No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
The effect of economic sanctions on the mortality of Iraqi children prior to the 1991 Persian Gulf War
Abstract
This study examined the effect of sanctions on mortality among Iraqi children.
The effects of economic sanctions on health are not well known. Past studies on the effect of economic sanctions on mortality have suffered from unreliable data sources and the collinearity of sanctions with other negative economic events. We overcame these weaknesses by using individual child records from a retrospective survey of mothers conducted after the 1991 Persian Gulf War to examine the effect of sanctions on mortality among Iraqi children. Multivariate proportional hazards analysis was used to assess the effect of economic sanctions prior to war (from August through December 1990).
We found that after controlling for child and maternal characteristics, when economic sanctions were entered into the proportional hazards equation, the risk of dying increased dramatically. This increase was highly significant statistically.
Innovative application of robust epidemiologic research tools can contribute to assessments of health and well-being even under the methodological and practical constraints of comprehensive economic sanctions, but more research is needed.
... 61 Sanctions-induced shortages of food, water, and medicines and disruptions of health and social services increased both the onset and severity of chronic illnesses. 43,44,60,61,63,69 Articles reporting on malnutrition found that despite humanitarian aid and medical exemptions, sanctions led to increases in diseases and substantial loss of life. 5 Barriers to food supply, production and agriculture ...
... 69 They also reported an increase in outpatient and inpatient use of medications such as benzodiazepines during the sanctions period, 71 55,71 and reduced capacity for preventative and curative treatment options. 55 Reasons for decreased availability of medical services included an exit of nursing and medical staff, 69,72,73 restricted contact between local doctors and international experts, 69 lack of gasoline and electricity, 69 weakened infrastructure, 41,44,56,69,72,73 and decline in revenues leading to cuts in health care services. 13,47,55,59,72 Increased difficulties with 56,59,70,73,74 and vaccines in human and animal sectors. ...
... 42,54,58,76,81 One author argued that barriers to medical supplies and equipment impaired the functioning of sovereign health systems, 73 reflected in a large minority of articles (38%; 13/34), which discussed the collapse of local drug production, 14,69,76 breakdowns of national vaccine programs, 42,58 reductions in the immunization rates and resurgences of previously contained epidemics, 42,45,46 inability to treat ordinary and treatable diseases, 55,58 and inability to sustain hospital units or maintain existing medical equipment. 13,38,54,70,72,73 Shortages in medical supplies had direct health impacts on population health, such as increased chronic illnesses and mortality 15,42,44,46,58,66,68,75 and increased anxiety due to unaffordable medicines. 64,65 About a fifth of articles (18%; 6/34) acknowledged that despite medical and humanitarian exemptions, imports of medical supplies and raw goods were restricted under sanctions, 42,55,68,69,79,80 with pharmaceutical companies choosing not to ship products to sanctioned countries. ...
The use of sanctions as a policy tool to affect change in the political behavior of target states has increased over the past 30 years, along with a concern about their impact on civilian health. Some researchers have proposed that targeting sanctions can avoid their moral costs, yet others have challenged this claim. This systematic mixed-studies review explored the debate about targeted sanctions by appraising their health effects as reported in the medical and public health literature, with a global focus and through the COVID-19 era.
We searched three electronic databases without temporal or geographical restrictions and identified 50 studies spanning three decades (1992–2021) meeting our inclusion criteria. Using a piloted form, we extracted quotations addressing our research questions and identified themes that we grouped according to the effects of sanctions on health or its determinants, generating frequency distributions to assess the strength of support for each theme. While no study posited a causal relationship between sanctions and health, or engaged the morality of sanctions, most implied that when sanctions were present, health was inevitably impacted, even for sanctions ostensibly targeted to minimize civilian harm. Our findings suggest that given the integrated nature of the global economy, it is all but impossible to design sanctions that will achieve their stated goals without inflicting significant harm on civilians. We conclude that the use of sanctions as a policy tool threatens global health and human rights, especially in times of crises.
... Sixteen studies have been reported to evaluate the impacts of IES on healthcare which are summarized in Table 1. 15,16,[18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31] The majority of published studies investigating the economic crises' effect on health have focused on immediate (rather than long-term) health impacts during or shortly after the crisis. Long-term health consequences, like chronic diseases, which need more follow-up have Abbas, 2008 15 A descriptive crosssectional study • 20% of females had a positive family history of congenital disabilities and inherited conditions. ...
... 16 The data source of published articles that evaluated the impacts of sanctions on health is not reliable; also there were simultaneous economic crises beside sanctions in Iraq which altogether limits the available reports on the effect of economic sanctions on mortality. 21 In this regard, in an Iraqi study, individual child records after the 1991 Persian Gulf War were reviewed to examine the effect of sanctions on Iraqi children's mortality. The results revealed that the children's mortality rate increased significantly over the economic sanctions, and a higher mortality risk was observed than the pre-sanctions period. ...
... We reviewed 26 eligible articles from the early 8,624 records identified through the database search and then classified the adverse effects of sanctions on health issues into three distinct categories. In the initial assessment of the location of each study, eight studies 15,21,22,[25][26][27]30,31 focused specifically on the Iraqi population. Nine studies 23,[32][33][34][35][36][37]39,40 examined the effect of sanctions imposed on Iran. ...
Background:
International economic sanctions (IES) influence a country's economic development and the overall welfare of a nation's population.
Methods:
An electronic search of PubMed, Embase and Web of Science was conducted until July 31, 2019. Additionally, a list of references to related articles was reviewed. Key search terms were "Economics", "Health", "Sanction", and their equivalents with no language or time restriction.
Results:
Totally, 8624 records were identified of which 2869 duplicates were deleted. Finally, 24 papers met the inclusion criteria and were selected for drafting. The number of papers included for evaluating each factor included healthcare (n=16) and pharmaceutical industry (n=10). Nine and eight studies examined the effect of sanctions imposed on Iran and Iraq, respectively. France, Haiti, Serbia, Cuba, Syria, and other areas such as Africa were also evaluated. Sanctions lead to a decrease in immunization rates and government health care expenditures. Sanctions increase infant and under-five mortality rate, road traffic injuries and fatalities, severe malnutrition, infective diseases, neurologic and visual disorders, as well as shortage of medical or dental instruments and a variety of medicines. Sanctions have adverse impacts on female labor and are associated with disabling hospitals, dispersing medical workers, and facilities for radiation therapy.
Conclusion:
The health status of sanctioned nations in terms of healthcare, and pharmaceutical industry was adversely affected in targeted countries.
... However, the detrimental effects of sanctions on the socioeconomic and political lives of the people in the target state(s) have been widely reported in the extant literature. It is argued that sanctions adversely affect food security and the availability of potable water, thwart access to healthcare and medical services [1,2], worsen infant mortality and reduce life expectancy [3,4]. Moreover, economic sanctions undermine the democracy of the targeted nations and promote civil strife and political instability [5][6][7][8], deteriorates their respect for human right and in most cases failed to achieve the desired objective of the imposition of the sanctions [9]. ...
... Moreover, empirical studies identified the humanitarian and health impacts of sanctions considering child mortality, life expectancy, food security, and access to healthcare services. In this regard [3,4], examine the impact of UN sanctions on child mortality in Iraq. Both studies found that sanctions drastically increased infant and child mortality in the country. ...
The application of economic and political sanctions becomes a vital tool of international politics to facilitate peaceful coexistence among the nations. However, the issue of the effectiveness of sanctions in creating adequate disutility to ensure compliance remains contentious. Therefore, this study assesses the effect of sanctions on the economic growth of the target states. It captures the diversity of sanctions using system Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) with extensive dataset for the period 1970–2018. The findings reveal that extensive, multilateral sanctions, and export restriction are the only sanction categories that are effective in creating disutility and reducing the real income per capita growth when targeted at the developed countries. On the other hand, limited sanctions (partial embargo) – sanctions that are targeted at specific sectors, groups, and issues such as withdrawal of foreign aid, as well as import restrictions can effectively reduce income per capita growth when imposed on developing countries while all other categories of sanctions have a positive effect on income growth in targeted developing economy. Therefore, we, conclude that the sanctions diversity, development level of the target country and sender identity play vital roles concerning the sanctions-economic growth nexus. These attributes should be considered in the application and analyses of sanctions to ensure their effectiveness. The study provided several interesting policy insights.
... These services established for all regardless of their ethnicity, geographic origin, gender or religious affiliation. Therefore, calls for integrated reform of the existing PHC system [13]. ...
