229).
Lyophilized cultures were received from ATCC and
reconstituted as directed. Cultures were grown on trypti-
case soy agar ([TSA] Difco, Detroit, MI) and stored at 4ºC
on agar slants.
Clinical strains of antibiotic-resistant or -susceptible
bacteria were obtained from the University of North
Carolina Hospitals, Chapel Hill. These isolates were tested
for methicillin susceptibility by the oxacillin plate method
and vancomycin resistance by the E-test strip method
(Remel, Lenexa, KS). Cultures were maintained on TSA
and stored on agar slants at 4ºC.
Prior to experimental use, cultures were initiated
from single colonies and grown in trypticase soy broth
([TSB] Difco) for 48 hours at 37ºC. Log-phase cultures,
used as seed in disinfection studies, were obtained by inoc-
ulating 49 mL of TSB with 1.0 mL of a 48-hour culture, then
incubating for 5 hours at 37ºC.
Cell Cultures and Poliovirus
Poliovirus type 1 (strain LSc) was maintained in Buffalo
green monkey kidney (BGMK) cells. Cells were grown and
maintained in Eagles’ Minimum Essential Medium (Sigma, St
Louis, MO) supplemented with 10% and 2% fetal calf serum,
respectively. Poliovirus was grown and assayed by a plaque
technique in confluent layers of BGMK cells. Virus titers
were expressed as plaque-forming units (PFU) per mL.
Neutralization of virus infectivity by type-specific antiserum
was used to confirm the identity of the virus.
Disinfectants
Several commercial disinfectants and two natural
products were chosen for testing. The three hospital disin-
fectants tested were a phenolic, Vesphene IIse (Calgon-
Vestal, St Louis, MO), a quaternary ammonium com-
pound, TBQ (Calgon-Vestal), and an alcohol, ethanol
(Fisher Scientific, Norcross, GA). The active ingredients
and the use dilution for the tested products were as fol-
lows: the phenolic, 9.65% sodium o-phenylphenate, 8.34%
sodium p-tertiary-amylphenate, 1:128; the quaternary
ammonium compound, 8% alkyl (50% C
14
, 40% C
12
, 10% C
16
)
dimethyl benzyl ammonium chlorides, 1:128; and the alco-
hol, ethanol, 70% by volume.
The household disinfectants and natural products
tested and the active ingredients and use dilutions were as
follows: Regular Clorox Bleach (The Clorox Co, Oakland,
CA), 5.25% sodium hypochlorite, 1:10; baking soda (Arm &
Hammer, Church and Dwight, Princeton, NJ), sodium
bicarbonate, 8%; vinegar, white distilled (Food Lion, Inc,
Salisbury, NC), 5% vol/vol acidity, undiluted; Lysol
Disinfectant Spray (Reckitt & Colman Inc, Montvale, NJ),
79% ethanol, 0.1% alkyl (50% C
14
, 40% C
12
, 10% C
16
) dimethyl
benzyl ammonium saccharinate, undiluted; Lysol
Antibacterial Kitchen Cleaner, 0.02% alkyl (50% C
14
, 40% C
12
,
10% C
16
) dimethyl benzyl ammonium chlorides, 0.08% alkyl
(67% C
12
, 25% C
14
, 7% C
16
, 1% C
8
-C
10
-C
18
) dimethyl benzyl
ammonium chlorides, undiluted; Mr. Clean Ultra (Procter
& Gamble, Cincinnati, OH) ionic and nonionic surfactants,
undiluted. Sterile phosphate dilution buffer (0.25 µM, pH
7.2) and neutralizer were used as controls.
Household disinfectants were purchased from the
shelf of a local grocery store. The disinfectants and natural
products were stored in the dark at room temperature and
prepared at their recommended use dilution in sterile dis-
tilled water (conductivity less than 0.7 µmhos/cm) on the
day of the evaluation. All products were tested within the
specified use-life.
The sodium hypochlorite was tested using a
pHydrionTestuff Sanitizer Kit (Fisher Scientific) and found
to be approximately 5% concentration, and was completely
neutralized by a 1:10 dilution into 1.1% sodium thiosulfate.
Neutralization of Chemical Agents Tested
To verify the loss of bactericidal activity after neu-
tralization, the following assay was performed: 1.0 mL of
disinfectant product (at its use dilution) was mixed with 9
mL of neutralizer, and approximately 300 colony-forming
units (CFU) of bacteria were added to the disinfectant-
neutralizer mix or controls consisting of phosphate buffer
or neutralizer alone. Representatives of both gram-
negative (S choleraesuis) and gram-positive (S aureus)
bacteria were used as challenge organisms. Bacterial via-
bility was determined 30 seconds and 1 hour after neu-
tralization at 20ºC. Samples were plated in duplicate on
TSB agar plates and incubated for 18 to 24 hours at 37ºC,
and surviving bacteria were enumerated.
An appropriate neutralizer was used to terminate the
reaction at the end of the test exposure. A 1:10 dilution into
Letheen Broth (Difco) was adopted as a neutralizer for
Vesphene IIse, TBQ, Mr. Clean, Lysol products, and baking
soda. In antimicrobial susceptibility testing, Neutralization
Broth (Difco) was adopted as the inactivation reagent for
these products. For vinegar, the neutralizer was TSB with
10% calf serum. The neutralizer for ethyl alcohol was 0.5%
Tween 80. The neutralizers did not retard the growth of the
test organisms.
Cytotoxicity Testing of Products in
BGMK Cell Cultures
Testing was based on a procedure previously
described by Sattar et al.
20
For this assay, BGMK cells were
seeded into 12-well culture plates. The plates were incubated
at 37ºC for 48 hours, and then monolayers were exposed to
0.1 µL of serial 10-fold dilutions of disinfectant products along
with a negative control for 1 hour at 37ºC. After exposure, 2
mL of media were added and cultures then returned to 37ºC.
Cells were observed daily for evidence of cytotoxicity for 1
week. Evidence of toxicity for all products was not observed
above a 1:100 dilution of the use dilution in all products eval-
uated. Test products at the dilutions plated were also shown
not to alter the viral susceptibility of BGMK cell cultures.
Quantitative Suspension Procedure for
Testing Products
Bacterial. Susceptibility testing of products was
performed using a standard quantitative suspension test.
Vol. 21 No. 1 HOME DISINFECTANTS 35
All products were evaluated against the test organisms
S aureus, S choleraesuis, E coli O157:H7, and P aeruginosa.
A subset of the products was evaluated against resistant
and susceptible strains of S aureus and Enterococcus
species. The basic procedure was as follows: 0.5 mL of a 5-
hour log-phase culture (inocula range 10
7
-10
8
CFU/mL) of
each of the six strains was added to 49.5 mL of test product
or phosphate dilution buffer pre-equilibrated to an expo-
sure temperature of 20ºC. Test organisms were exposed to
products or controls for 30 seconds or 5 minutes in a ther-
mostatically controlled waterbath set at 20ºC. At comple-
tion of each exposure period, 1.0 mL samples of challenged
disinfectant were removed and immediately added to 9.0
mL of neutralization broth. Ten-fold serial dilutions of neu-
tralized test samples were prepared in phosphate dilution
buffer and dilutions plated in duplicate onto TSA by the
spread-plate method. Culture plates were incubated at 37ºC
for 18 to 24 hours and surviving test organisms enumerat-
ed. Colony counts (CFU) of surviving organisms were com-
pared with control CFU to quantify microbial activity.
Disinfectant efficacy was calculated by dividing the surviv-
ing CFU or the detection limit of the assay when no CFU
were detected by the mean CFU in the disinfectant-free
phosphate buffer control and then converting the result to
its log
10
value.