... In 1991, Iraq invaded Kuwait, triggering the first Gulf War. The sanctions that followed had a major effect on Iraq's health system and the health status of Iraqis [13]. The subsequent oil-for-food program mitigated some of the effects of sanctions, but serious damage had been done to the health system. ...
Abstract
Background: The development of actual patient referral systems is considered one of the important public health issues in developing
countries. Primary health care services will not be benefit without effective procedures in the hospital that support to refer the patients who
need special services. The medical health care system in Iraq based on a hospital oriented and capital-intensive model that has limited efficiency
and does not have equitable access.
Objective: This study was conducted to describe the referral health system in Al-Najaf province, Iraq.
Materials and Methods:A cross-sectional study has described the referral health system in Iraq, Al-Najaf province. This study is the first
national research has been conducted to describe the referral health system (the pregnant women as an example). The researcher has reviewed
a group of studies reported in (Medline, WHO Portal, POPLINE, PubMed) databases that have assessed the referral health system. The medical
services for women are provided in an integrated and comprehensive manner covering preventive, promotive and curative aspects of care in a
set of phases are (antenatal care, delivery care, postnatal care, family planning and care for the newborn).
Outcomes: The referral system in Iraq is classified to three levels are: PHC main centers which is including three categories of PHC
(A-approx. 817 centers delivered all the primary health care services), (B-approx. 19 centers includes the same services as a category (A) plus
a training place) and(C- approx. 123 centers includes the same services as Class (A) in addition to emergency care services. Second, PHC Subcenters (called Category D) includes 53 centers deliver simple curative services, immunization activities and simple maternal and child health
services. Third, Hospitals: Secondary and tertiary care levels are provided by 208 government hospitals, providing 36 057 hospital beds and
80 private hospitals (2 273 beds).
Conclusion: Decades of war and sanctions have seriously compromised the function of the health system. There are adequate financial
resources, but with a shortage of skills, strategies and human resource development. In addition, the health strategies have failed to link needs,
strategic plans, and training programs together.
Keyword: Referral health system; Referral of pregnant women
... In economic terms, Iraq was a good candidate for sanctions. Its economy was weak following the eight-year war with Iran in the 1980s; it was dependent Notes and Source for 6 See also UNSC Res. 1127 (1997), 28 August 1997; and UNSC Res. ...
... Child mortality has more than doubled; malnutrition is rampant in the south and centre of the country; and the proportion of low-birth-weight babies rose from 4% in 1994 to approximately 25% in 1997. 6 Exemptions for medicine and food, as well as the Oil for Food Program adopted by the Security Council in August 1991, have not prevented the Iraqi population from suffering. Under the terms of the programme, revenues from the sale of Iraqi oil could be used to pay for food and medicines. ...
The UN Security Council increasingly imposes economic sanctions to prevent, manage or resolve violent conflict. The political effectiveness of these measures has been limited and the humanitarian consequences have been severe, although unintended. Yet sanctions remain attractive for many policy-makers and their extensive use is unlikely to be abandoned. In fact, sanctions can be an effective policy instrument, but they must be properly implemented and part of a comprehensive coercive strategy that includes the threat of force. Many 1990s sanction regimes failed because they did not meet these two key conditions.
... While economic sanctions aim to induce policy change in the targeted state in the shorter term, a wealth of studies has shown that the targeted state continues to suffer from unintended adverse consequences even after sanctions terminate. The toll sanctions exact on populations have especially become visible during the post-Gulf War sanctions against the Saddam Hussein regime (Daponte and Garfield, 2000). Accordingly, the literature on unintended consequences of sanctions developed rather quickly, with studies focusing on humanitarian consequences, such as the incidence of humanitarian crises (Cortright et al., 1997), or deterioration of women's status (Drury and Peksen, 2014), political consequences in the target regime such as level of repression on the populace (Wood, 2008;Grauvogel and von Soest, 2014) or destabilization of the target regime (Marinov 2005;Escribà-Folch and Wright, 2010). ...
Geopolitical crises, and economic sanctions, in particular, have created considerable disturbance in natural resource markets. This study focuses on a significant consequence of this disturbance, namely how sanctions may derail targeted states from their low-carbon pathways. Increasing capital costs and difficulties in accessing technology force sanctioned states to move away from capital-and technology-intensive greener alternatives to employ more carbon-intensive (predominantly coal) generation modes in their primary energy supply. We also show that the recovery process from sanctions further increases coal use in these targeted states. Our econometric results from a global cross-sectional time-series dataset support our expectations. Our findings call for a deeper understanding of the challenges in achieving sustainable recovery in the aftermath of geopolitical crises. These results call for assessing carbon-footprint implications of specific foreign policy actions before these actions are carried out.
... A comparative assessment 89 of three well-studied episodes argued that Haiti and Cuba were able to maintain ongoing secular declines in infant mortality, despite rising undernutrition 39 and mortality 37 56 in older children, through targeted food supplementation, community-based health education, sustained promotion of breast feeding and liberalisation of tightly regulated agricultural markets. 56 In Iraq, instead, large increases in infant mortality in the immediate aftermath of sanctions 40 heralded persistently high levels of undernutrition 52 -partly attributed to a healthcare model biased against primary services and prevention. 5 89 Reports on Serbia-Montenegro 62 and Iran 50 suggest that sanctions may induce governments to alter regulatory policies, including price subsidies, in ways that benefit special interest groups, for example, well-connected pharmaceutical companies, potentially aggravating shortages or impeding equitable access. ...
Introduction
Economic sanctions restrict customary commercial and financial ties between states to induce change in political constitution or conduct of the targeted country. Although the stated goals of sanctions often include humanitarian objectives, prospective procedures for health risk assessment are not regularly incorporated in their implementation. Moreover, past experience suggests that the burden of economic isolation may fall on the civilian population. We present key findings from a WHO-sponsored evidence review on the impact of economic sanctions on health and health systems in low-income and middle-income countries, aiming at comprehensive coverage and explicit consideration of issues of causality and mechanisms.
Methods
Broad searches of PubMed and Google Scholar (1970–2021) were designed to retrieve published and grey English-language literature expected to cut across disciplines, terminology and research methods. Studies providing an impact estimate were rated by a structured assessment based on ROBINS-I risk of bias domains, synthesised via vote counting and contextualised into the broader literature through a thematic synthesis.
Results
Included studies (185) were mostly peer-reviewed, mostly single-country, largely coming from medicine and public health, and chiefly concerned with three important target countries—Iraq, Haiti and Iran. Among studies providing impact estimates (31), most raised multiple risk-of-bias concerns. Excluding those with data integrity issues, a significant proportion (21/27) reported consistently adverse effects of sanctions across examined outcomes, with no apparent association to assessed quality, focus on early episodes or publication period. The thematic synthesis highlights the complexity of sanctions, their multidimensionality and the possible mechanisms of impact.
Conclusion
Future research should draw on qualitative knowledge to collect domain-relevant data, combining it with better estimation techniques and study design. However, only the adoption of a risk assessment framework based on prospective data collection and monitoring can certify claims that civilians are adequately protected.
... The consequence of these sanctions was higher inflation and lower output. Daponte and Garfield (2000) find that economic sanctions dramatically increase infant mortality in Iraq. Peksen (2011) shows that economic sanctions can negatively affect public health by limiting access to necessities, undermining health services performance, and reducing social welfare. ...
The literature lacks research on how the COVID-19 crisis and the interaction between economic sanctions and institutions affect the proportion of the population below the poverty line. Iran is chosen for our case study because this oil-rich country has experienced the most severe economic sanctions ever imposed on a nation. More specifically, the goal of this paper is threefold. Firstly, we employ the "cost of basic needs" approach to calculate the poverty gap in rural and urban areas. Secondly, we examine the impacts of economic sanctions, the COVID-19 pandemic, and institutional quality on the intensity of poverty. Thirdly, we investigate how the interaction between the institutions and sanctions affects the proportion of the population below the poverty line. To resolve the problems of endogeneity and reverse causality, we estimate our model by the generalized method of moments (GMM) for the period 1990-2020. We use five indicators, including Socio-Economic Conditions, Political Risk, Government Stability, Investment Profile, and a composite index to measure institutional quality. In general, we find that better institutions reduce the poverty gap. Furthermore, economic sanctions increase the intensity of poverty in rural and urban areas in Iran. The interaction effect shows that better institutions partially offset the adverse impact of economic sanctions on the poverty gap in rural and urban areas. In addition, we find that the COVID-19 crisis increases the total poverty gap in Iran. Moreover, this pandemic pushes more people into extreme poverty in the urban area than in the rural area. In general, the adverse effect of COVID-19 on the poverty gap is greater than that of economic sanctions. We find that growth is pro-poor, but financial development is anti-poor in Iran. Finally, human capital and trade openness reduce the intensity of poverty while inflation and income inequality raise the poverty gap in the rural and urban areas. Our finding underscores the role of institutions in decreasing the intensity of poverty in a country under sanctions and hence might have important implications for policymakers and social planners working to eradicate poverty across the world.
... In parallel, sanctions research has increasingly focused on sanctions' unintended consequences. The initial focus has been on the adverse humanitarian consequences (Cortright et al. 1997), with a specific emphasis on health of individuals in the targeted state (Daponte and Garfield 2000;Peksen 2011;Parker, Foltz, and Elsea 2016;Habibzadeh 2018). Further studies examined the political consequences of sanctions. ...
The debate on unintended consequences of sanctions, such as their adverse effects on human rights, public health, or the economy beyond intended sectors in the target state, has become increasingly popular over the last couple of decades. Interestingly, however, this debate has mostly overlooked the transnational aspects of these unintended consequences. This study examines one such aspect, namely the economic spillover of sanctions to neighboring countries. Our global vector autoregression oil and inventory model (GOVAR) simulations on Indonesia, a medium-level oil producer, indicate sanctions may spill over to its neighbors’ domestic economy. The risk and nature of spillover varies with respect to the type of sanctions employed, timing of sanctions, and the macroeconomic indicator in the neighboring state in question. Equity markets appear especially susceptible to a contagion effect. Understanding how a sanction spills over to neighboring states can help sender states design sanctions that minimize regional disruptions.
... Related works are displayed using the linked data For health with a little reference to infant mortality rates for the past years in Iraq, we find that the years between 1974-1990 from (91.7) to (61.7) deaths per live birth [1] where it was planned to decrease by nearly half by the year 2000, which did not It is due to the imposition of the economic embargo on Iraq in 1990; Where infant mortality rates rose to 127.1 per thousand compared to the years before the siege [2] due to inadequate health services in particular and individual living conditions in general. As for the Iraqi health situation, it has witnessed a clear deterioration since the eighties of the last century until now: In general health system in Iraq The country's health system has clearly deteriorated after Gulf Warm [3], also after America's entry into Iraq still the situation of Lack of hospitals in general medicines and medical supplies, including devices and laboratories [4][5]. ...
... Furthermore, referral to a specialized care unit is not always done timely. Because high conflict regions of the world, such as Iraq and disadvantaged refugee camps, have unmeasured incidences and as reported in local and institutional literature, [14][15][16][17][18][19][20] we set out to design a simplified and practical systems approach that utilizes a numeric scoring system and TB levels at readmission that can be used to decrease ABE in infants with EHB. Our data also showed that adoption of this approach can lead to an apparent reduction in number of cases of infants with EHB admitted with moderate and advanced ABE as compared with our earlier report. ...
... Furthermore, referral to a specialized care unit is not always done timely. Because high conflict regions of the world, such as Iraq and disadvantaged refugee camps, have unmeasured incidences and as reported in local and institutional literature, [14][15][16][17][18][19][20] we set out to design a simplified and practical systems approach that utilizes a numeric scoring system and TB levels at readmission that can be used to decrease ABE in infants with EHB. Our data also showed that adoption of this approach can lead to an apparent reduction in number of cases of infants with EHB admitted with moderate and advanced ABE as compared with our earlier report. ...
Extreme hyperbilirubinemia [EHB, total serum bilirubin (TB) >25 mg/dL]) can lead to death, acute bilirubin encephalopathy (ABE), exchange transfusion, and/or bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction (BIND). In specific low-to middle-income countries, an "epidemic" exists, therefore, a simplified triage management system is needed. Here, we studied a cohort of 72 infants readmitted for EHB (TB: 28.1±2.5; range: 25-42 mg/dL). Of these, 15/72 (20.8%) newborns had BIND scores ≥4. Eleven (15.3%) infants with BIND scores of 4 to 6 developed moderate ABE, with 6/11 (54.5%) with TB of 28.1±4.8 mg/dL having post-icteric sequelae. Eight infants (TB of 32.1±3.5 mg/dL) had BIND scores >6 and developed adverse outcomes. One infant, who had Rh disease and a BIND score of 8 died. We report that the key determinants for adverse outcomes were TB >30 mg/dL and a BIND score ≥4 and may be useful for a systems approach to triage infants readmitted for EHB.
... Economic sanctions and blockades often lead to substantial suffering by vulnerable groups, as happened in Iraq, former Yugoslavia, and Haiti (Weiss, 1999). Sanctions impose suffering on societies through the limited availability of clean water, food, medicines and healthcare services (Cortright & Lopez, 2000;Garfield, 2002), leading to a pernicious effect on life expectancy and infant mortality in the target country (Ali & Shah, 2000;Daponte & Garfield, 2000). Moreover, they dampen the target's government expenditures on education, health and culture by restricting the government revenues (Farzanegan 2011;Dizaji 2014). ...
... In Iraq, the impacts of wars, sanctions and sectarian violence have left a shattered health system and an ongoing public health emergency impacting vulnerable sections of the population, particularly children [6,[7][8]. The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) has indicated that diarrhoea is the second most common cause of death among Iraqi children under ve years of age [9]. ...
Background Diarrhoea remains a significant cause of child morbidity and mortality in Iraq. The objective of this study was to examine the current practices of home-based management of diarrhoeal illnesses among Iraqi children. We surveyed mothers of children below five years of age in order to identify the socio-demographic factors associated with maternal health-care seeking practices. Methods A total of 500 mother-child pairs were interviewed in a cross-sectional household survey in Thi-Qar Governorate, south-eastern Iraq between March 2016 and February 2017. Logistic and multinomial regression models were utilized to infer socio-demographic predictors of the health-care seeking and alternative management practices adopted by the mothers. Results The interviewees reported that 35.2% of their children had diarrhoea in the two weeks prior to the survey. The least likelihood of reported occurrence of diarrhoea was among mother-child pairs where the mothers had received university education, as compared to mothers who were illiterate or received only primary or secondary education. Lower odds (OR=0.4, P-value 25 years old compared to those younger. Self-ordered medicine from a pharmacy was the most preferred alternative management option in almost half (52.4% (262/500)) of the interviewed mothers in Thi-Qar. Interestingly, 69.6% (348/500) of the mothers reported supplying their children suffering from diarrhoea with antibiotics. Relative to mothers with university education, those with high school education had more likelihood of selecting medical center (relative risk ratio (rrr) = 2.4) and pharmacy (rrr = 3.7) as against no treatment. Conclusions Lower maternal educational level, mothers' age
... Program evaluation such as propensity score matching (nearest neighbour matching) applied by Neuenkirch and Neumeier (2015) is a popular technique used to evaluate the impact of a given program on economic and social variables. Qualitative researches were also done in country case studies and equally established that sanctions negatively affect the availability of food, clean water and medicines (Cortright and Lopez 2000;Garfield 2002) and reduce life expectancy while increasing mortality (Daponte and Garfield 2000). ...
This article draws on the established empirical literature to assess the impact of United States sanctions on livelihoods and poverty in Zimbabwe. Using time-series data spanning from 1980 to 2015, the findings from a linear specification in sanctions duration show no evidence to support the negative impact of sanctions on formal employment and poverty. The results, however, portray a quadratic relationship between sanctions duration and livelihoods. Sanctions reduced formal employment during the initial stages but the negative relationship changed over time. Subsequently, informality increased during the sanctions period. Similarly, the relationship between sanctions duration and poverty is also non-linear. The turning point of the poverty quadratic curve coincides with the implementation of indigenization policy. Indigenization policy magnified sanctions’ negative impact instead of offsetting the impact. In this view, the government should consider addressing the indigenization policy which it has control over while at the same time continue re-engaging USA for the removal of sanctions.
... Sanctions can negatively affect the access to food, clean water, medicine and health care services (Cortright and Lopez, 2000;Weiss et al., 1997;Garfield, 2002;Gibbons and Garfield, 1999). They may also have a negative impact on life expectancy and infant mortality (Ali Mohamed and Shah, 2000;Daponte and Garfield, 2000). Economic sanctions may worsen the targeted government's respect for human rights (Peksen, 2009) and the level of democracy (Peksen and Drury, 2010). ...
A large economic literature discusses the implications of export sanctions for a variety of states around the world. This paper investigates the macro-level consequences of imposing oil export barriers on an oil exporting country. We employ a large real financial computable general equilibrium for Iran. The model is calibrated based on 1999 Social Accounting Matrix for the economy of Iran including 112 commodities and 47 activities. We find that the impact of a 50% negative shock in oil export would amount to a 4.6% reduction in GDP, a 6.8% fall in private consumption, a 20.2% cut in government spending, a 20.4% decrease in import, a 9.9% contraction in capital formation, and a +29.2% increase in non-oil export. We also find that there is a conflict between government benefits and national benefit. Our sensitivity analysis proves the robustness of the results.