Test virus and virus assay. Twenty µL of a
virus suspension containing 10
6
plaque-forming units of
poliovirus was seeded into 1.5-mL sterile polypropylene
microtubes and 80 µL of disinfectant product or control
was added to virus. The contents were then mixed. The
reaction mixture was held at 20ºC, and, after exposure
periods of 30 seconds and 5 minutes, 0.1-mL samples
were removed and immediately diluted with 9.9 mL of
neutralization broth. Serial 10-fold dilutions were pre-
pared in phosphate-buffered saline (pH 7.4). For plaque
assay, 4-day-old BGMK monolayers were grown in 60-mm
Petri dishes in 5% CO
2
. One-tenth mL of the test dilutions
(10
⫺3
, 10
⫺4
, and 10
⫺5
) was placed on the cell monolayers
and allowed to adsorb for 60 minutes. After adsorption, 5
mL of 0.75% agar medium overlay containing neutral red
was added to the cell monolayer, and then plates were
returned to 37ºC. After 48 hours, surviving viruses were
enumerated. The effectiveness of the disinfectant was cal-
culated by dividing the surviving virus concentration (or
detection limit when no virus was recovered) by the ini-
tial virus concentration and then converting to the log
10
value.
RESULTS
Potential Household Pathogens
The following compounds demonstrated excellent
antimicrobial activity (a log
10
reduction of more than 5.6 to
8.2, depending on the sensitivity of the assay) at both 30-
second and 5-minute exposures: a quaternary ammonium
compound (TBQ), a phenolic (Vesphene IIse), a hypochlo-
rite (1:10 Clorox), an ethanol, and a household disinfectant
(Lysol Antibacterial Spray; Table 1).
Another household disinfectant (Mr. Clean) elimi-
nated 4 to >6 logs
10
of pathogenic microorganisms. A third
household disinfectant (Lysol Disinfectant) consistently
eliminated ~4 logs
10
of microorganisms at both 30-second
and 5-minute exposures.
Two natural products, vinegar and baking soda, were
much less effective than commercial disinfectants. However,
vinegar demonstrated substantial activity against two gram-
negative bacilli, P aeruginosa and S choleraesuis.
Antibiotic-Resistant Pathogens
Selected disinfectants were tested against antibiotic-
susceptible and -resistant strains of S aureus and
Enterococcus (Table 2). All commercial disinfectants com-
pletely inactivated both resistant and susceptible bacteria at
both 30-second and 5-minute exposures. Vinegar inactivat-
ed ⭐1 log
10
of all bacteria tested at 30 seconds, but demon-
strated 3.7-5.3 log
10
reduction of both antibiotic-susceptible
and -resistant Enterococcus at 5-minute exposure.
TABLE 1
EFFECTIVENESS OF
DISINFECTANT AGAINST POTENTIAL PATHOGENS
Log
10
Reductions
Staphylococcus Salmonella Escherichia Pseudomonas
aureus choleraesuis coli
O157:H7
aeruginosa
Product 0.5 min 5 min 0.5 min 5 min 0.5 min 5 min 0.5 min 5 min
Vesphene IIse >8.2 >8.2 >6.7 >6.7 >6.6 >6.6 >6.7 >6.7
TBQ >6.4 >6.4 >6.6 >6.6 >6.4 >6.4 >6.9 >6.2
Clorox >5.8 >5.8 >5.9 >5.9 >5.6 >5.6 >5.3 >5.3
Ethanol 6.2 >6.7 >6.0 >6.0 >6.8 >6.8 >6.4 >6.4
Lysol Disinfectant 4.2 4.3 4.0 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.0
Lysol Antibacterial >5.6 >5.6 >5.8 >5.8 >5.7 >5.7 >5.5 >5.5
Mr. Clean 4.1 >6.0 >5.7 >5.7 >6.1 4.7 >5.7 >5.7
Vinegar 0.03 0.3 >6.0 >6.0 0.4 2.4 >5.8 >5.8
Baking soda 0.2 0.5 2.3 2.3 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.1
Data represent mean of two replicates. Values preceded by “>” represent the limit of detection of the assay. Assays were conducted at a temperature of 20ºC and a relative humidity of 45%. Results
were calculated as the log of Nd/No, where Nd is the titer of bacteria surviving after exposure and No is the titer of the control.