... The sanctions in particular exposed the fragility of this system and had a devastating impact on child mortality rates. 23 With an infant mortality rate of 31 per 1,000 live births in 2013, Iraq did not achieve the 2015 Millennium Development Goal 4 on reducing child mortality. 22 Recent comprehensive scholarly writings advance that stark inequalities existed in Iraq throughout and hid behind propagandistic accounts. ...
We analyze regional inequalities in access to maternal and neonatal health services in Iraq and Syria during the period 2000–2011, before the rise of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, ISIS. Utilizing nationally representative survey data (Iraq 2000, 2006, 2011; Syria 2006, 2009), we examine changes in the rate of babies weighed at birth and women delivering at home. We calculate 4 regional inequality indicators: (1) extremal quotient, (2) interquartile quotient, (3) coefficient of variation, and (4) systematic component of variation. Despite national improvements in both countries over time, indicators show increasing regional inequalities in access to maternal and neonatal health services, particularly in Syria between 2006 and 2009. Spatial regression results indicate that these inequalities associate with inequalities in maternal education, rurality, and wealth. Regions where women experienced deteriorating access over time, reflecting overall inequalities, are those that fell under the control of ISIS. Inequalities in access to basic services (education and health) deserve more attention in understanding social and political change in the Arab region.
... In this context, some studies have indicated that the society will adversely affect access to adequate clean water and food resources (Weiss et al. 1997, Cortright andLopez, 2000), while others emphasize that the same is the case with access to medical and health services (Weiss 1999, Gibbons and Garfield 1999, Garfield 2002, Peksen 2011, Allen and Lektzian, 2013. In some studies it has been shown that sanctions are a negative effect on infant mortality and life expectancy (Ali andShah 2000, Daponte, andGarfield, 2000). ...
In this study, the effects of international sanctions imposed by the United States (US) and multinational institutions (European Union (EU) and the United Nations (UN)) on the external debts of less developed or/and developing countries are empirically assessed. Our sample includes 44 countries experienced international sanctions over the period 1976-2014. According to the results, the sanctions significantly increase the external debt of the target country. Moreover, if the targeted countries increase government expenditures against these sanctions, it is seen that the tendency of these sanctions to increase external debt is lower in sanctioned periods. Adding to these, the effect of the type of regime in targeted countries on external debt varies according to the state of government expenditures.
... In this context, some studies have indicated that the society will adversely affect access to adequate clean water and food resources (Weiss et al. 1997, Cortright andLopez, 2000), while others emphasize that the same is the case with access to medical and health services (Weiss 1999, Gibbons and Garfield 1999, Garfield 2002, Peksen 2011, Allen and Lektzian, 2013. In some studies it has been shown that sanctions are a negative effect on infant mortality and life expectancy (Ali andShah 2000, Daponte, andGarfield, 2000). ...
In this study, the effects of international sanctions imposed by the United States (US) and multinational institutions (European Union (EU) and the United Nations (UN)) on the external debts of less developed or/and developing countries are empirically assessed. Our sample includes 44 countries experienced international sanctions over the period 1976-2014. According to the results, the sanctions significantly increase the external debt of the target country. Moreover, if the targeted countries increase government expenditures against these sanctions, it is seen that the tendency of these sanctions to increase external debt is lower in sanctioned periods. Adding to these, the effect of the type of regime in targeted countries on external debt varies according to the state of government expenditures.
... In Iraq, sanctions increased child mortality under age 5 because of infectious disease and shortages of food, water, and medical care, resulting in 567 000 deaths. 10 In Cuba, sanctions have caused malnutrition, especially in women and children, and difficulties in accessing medicines, vaccines, and medical equipment. In the Gaza Strip, lack of vital medicines for children, such as antibiotics, antiepileptic drugs, and analgesics, hinders their ability to undergo surgery, thus risking their health. ...
Approximately 1.8 million children under age 15 were living with HIV. This study is the first to empirically examine the impact of sanctions on children's new HIV infection and AIDS‐related death rates. Using sanction and HIV/AIDS data that are available for 71 developing countries from 1990 to 2012, this study reveals that sanctions increase children's new HIV infection and their AIDS‐related death rates. This study increases understanding about the consequences of sanctions, especially their effect on a marginalized population and is in line with previous literature. The significant impacts of sanctions on children's HIV/AIDS suggest that the leader in a country targeted by sanctions needs to consider extending programs to respond to children's HIV/AIDS both during sanctioning and after it is lifted.
... Over the recent years, a vast literature has emerged examining the effect of sanctions on the targeted economy (see, for example, Cortright and Lopez 2000;Daponte and Garfield 2000;Hufbauer et al. 2009;Neuenkirch and Neumeier 2016). Several contributions have investigated the effects of sanctions on civil liberties and democracy. ...
In this paper, we examine the effect of US-imposed sanctions on the civil liberties of the targeted countries for the 1972–2014 period. To deal with the problem of selection and to control for the pre-sanction dynamics, we use a potential outcomes framework, which does not rely on the selection of matching variables and has the further advantage of uncovering the effect of the treatment on the outcome variable over time. What we find is that sanctions result in a decline in civil liberties, measured either by the Freedom House civil liberties index or by the Cingranelli and Richards empowerment rights index. The results are robust across various specifications.
... In this context, some studies have indicated that the society will adversely affect access to adequate clean water and food resources (Weiss et al. 1997, Cortright andLopez, 2000), while others emphasize that the same is the case with access to medical and health services (Weiss 1999, Gibbons and Garfield 1999, Garfield 2002, Peksen 2011, Allen and Lektzian, 2013. In some studies it has been shown that sanctions are a negative effect on infant mortality and life expectancy (Ali andShah 2000, Daponte, andGarfield, 2000). ...
Measures are taken to balance budget deficit by applying various revenue and expenditure items when the last 20 years of the Turkish economy are examined. For this purpose,starting from the point of intertemporal budget constraint approach this study examines whether the budget deficit in Turkey for 1994:01-2016:12 period is sustainable by taking into account Quintos (1995) what the strength and weakness conditions for the sustainability of the budget deficit are and Hakkio ve Rush (1991) how possible the sustainability of the budget deficit is. In the study, it is investigated whether the budget revenue and budget expenditure series contain unit root and then it is tried to find out whether there is a cointegration relation between the series by taking structural break root unit tests into consideration. The results indicate that there is a cointegration relationship between budget revenues and budget expenditures and the budget deficit in Turkey can be sustained. The sustainability of the budget deficit suggests that the implemented fiscal policy is effective and this policy should be maintained in the current economic conditions.
... Some studies analyze developments in the target country. In medical science, for instance, there is an extensive discussion about the effects of sanctions and embargoes on health, well-being and mortality (see, among others, Garfield, Devin, and Fausey, 1995;Daponte and Garfield, 2000). Neuenkirch and Neumeier (2015) estimate that the imposition of sanctions has a sizable and significant negative effect on the target country's economic performance, while Lee (2016) shows that sanctions imposed on North Korea increase regional inequality and force North Korean exports to become more focused on human capital and natural resource intensive goods. ...
This paper examines the effect of financial sanctions on cross-border capital flows. While sanctions can be expected to hinder international transactions, thereby putting political and economic pressure on a target country, we study the patterns of adjustment in bilateral financial relationships after the imposition of sanctions along various dimensions. Our analysis is based on highly disaggregated, monthly data from the German balance of payments statistics for the period from 2005 through 2014. During this time, Germany imposed financial sanctions on 20 countries; two of these sanctions have been lifted. Applying a differences-in-differences approach, we find two key results. First, financial sanctions have a strong and immediate negative effect on direct financial flows with the sanctioned country, with cross-border flows reduced in either direction. Second, sanctions imposed by the European Union alone, and therefore only enforced by their member countries instead of the United Nations, are evaded as flows with major trading partners of sanctioned countries increase. We conclude that financial sanctions do matter for capital flows.
... For instance, in Iraq, during just 4 months, the sanctions showed a greater influence on the hazard of dying than did any of the traditional risk factors. Among Iraqi children, the sanctions period accounted for a four-fold increase in the risk of a child dying [47]. ...
Background:
Nepal was struck by devastating earthquakes in April-May 2015, followed by the India-Nepal border blockade later that year.