36 INFECTION
CONTROL AND H
OSPITAL
EPIDEMIOLOGY
January 2000
Poliovirus
Only two products demonstrated excellent activity
(ie, greater than 3-log
10
reduction) against poliovirus:
Clorox 1:10 dilution and Lysol Disinfectant (Table 3). All
other products tested inactivated less than 1 log
10
of
poliovirus.
DISCUSSION
Emerging infectious diseases that have raised grow-
ing concern in recent years include foodborne infections,
nosocomial infections, and infections associated with child-
care centers.
1
It has been estimated that there are more than
30,000,000 foodborne infections per year, resulting in more
than 9,000 deaths (The New York Times. July 4, 1998).
Between 1988 and 1992, surveillance by the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention detected 2,433 outbreaks
that caused more than 77,000 persons to become ill.
21
Fresh
produce is contaminated with high levels of gram-negative
bacilli such as P aeruginosa.
22
Fresh poultry is frequently
contaminated with Salmonella.
21
Meat, especially ground
beef, may be contaminated with E coli O157:H7,
23,24
since it
is found in the intestines of approximately 1% of healthy cat-
tle.
23
Such pathogens frequently may be found on kitchen
sites such as counter tops and cutting boards.
14,15
Mechanisms of acquisition of foodborne pathogens include
ingestion of contaminated raw fruits and vegetables, inade-
quate cooking of contaminated produce or meats, and direct
contact with contaminated surfaces. The relative role of each
of these mechanisms has not been elucidated.
21
However,
surface disinfection has been widely recommended to
reduce the incidence of foodborne infections.
25
Nosocomial infections are estimated to cause more
than 19,000 deaths per year and contribute to another
58,000 deaths.
2
Environmental contamination has been
demonstrated to play an important role in the transmission
of certain nosocomial pathogens, including vancomycin-
resistant Enterococcus species,
6,7
methicillin-resistant S
aureus,
3-5
and C difficile.
8-11
Careful studies using molecular
analysis
6-8
have suggested that, for these pathogens, envi-
ronmental contamination has contributed to transmission
between patients.
Widespread contamination of environmental surfaces
with enteric organisms has been found in child-care centers,
especially in rooms housing diaper-age children.
12,13
This
contamination has been felt to play a role in person-to-person
transmission of enteric pathogens.
12
Only limited data are
available on the role of environmental contamination in the
home and the role of such contamination on the transmis-
sion of pathogens in the home setting. In a sample of 21
English homes, Finch and colleagues found frequent colo-
nization of kitchen sinks and drains with large numbers of
E coli and sometimes Klebsiella pneumoniae, Citrobacter, and
Enterobacter.
14
Scott and colleagues sampled multiple sites in
251 English homes and commonly isolated enteric bacteria
from sinks, washing-up bowls, draining boards, and cleaning
cloth. Less-contaminated sites included cooker surfaces,
worktop and chopping board, food shelf, refrigerator, cutlery
and crockery, and cleaning utensils. Importantly, Salmonella
occasionally was isolated from the sinks (1.0%), refrigerators
(0.3%), and cutlery (0.2%). Enteric bacteria were isolated
from multiple bathroom sites, including basin, soap dish, toi-
let seat, and door handles.
15
Many viral pathogens and enteric bacteria have been
shown to be capable of surviving on environmental sur-
faces in sufficient doses and for sufficient time to serve as
TABLE 2
DISINFECTANT ACTIVITY AGAINST ANTIBIOTIC-SUSCEPTIBLE AND ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT BACTERIA
Log
10
Reductions
VSE VRE MSSA MRSA
Product 0.5 min 5 min 0.5 min 5 min 0.5 min 5 min 0.5 min 5 min
Vesphene IIse >4.3 >4.3 >4.8 >4.8 >5.1 >5.1 >4.6 >4.6
Clorox >5.4 >5.4 >4.9 >4.9 >5.0 >5.0 >4.6 >4.6
Lysol Disinfectant >4.3 >4.3 >4.8 >4.8 >5.1 >5.1 >4.6 >4.6
Lysol Antibacterial >5.5 >5.5 >5.5 >5.5 >5.1 >5.1 >4.6 >4.6
Vinegar 0.1 5.3 1.0 3.7 +1.1 +0.9 +0.6 2.3
Abbreviations: MRSA, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus; MSSA, methicillin-susceptible S aureus; VRE, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus; VSE, vancomycin-susceptible Enterococcus.