Methods:
We used the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics (UN Comtrade) database to analyse exports of various health commodities from India to Nepal from January 2011-September 2016. We used time-series regressions of trading volume vs. unit price to ask how well Nepal's trading history with India prior to the earthquake and blockade was able to predict unit prices of health commodities imported into Nepal during and after the earthquake and the blockade. Regression residuals were used to quantify the extent to which the blockade impacted the price of healthcare commodities crossing into Nepal.
Results:
During the blockade period (September 2015-early February 2016), the volume of all retail medicines traded across the India-Nepal border was reduced by 46.5% compared to same months in 2014-2015. For medical dressings, large volumes were exported from India to Nepal during and shortly after the earthquakes (May-June 2015), but decreased soon thereafter. During the earthquake, the difference between observed and predicted values of unit price (residuals) for all commodities show no statistical outliers. However, during the border blockade, Nepal paid USD 22.3 million more for retail medicines than one would have predicted based on its prior trading history with India, enough to provide healthcare to nearly half of Kathmandu's citizens for 1 year.
Conclusion:
The India-Nepal blockade was a geopolitical natural experiment demonstrating how a land-locked country is vulnerable to the vagaries of its primary trading partner. Although short-lived, the blockade had an immediate impact on traded medicine volumes and prices, and provided a large opportunity cost with implications for public health.
... In this context, some studies have indicated that the society will adversely affect access to adequate clean water and food resources (Weiss et al. 1997, Cortright andLopez, 2000), while others emphasize that the same is the case with access to medical and health services (Weiss 1999, Gibbons and Garfield 1999, Garfield 2002, Peksen 2011, Allen and Lektzian, 2013. In some studies it has been shown that sanctions are a negative effect on infant mortality and life expectancy (Ali andShah 2000, Daponte, andGarfield, 2000). ...
International sanctions seem to be a joint and repetitive feature of economic and political interactions between multinational organizations and states and state with each other. At this point, several measures imposed by multinational organizations like EU and the United Nations have taken place in recent years. In a similar way, the United States draws attention to the negative economic sanctions and imposes on different countries at different times after World War II. This has led to sanctions becoming the focus of many academic studies. According to some studies, the political effects of sanctions on the target state can sometimes deviate from their aims and increase political resistance to the demands of the sanctioners as sanctions may bring about very serious damage to the economies of target states. On the other hand, some studies indicate that the sanctions imposed on investments initially increase the rate of return to capital in the target country, but then decrease new capital inflows. In addition to these studies, researches on the role of political regime (especially democratic and non-democratic) in determining the sanctions and in the effective implementation of sanctions are included in the related literature.
In this paper, we empirically asses how international sanctions imposed by EU, the United Nations and the United States affect external debt of less developed countries or/and developing countries. Our sample includes 44 countries experienced international sanctions over the period 1976-2014. Regardless of political regime, model results indicate that international sanctions have a statistically significant influence on the external debt and increased the external debt of the target countries.
... Our analysis ended before cumulative effects of sanctions could be counted. [37][38][39][40][41] Even though the period of Desert Storm was short (mid-1990 through early 1991), the adult (age 15-60) deaths associated with it substantially exceeded the highest death rates associated with the city bombing campaigns in the Iran-Iraq war. As with the Iran- Iraq war, direct war-related injury deaths persisted in the months following the official end of the conflict, likely for similar reasons. ...
Objectives
We estimated war-related Iraqi mortality for the period 1980 through 1993.
Method
To test our hypothesis that deaths reported by siblings (even dating back several decades) would correspond with war events, we compared sibling mortality reports with the frequency of independent news reports about violent historic events. We used data from a survey of 4,287 adults in 2000 Iraqi households conducted in 2011. Interviewees reported on the status of their 24,759 siblings. Death rates were applied to population estimates, 1980 to 1993. News report data came from the ProQuest New York Times database.
Results
About half of sibling-reported deaths across the study period were attributed to direct war-related injuries. The Iran-Iraq war led to nearly 200,000 adult deaths, and the 1990–1991 First Gulf War generated another approximately 40,000 deaths. Deaths during peace intervals before and after each war were significantly lower. We found a relationship between total sibling-reported deaths and the tally of war events across the period, p = 0.02.
Conclusions
We report a novel method to verify the reliability of epidemiological (household survey) estimates of direct war-related injury mortality dating back several decades.
... This war was followed by economic sanctions for 13 years. The sanctions targeted nutritional materials, leading to widespread nutritional deficiencies (7,8). Health materials were also targeted so that there were deficiencies of medications, medical equipment, and facilities (5,9). ...
Medical Journal of Islamic World Academy of Sciences 21:1, 35-41, 2013
VIOLENCE INJURIES OF IRAQI CHILDREN
LUAY AL-NOURI*
NUMAN N. HAMEED*
EMAD W. HASSAN**
SUMMARY: Iraqi Children suffered injuries during 1991 Gulf war. This was followed by suffering for 13 years from the effect of economic sanctions. The 2003 military invasion and occupation by coalition forces added more death and injuries.
We wanted to know how frequent physical injuries were to Iraqi children, and how inflicted and what the consequences were. Mothers who were admitted with their children to the Children Welfare Hospital, Baghdad, in the period July 1–December 31, 2004, were interviewed about violence to their children, relatives, and neighbors that they had witnessed.
Of the 218 mothers interviewed, 50 witnessed injuries (23%); 28 of those who witnessed injuries were from the city of Baghdad and 22 from towns in the central part of the country. Twenty two injuries were by gunshots, 14 by aerial attack or tank bombs, and others were due to explosions. Head injuries were the most common.
Twenty of the injured children recovered with no disability, two lost fingers, and two got blind, two were limping, and one had persistent backache.
In conclusion, Iraqi Children were commonly victims of violence during invasion and occupation of Iraq. There seems to be inadequate protection for children during the years 2003–2004.
Key words: Violence, injuries, Iraqi children, war
*From Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, Baghdad
University, Iraq.
**From Children Welfare Teaching Hospital, Medical City, Baghdad,
Iraq.
... During the last two decades, Iraq has witnessed drastic changes represented by 13 years of tough economic sanctions that left their mark on the health system [1], followed by 10 years marked by struggling to recover from years of war, sanctions, loss of health workers and political interference. Tuberculosis (TB) detection rates during those two epochs alternated between rise and reduction. ...
... Previous research has explored the impact of sanctions on economic conditions in targeted countries (Hufbauer, Schott & Elliott, 1990; Dashti-Gibson, Davis & Radcliff, 1997;Lektzian & Souva, 2001) and their effect on the human rights (Wood, 2008;Peksen, 2009) of citizens in targeted states. Case studies of sanctions against Cuba (Barry, 2000;Garfield & Santana, 1997), Haiti (Farmer, Fawzi & Nevil, 2003;Gibbons & Garfield, 1999), Iraq (Daponte & Garfield, 2000;Ali & Shah, 2000), and Yugoslavia (Garfield, 2001) have all indicated that sanctions can have a devastating impact on public health outcomes, but efforts to examine these effects in a cross-national framework have been limited. ...
Economic sanctions have been referred to as a blunt instrument that the international community has often wielded without full consideration of the impact that these measures will have on the population of the targeted countries, particularly the weakest elements of society. Case studies of sanctions against Cuba, Iraq, and Yugoslavia have demonstrated the impact that sanctions can have on the availability of food, clean water, and medicine, causing many to conclude that all sanctions have extensive public health consequences. In this article, we examine the generalizability of these conclusions in a quantitative cross-national study of sanctions and their public health effects. Additionally, we compare these effects to those associated with both civil and interstate conflicts as critics have recently suggested that sanctions are not a humane alternative to armed warfare. We find that when sanctions have a large economic effect on the target they can have severe public health consequences. These consequences are substantively similar to those associated with major military conflicts. However, when sanctions have little or no economic effect on the target, they also have no substantive effect on public health. Building on recent work to explore the human consequences of war, this work also helps to demonstrate the importance of smart sanctions and humanitarian exemptions in sanctions policy.
... The constraints on access to essential goods that began in 1990 were quickly associated with an impact on mortality among young children. Comparing the mortality rate of under one-yearolds during the pre-war sanctions period of August 1990-January 1991 to the mortality rate during the same months in the previous year, the rate rose from 36/1,000 to 42/1,000 10 . This represents a 17% rise in infant mortality. ...
... The cumulative effect of this violence was a reversal of Iraq's comprehensive health index to 1950s levels. UNICEF estimated that some 500,000 Iraqi children died during the 1990s alone (Arnove [2000] 2002; Daponte and Garfield 2000;Rawaf 2005). 4 Between 1990 and 2005, Iraq's child mortality rate worsened more than 6 percent each year-the world's most severe deterioration-partially due to high rates of (chronic) malnutrition (De Belder 2007;World Health Organization 2008b). ...
Wars do not maim with bullets and bombs alone but cause economic and environmental destruction that leave enduring bodily harms. Preparations for war-making also cause negative health effects, from toxic waste to the redirection of social wealth from investment in social needs. The commonsense juxtaposition of exceptional war to normal peace makes it difficult to recognize processes of militarization, the violent continuities between war and peace, and geographic ties binding spaces of relative health with spaces of harms. This article advances a critical geographic analysis of violence to analyze the ways in which militarization and structural violence reinforce one another. A 2007 cholera epidemic in Iraq was militarized through material and discursive geographies of cholera and violence. Humanitarian claims to cure cholera rested on this dualistic geopolitical imagination, distorting the agents of violence and erasing the grave effects of peacetime and wartime structural violence. By situating cholera within a broader historical and geographic context that shows links between “wartime” and “peacetime” places also suffering premature deaths from the destruction or abandonment of necessary infrastructures, a critical human geography can contribute to struggles for peace and justice.
Objectives:
This review aimed to analyse the impacts of international economic sanctions on the overall health status of Iranians and the health system performance of Iran, in addition to identifying effective strategies for making the health system resilient to sanctions.
Study design:
A scoping review.
Methods:
Three databases and grey literature were reviewed, and additional papers were identified in the lists of references. Two authors reviewed papers to check duplications and screen through inclusion/exclusion criteria. Furthermore, a narrative approach was employed to synthesise the findings.
Results:
Given overall health impacts, economic sanctions are believed to have adverse effects on Iranian's health and cause significant financial hardships in accessing healthcare services. These hardships mostly affect those in marginalised and vulnerable groups. Economic sanctions degrade Iran's health system by negatively impacting health services' availability. The detrimental effects of sanctions on economic and social circumstances were also documented. Economic sanctions could also adversely affect health research and education. Most strategies identified for health system resilience to sanctions are related to the health system governance.
Conclusions:
Even if essential medicines and supplies are exempted from the sanction regime, the impact of economic sanctions on public health is unavoidable. The quantification of the effect economic sanctions on different health-related areas needs by further research. The measures identified for dealing with sanction can be considered in other countries but more work is needed to explore how health of people can be resilient against negative consequences of sanctions.
While economic sanctions are often used as a foreign policy tool to fight state-sponsored terrorism, their efficacy remains unclear. This article argues that the intensifying economic hardship caused by sanctions forces the targeted governments to undertake a retrenchment strategy, which in turn reduces the overall frequency of state-sponsored terrorist attacks. Using cross-sectional-time-series data of Iranian-backed terrorism from 1987 to 2005, the article shows that sanctions against the Iranian regime were instrumental in reducing terrorist attacks by Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ).
We analyze the spillovers of Western economic sanctions against Russia into twenty-seven transition economies of the former Soviet Union, and Central and Eastern Europe. These spillovers are measured in terms of their impact on bilateral trade and direct investments for the period of 2014-2018. We construct a new dataset to quantify each episode of Western/US sanctions against Russia. The gravity models of bilateral trade and direct investment are used and the data analysis is conducted using Poisson pseudo-maximum likelihood econometric technique. We estimate that the Western and U.S. sanctions against Russia spilled over into third-party small countries. These sanctions resulted in the significant decline of exports from transition economies, Russian imports to transition economies, and Russian direct investments to transition economies. Interestingly, the direct investments to Russia from transition economies sharply increased during the same period. The quantitative estimates of the spillovers suggest the following cumulative changes. Due to an imposed sanction type (e.g., against an individual, entity or sector) each episode of Western/U.S. sanction resulted in the decline of aforementioned indicators in the range of 10.9–30.5-million-dollar/5.6-16.9-million-dollar of exports from transition economies, 6.3-17.7-million-dollar/3.3-9.8-million-dollar of Russian imports to transition economies, and 3.4-9.4-million-dollar/1.7-5.2-million-dollar of Russian direct investments to transition economies. The direct investments to Russia from transition economies increased by 10.9-30.6-million-dollar/5.7-17-million-dollar, respectively.
This study investigates the effects of US sanctions on crude oil prices, and estimates the associated losses or gains accrued to US output due to economic coercion. Using a sample of US sanctions imposed between 1987 and 2016, we find that oil prices exhibit a significant abnormal adjustment in magnitude. We show that the nature of the change is decided by the target country's status either as a net importer or exporter of oil. Our findings further reveal that while the abnormal rise in oil prices, associated with sanctions on net exporters, inflict losses on US output, coercive measures on net importers give rise to economic gains due to significant decline in oil valuations. Such externalities do not appear to be considered when designing and deploying measures of economic coercion. (JEL Q41, Q43, Q48).
The present paper applies a modified gravity model to examine the relationship between global economic sanctions (GES) and global value chains (GVC) by using a dyad panel dataset of 38 developed and 28 developing countries during the 2005–2015 period and the rich and updated database of the Global Sanction Database version 2 (Felbermayr, G., A. Kirilakha, C. Syropoulos, E. Yalcin, and Y. V. Yotov. 2020. “The Global Sanctions Data Base.” European Economic Review 129: 1–23. doi:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2020.103561; Kirilakha, A., G. Felbermayr, C. Syropoulos, E. Yalcin, and Y. V. Yotov. 2021. The Global Sanctions Data Base: An update that includes the years of the Trump presidency. The Research Handbook on Economic Sanctions, Edited by Peter AG van Bergeijk.). GVC participation is classified into the source of the value-added as incorporated in exports, looking both backward and forward from the view of a reference country. With distinct econometric techniques and empirical estimation strategies, our empirical results document a negative association between GESs and GVC, including backward and forward linkages. This marginal effect of sanction on backward GVC is more sizable than those on forward GVC. Furthermore, the GES-GVC nexus is only evident in the case of developing countries, while the effects of sanctions are found to be small or statistically insignificant in the developed countries. However, these marginal effects of sanctions become less sizable if the target country develops a well-developed institutional system.
Diarrhea remains a significant cause of child morbidity and mortality in Iraq. The objective of this study was to examine the current practices of home-based management of diarrheal illnesses among Iraqi children. We surveyed mothers of children aged less than 5 years to identify the sociodemographic factors associated with maternal healthcare-seeking practices. A total of 500 mother-child pairs were interviewed in a cross-sectional household survey in Thi-Qar Governorate, southeastern Iraq, between March 2016 and February 2017. Logistic and multinomial regression models were used to infer sociodemographic predictors of the healthcare-seeking and alternative management practices adopted by the mothers. The interviewees reported that 35.2% of their children had diarrhea in the 2 weeks before the survey. The least likelihood of reported occurrence of diarrhea was among mother-child pairs where the mothers had received university education, as compared with mothers who were illiterate or received only primary or secondary education. Lower odds (odds ratio = 0.4, P-value < 0.001) of reported childhood diarrhea was revealed among mothers aged > 25 years than among those younger. Self-ordered medicine from a pharmacy was the most preferred alternative management option in almost half (52.4% [262/500]) of the interviewed mothers in Thi-Qar. Interestingly, 69.6% (348/500) of the mothers reported supplying their children suffering from diarrhea with antibiotics. Relative to mothers with university education, those with high school education had more likelihood of selecting medical center (relative risk ratio [rrr] = 2.4) and pharmacy (rrr = 3.7) as against no treatment. Lower maternal educational level, mothers' age < 25 years, and the district of residence were important factors associated with diarrhea occurrence among children younger than 5 years. In light of the findings from this study, intervention aimed at improving healthcare seeking for managing diarrhea in Iraqi children should jointly consider the influence of mothers age, education, as well as the level of economic status of the communities in which mothers of these children reside. The results of this study indicate the need for enhancing public health education to improve the maternal management of diarrheal disease and the avoidance of unnecessary use of antimicrobials.
Policymakers employ economic sanctions to deal with a wide range of international challenges, making them an indispensable foreign policy tool. While scholarship on sanctions has tended to focus on the factors affecting their success, newer research programs have emerged that explore the reasons for why sanctions are threatened and initiated, the ways they are designed and enforced, and their consequences. This scholarship has yielded a wealth of new insights into how economic sanctions work, but most of those insights are based on sanctions observations from the 20th Century. The ways that policymakers employ sanctions have fundamentally changed over the past two decades, though, raising concerns about whether historically derived insights are still relevant to contemporary sanctions policies. In this forum, the contributors discuss the scholarly and policy-relevant insights of existing research on sanctions and then explore what gaps remain in our knowledge and new trends in sanctions policymaking. This forum will inform readers on the state of the art in sanctions research and propose avenues for future research.