Data represent mean of two trials (n=2). Values preceded by “>” represent the limit of detection of the assay. Assays were conducted at a temperature of 20ºC and a relative humidity of 45%. Results
were calculated as the log of Nd/No, where Nd is the titer of bacteria surviving after exposure and No is the titer of the control.
TABLE 3
DISINFECTANT ACTIVITY AGAINST POLIOVIRUS
Product Tested Mean Log
10
Reductions at Exposure Time*
(Concentration) 0.5 min 5 min
Vesphene IIse (1:128) 0.033 0.22
TBQ (1:128) 0.10 0.09
Clorox (1:10) ⭓3.3 ⭓3.3
Ethyl alcohol 0.03 0.65
Lysol Disinfectant ⭓3.3 3.1
Lysol Antibacterial 0.10 0.27
Mr. Clean 0.19 0.15
Vinegar 0.25 0.32
Baking soda (8%) 0.14 0.42
* Data represent mean of two trials.
Vol. 21 No. 1 HOME DISINFECTANTS 37
a source of infection for humans.
18
Contaminated environ-
mental surfaces have been shown in human studies to be
capable of transmitting viral pathogens.
16,17
For these rea-
sons, disinfection of environmental surfaces has been pro-
posed as a means to decrease or eliminate potential
pathogens and thereby decrease acquisition of disease. A
variety of commercially available disinfectants are used by
the public in their homes. In addition to commercially avail-
able products, several natural products also have been used
by the public or for home health care.
26
In recent years,
concern for the environment has resulted in a movement to
eliminate or replace antimicrobials such as disinfectants
with environmentally safe or “green” alternative chemi-
cals.
27-29
In some countries, phenolics are seldom used in
disinfectant formulations.
30
In some states, phenolics can-
not be disposed of via a sanitary sewer.
Four commonly used household disinfectants (Lysol
Disinfectant, Lysol Antibacterial Spray, Mr. Clean, Clorox),
several disinfectants commonly used in healthcare (a qua-
ternary ammonium compound [TBQ], a phenolic
[Vesphene IIse], ethanol), and vinegar and baking soda
were studied. These products were tested against a variety
of bacteria representing medically important pathogens
likely to contaminate the surface environment in the home:
S aureus, Enterococcus, S choleraesuis, E coli, and P aerugi-
nosa. Our data are based on a suspension test that may not
fully evaluate the ability of these disinfectants to eliminate
microorganisms dried on environmental surfaces.
The following products were found to be highly
effective in inactivating all bacteria tested at both 30-second
and 5-minute exposures: 1:10 Clorox, Lysol Antibacterial,
ethanol, TBQ, and Vesphene IIse. Two other household
disinfectants, Mr. Clean and Lysol Disinfectant, were capa-
ble of eliminating 4-6 log
10
of pathogens. These agents are
sufficiently active to be effective in the home. Two natural
products, vinegar and baking soda, were much less effec-
tive than disinfectants. However, vinegar demonstrated
substantial activity against P aeruginosa and S choleraesuis.
Vinegar was not effective against E coli or S aureus.
Viral respiratory pathogens such as respiratory syn-
cytial virus and rhinoviruses cause significant morbidity.
These agents are transmitted by close contact. They have
been shown to be transmitted by contaminated surfaces
between humans.
16,20
The efficacy of disinfectants on
poliovirus was studied because small hydrophobic viruses
are the most resistant to chemical agents. Disinfectants that
inactivate poliovirus could be considered reliably capable of
inactivating other pathogenic enteric and respiratory virus-
es. Only two of the tested products demonstrated excellent
activity against poliovirus, 1:10 dilution of Clorox and Lysol
Disinfectant. All other products inactivated less than 1 log
10
of poliovirus. These agents may have activity against other
enteric and respiratory viruses, but this would need to be
proved in appropriate scientific studies.