This paper examines how the spatial distribution of economic activity evolved within North Korea during a period of economic sanctions. Countries have used economic sanctions to isolate North Korea from the benefits of international trade and finance. China, however, has not imposed the sanctions, and consequentially has offset the trade restrictions imposed by other countries. I hypothesize three channels by which North Korea could have responded in this context: regional favoritism by the ruling elites, reallocation of commerce that reflects the trade diversion to China, and import substitution. Using nighttime lights from North Korea, I find that the capital city, trade hubs near China, and manufacturing cities become relatively brighter when sanctions increase. However, production shifts away from capital-intensive goods, potentially deterring industrial development. The results imply that despite the intention to target the ruling elites, sanctions may increase regional inequality at a cost to the already marginalized hinterlands.
The article examines the impact of anti-Russian sanctions and response measures on the agro-production in terms of identifying the benefits and costs of imposing a food embargo. It is emphasized that, in the context of the policy of "smart sanctions", the goal of retaliatory measures should be to create conditions for maximizing public welfare. The reality and analysis and calculations carried out, however, show the disaster of the embargo in relation to the consumption of meat and meat processing products for the "ordinary consumer". Based on the dynamics of the caloric index, the socioeconomic consequences of the one-sidedness of autarkic measures are shown. The conditions for ensuring food security under the conditions of the food embargo are schematically presented and the consequences of the existing embargo policy on the basis of statistical data for the consumption of meat products are calculated. It is shown that the growth in prices played a key role in the dynamics of the cost volume, and structural changes were associated with the further growth of large agricultural organizations in the structure of the industry. In conclusion, recommendations are offered in the field of institutional design for the improvement of economic policy.
‘Responsibility to protect’ (R2P) is an ‘emerging norm’ of international relations, which has been invoked with the intervention in Libya in 2011. Even though this intervention was demanded by several Third World countries and organisations, these have subsequently had second thoughts about the matter and have come to regard R2P as Western neo-imperialism. This article seeks to explain this apparent paradox, with a special focus on India. It also identifies possible compromises by advocating a broader approach to R2P, stressing the responsibility to prevent and to rebuild. It also draws attention to ‘R2P lite’, including the protection of civilians in armed conflicts.
In this paper, we analyze the effect of US economic sanctions on the target countries' poverty gap during the period 1982-2011. Econometrically, we employ a matching approach to account for differences in the countries' economic and political environment and the likelihood of being exposed to US sanctions. Our results indicate that US sanctions are adversely affecting those living in poverty as we observe a 3.8 percentage point (pp) larger poverty gap in sanctioned countries compared to a control group that is as close as possible in terms of observable pretreatment characteristics. In addition, we show that the impact of sanctions on poverty (i) increases with the severity of sanctions, (ii) is larger for multilateral sanctions than for unilateral sanctions imposed by only the United States, and (iii) is long-lasting as the poverty gap increases over the first 21 years of a sanction regime.
This chapter considers the intersection of the Rule of Proportionality with demographic expertise. The concept of just war is reviewed and its application to prospectively choosing targets is examined. The author presents a framework for estimating excess deaths caused by war in a population, and discusses methodological and data issues surrounding such estimations. Work on the 1991 Persian Gulf War is presented to illustrate the application of the framework. Finally, the Rule of Proportionality is revisited, and a discussion of the application of demographic expertise and tools to the Rule of Proportionality are presented.
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss international law’s role in humanizing economic sanctions. The chapter is divided in three sections in which the legal argument is viewed from different but mutually reinforcing angles. In Section 10.1 the complete lifecycle of sanctions is presented to chart the comprehensive possibilities for legal argumentation during different phases of that lifecycle. A basic concept map is used as a methodological tool and it is complemented with a textual description. The legal phenomena are presented on a macro level and, hence, remain general. Nonetheless, they are a relevant part of the comprehensive contextual understanding, which is necessary when building a legal defense against sanctions. In Section 10.2, attention is paid to one specific phase during the sanctions lifecycle: sanctions amounting to human rights violations. Human suffering caused by sanctions often goes unnoticed to the general public. International law has some potential to correct the greatest human wrongs in this context, and the European Courts recent jurisprudence in the field of procedural justice is a step in this direction. However, a judge has yet to take the step of protecting all fundamental rights. In Section 10.3, some thoughts are evoked in support of the European Judge protecting all fundamental rights, such as right to life, right to a living, free pursuit of economic development, freedom from hunger, as well as right to highest standard of physical and mental health. The focus is on the European value community, which underlies all legal deliberations. It is the task of this community to set the limits on acceptable violence and acceptable human harm in Europe and for European actions abroad. Values protecting the State and values protecting the human being easily collide when sanctions are concerned. The European Judge has a formidable position to consolidate the defense of humans’ rights in Europe and elsewhere.
To aid program comprehension, programmers choose identifiers for methods, classes, fields and other program elements primarily by following naming conventions in software. These software “naming conventions” follow systematic patterns which can convey deep natural language clues that can be leveraged by software engineering tools. For example, they can be used to increase the accuracy of software search tools, improve the ability of program navigation tools to recommend related methods, and raise the accuracy of other program analyses. After splitting multi-word names into their component words, the next step to extracting accurate natural language information is tagging each word with its part of speech (POS) and then chunking the name into natural language phrases. State-of-theart approaches, most of which rely on “traditional POS taggers” trained on natural language documents, do not capture the syntactic structure of program elements. In this paper, we present a POS tagger and syntactic chunker for source code names that takes into account programmers' naming conventions to understand the regular, systematic ways a program element is named. We studied the naming conventions used in Object Oriented Programming and identified different grammatical constructions that characterize a large number of program identifiers. This study then informed the design of our POS tagger and chunker. Our evaluation results show a significant improvement in accuracy(11%-20%) of POS tagging of identifiers, over the current approaches. With this improved accuracy, both automated software engineering tools and developers will be able to better capture and understand the information available in code.
Recent trends in the use of air power by the United States have given rise to a striking paradox. Although better technology allows air campaigns to be more discriminating, and norms against directly targeting civilians remain strong, some Air Force thinking—including the ascendancy of “effects-based” targeting—evince a growing willingness to target civilian infrastructure in an attempt to undermine popular support for the war effort. In this article, I trace the development of this trend, discuss its effects in recent conflicts, and examine its legal and ethical implications. I conclude that such “duress bombing” is neither consistent with the requirements of international law nor ethically defensible along the lines proposed by its advocates. Moreover, it is almost certain to incur political costs that would prove self-defeating for the nation that embraces it.
After decades of war, sanctions, and occupation, Iraq's health services are struggling to regain lost momentum. Many skilled health workers have moved to other countries, and young graduates continue to leave. In spite of much rebuilding, health infrastructure is not fully restored. National development plans call for a realignment of the health system with primary health care as the basis. Yet the health-care system continues to be centralised and focused on hospitals. These development plans also call for the introduction of private health care as a major force in the health sector, but much needs to be done before policies to support this change are in place. New initiatives include an active programme to match access to health services with the location and needs of the population.
Children are increasingly exposed to armed conflict and targeted by governmental and nongovernmental combatants. Armed conflict directly and indirectly affects children's physical, mental, and behavioral health. It can affect every organ system, and its impact can persist throughout the life course. In addition, children are disproportionately impacted by morbidity and mortality associated with armed conflict. A children's rights-based approach provides a framework for collaboration by the American Academy of Pediatrics, child health professionals, and national and international partners to respond in the domains of clinical care, systems development, and policy formulation. The American Academy of Pediatrics and child health professionals have critical and synergistic roles to play in the global response to the impact of armed conflict on children.
Increased malnutrition and morbidity among Iraqi children after the onset of the Persian Gulf war have been reported by several fact-finding missions. The magnitude of the effect of the war and the economic embargo on child mortality remains uncertain, however.
We conducted a survey of 271 clusters of 25 to 30 households each, chosen as a representative sample of the Iraqi population. The households were selected and the interviews conducted by an international team of public health professionals independent of Iraqi authorities. In each household all women 15 to 49 years of age were interviewed, and the dates of birth and death of all children born on or after January 1, 1985, were recorded.