Gram-negative bacilli with multiple-drug resistance
and antibiotic-resistant gram-positive cocci are major
nosocomial pathogens, especially methicillin-resistant S
aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus.
2
Previous
data suggested that these pathogens do not exhibit
decreased susceptibility to disinfectants used in the hos-
pital setting.
31,32
This study is the first to provide evidence
that methicillin-resistant S aureus and vancomycin-
resistant Enterococcus are as susceptible to household dis-
infectants as are antibiotic-susceptible strains. These
pathogens were eliminated with both 30-second and 5-
minute exposures to all tested disinfectants (Vesphene
IIse, 1:10 Clorox, Lysol Disinfectant, and Lysol
Antibacterial). Vinegar was ineffective at 30 seconds
against both susceptible and resistant strains of S aureus
and Enterococcus, but demonstrated 3.7- to 5.3-log
10
reduc-
tion against the Enterococcus at 5-minute exposure.
Scientific evidence supports the use of disinfectants
as part of a program to control infectious disease by inter-
rupting transmission via surface contamination. Their use
in healthcare facilities is recommended by the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention,
33,34
the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration,
35
and professional orga-
nizations such as the Association for Professionals in
Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc.
36
Disinfectants
are also used in child-care centers, extended-care facilities,
restaurants, and the domestic home as part of an effort to
control transmission of infectious diseases.
37
The use of
disinfectants on contaminated surfaces has been cited as a
means to reduce or prevent the spread of gastrointestinal
or respiratory pathogens.
16,17,20,38
Only limited data exist
regarding the use of disinfectants in nonhealthcare set-
tings. Kotch and colleagues demonstrated that routine use
of disinfectants as part of a comprehensive intervention
effort could decrease the incidence of severe diarrhea ill-
nesses in child-care centers.
37
Our data demonstrate that currently available home
disinfectants have excellent activity against potentially
pathogenic bacteria likely to contaminate home environ-
mental surfaces. Some, but not all, products were highly
active against polioviruses. Further, these products were
active against both antibiotic-susceptible and antibiotic-
resistant S aureus and Enterococcus. The natural products,
vinegar and baking soda, demonstrated inadequate activity
and therefore should not be used as home disinfectants.
Now that the efficacy of commercial disinfectants for use in
the home has been demonstrated, a controlled trial should
be undertaken to determine if routine disinfection of home
environmental surfaces will lead to decreased infection
rates among household members.
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Gina Pugliese, RN, MS
Martin S. Favero, PhD
Garau and colleagues observed
from 1992 to 1997 in Barcelona, Spain,
an increasing proportion of
quinolone-resistant Escherichia coli
(QREC) infections. QREC strains
increased in patients with community-
acquired infections, from 9% in 1992
to 17% in 1996. Seventy (12%) of 572
episodes of E coli bacteremia were
due to QREC. In a multivariate analy-
sis, only prior exposure to antimicro-
bial agents, specifically to quinolones,
and the presence of a urinary catheter
were significantly associated with
QREC bacteremia. Among 16 QREC
isolates from cultures of blood of com-
munity origin selected at random, 13
different pulsed-field gel elec-
trophoresis patterns were recog-
nized, showing the genetic diversity
of these isolates and in turn indicating
the independent emergence of QREC
in the community.
The prevalence of QREC in the
feces of healthy people was unexpect-
edly high (24% in adults and 26% in chil-
dren). A survey of the prevalence of
QREC of avian and porcine origin
revealed a very high proportion of
QREC in animal feces (up to 90% of
chickens harbored QREC). The high
prevalence of QREC in the stools of
healthy humans in the study area could
be linked to the high prevalence of
resistant isolates in poultry and pork.
FROM: Garau J, Xercavins M,
Rodriguez-Carballeira M, Gomez-
Vera JR, Coll I, Vidal D, et al.
Emergence and dissemination of
quinolone-resistant Escherichia coli in
the community. Antimicrob Agents
Chemother 1999;43:2736-2741.
Quinolone-Resistant E coli in the Community