The study population included 16,076 children, 768 of whom died during the period surveyed (January 1, 1985, to August 31, 1991). The age-adjusted relative mortality for the period after the war began, as compared with the period before the war, was 3.2 (95 percent confidence interval, 2.8 to 3.7). No material change in the relative risk was observed after adjustment for region of residence, maternal education, and maternal age. The increase in mortality after the onset of the war was higher among children 1 to less than 12 months old (relative risk, 4.1; 95 percent confidence interval, 3.3 to 5.2) and among those 12 to less than 60 months old (relative risk, 3.8; 95 percent confidence interval, 2.6 to 5.4) than among those less than 1 month old (relative risk, 1.8; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.4 to 2.4). The association between the war and mortality was stronger in northern Iraq (relative risk, 5.3) and southern Iraq (relative risk, 3.4) than in the central areas (relative risk, 1.9) or in Baghdad (relative risk, 1.7).
These results provide strong evidence that the Gulf war and trade sanctions caused a threefold increase in mortality among Iraqi children under five years of age. We estimate that more than 46,900 children died between January and August 1991.
Although much has been written about the Gulf conflict, comparatively little attention has been paid to the medical aspects of the conflict and to the overall balance between the costs and benefits. As the situation continues to evolve in Iraq it becomes clearer that some of the short term effects of the war given so much publicity will be overshadowed by the medium and long term adverse consequences. The overall balance between the costs and benefits of war has to be assessed in terms of its impact on human health, human rights, the environment, the economy, and the long term political balance in the region. This paper considers primarily the impacts on health but also touches on other fields.
Since 1983, war in Nicaragua has slowed improvements in health which had developed rapidly from 1979-82. The rate of war-related deaths among Nicaraguans now exceeds that of the United States citizens in either the Vietnam War or World War II. Forty-two of the 84 documented war-related casualties among Nicaraguan health workers have been deaths. This high case fatality rate reflects the targeting of health workers by contra troops. The number of staff and services of the public medical system decreased by approximately 10 per cent from 1983 to 1985. Population movements, the establishment of new settlements, and war-related destruction of the primary health infrastructure are associated with recent epidemics of malaria, dengue, measles, and leishmaniasis. The estimated rate of infant mortality in Nicaragua, which had declined from 120 per 1,000 in 1978 to 76/1,000 live births in 1983, has since shown no further decline. Internationally mandated protections enjoyed by civilians and health workers during times of war do not appear to operate in this so-called "low intensity" conflict. Further declines in infant mortality, prevention of epidemics, and improvement in other health indicators will likely await the cessation of military hostilities.
"A survey is given of the use of modern statistical techniques in event history analysis, and in particular in the study of multi-state life-tables in demography. Emphasis is placed on the interplay between partial likelihood and nonparametric maximum likelihood based methods, a) when analysing semi-Markov models or models with repeated spells, and b) in frailty models for unobservable heterogeneity."
As the challenge of preventing military conflict has become increasingly complex in the post-Cold War era, economic sanctions are being applied with growing frequency. Sanctions are also being used to enforce international law, to deter aggression and terrorism, to defend democracy and human rights, and to prevent nuclear proliferation. This study addresses questions about the utility, appropriateness and success or failure of sanctions, as well as their impact on the poor and innocent. Specific case studies, focusing on recent conflicts such as those in Haiti, Iraq, South Africa and the former Yugoslavia, demonstrate the principal aspects of economic sanctions.
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
More than 30 million refugees and internally displaced persons in developing countries are currently dependent on international relief assistance for their survival. Most of this assistance is provided by Western nations such as the United States. Mortality rates in these populations during the acute phase of displacement have been extremely high, up to 60 times the expected rates. Displaced populations in northern Ethiopia (1985) and southern Sudan (1988) have suffered the highest crude mortality rates. Although mortality rates have risen in all age groups, excess mortality has been the greatest in 1- through 14-year-old children. The major causes of death have been measles, diarrheal diseases, acute respiratory tract infections, and malaria. Case-fatality ratios for these diseases have risen due to the prevalence of both protein-energy malnutrition and certain micronutrient deficiencies. Despite current technical knowledge and resources, several recent relief programs have failed to promptly implement essential public health programs such as provision of adequate food rations, clean water and sanitation, measles immunization, and control of communicable diseases. Basic structural changes in the way international agencies implement and coordinate assistance to displaced populations are urgently needed.(JAMA. 1990;263:3296-3302)
In Reply.
— We are sorry that Dr Glatt was offended, but we defend the methods used in our article, which was an overview of 200 years of warfare, with only limited space devoted to World War II. The point of Table 4 was to highlight the increase in war-related deaths among civilians, including captive civilian populations, which has occurred in the 20th century. More than 33 million war-related deaths occurred among civilians in World War II (Table 4), which include 6 million Jews killed in the Holocaust.Glatt calls the destruction of European Jewry "the single most barbaric episode in the history of humankind." We agree with his assessment. However, the vast majority of these deaths would not have occurred outside the context of war. Our analysis was intended to show that the indirect effects of warfare on civilians are increasing rapidly. These conclusions are not altered whether the
The analysis of censored failure times is considered. It is assumed that on each individual are available values of one or more explanatory variables. The hazard function (age-specific failure rate) is taken to be a function of the explanatory variables and unknown regression coefficients multiplied by an arbitrary and unknown function of time. A conditional likelihood is obtained, leading to inferences about the unknown regression coefficients. Some generalizations are outlined. LIFEtables are one of the oldest statistical techniques and are extensively used by medical statisticians and by actuaries. Yet relatively little has been written about their more formal statistical theory. Kaplan and Meier (1958) gave a comprehensive review of earlier work and many new results. Chiang in a series of papers has, in particular, explored the connection with birth-death processes; see, for example, Chiang (1968). The present paper is largely concerned with the extension of the results of Kaplan and Meier to the comparison of life tables and more generally to the incorporation of regression-like arguments into life-table analysis. The arguments are asymptotic but are relevant to situations where the sampling fluctuations are large enough to be of practical importance. In other words, the applications are more likely to be in industrial reliability studies and in medical statistics than in actuarial science. The procedures proposed are, especially for the two-sample problem, closely related to procedures for combining contingency tables; see Mantel and Haenzel (1959), Mantel (1963) and, especially for the application to life tables, Mantel (1966). There is also a strong connection with a paper read recently to the Society by R. and J. Peto (1972). We consider a population of individuals; for each individual we observe either the time to "failure" or the time to ccloss" or censoring. That is, for the censored individuals we know only that the time to failure is greater than the censoring time. Denote by T a random variable representing failure time; it may be discrete or continuous. Let F(t) be the survivor function, %(t) = pr (T2 t)
Although warfare is thought to be responsible for high and increasing levels of morbidity and mortality in the modern era, little comparative epidemiologic research is available on the subject. Most research on past wars has been carried out for purposes of military planning. The present report provides an overview of the direct health impacts of various wars on military and civilian populations during the last 200 years. Risk factors for injury and death are analyzed. Changes in weaponry, military strategy, and medical services are found to modify the health effects of warfare.
(JAMA. 1991;266:688-692)
At the request of UNICEF, the authors conducted a rapid nutritional assessment of children from birth to five years of age in southern Iraq during the second half of June 1991. With support from local UNICEF staff, the nutrition team examined 680 children, measuring weight, height, and mid-upper arm circumference and observing clinical signs of anemia, vitamin A deficiency, and dehydration. These measurements and observations were performed in 14 rural, urban, and periurban settings in Basrah and Amarah governorates. Evidence of both acute and chronic malnutrition was found in large numbers of the children examined. However, the acute nutritional signs of impending famine were not evident at the time of the survey. This is true notwithstanding epidemic levels of infectious disease, market prices for basic food items three to 20 times prewar levels, and a reported crisis in mothers' ability to breastfeed. Other signs of impending famine (distress sales of family assets, disintegration of social structures, etc.) may have existed, but were not evident to the team.
Available in OSO: http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/public/content/economicsfinance/0198281935/toc.html
The traditional and external dependency of most Latin American economies and their recent pattern of growth has made them particularly vulnerable to the unexpected and severe changes of the world economy that began in 1979–1980. Even those countries with less open economies have been forced to seek adjustments to the new world situation that are, both in nature and consequences, essentially different from those of the interdependent industrial economies.This paper attempts to evaluate the impact of these recent economic changes on the living conditions of the populations of Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Panama and Venezuela. It is based on household data and is limited to those aspects of household living conditions that can be observed through the variables included in labour surveys. It analyses changes in overall income distribution, the movement of different socio-economic groups within the income pyramid and changes in these groups' livelihood strategies.
The decade following the Islamic revolution in Iran is surveyed from the point of view of the various ways in which the repressive policies of the new regime and, from September 1980, the war with Iraq affected health professionals, medical education and publishing, health services and living conditions. Sources consulted include publications from inside and outside the country, by apologists for and opponents of the regime, and a variety of commentators. Topics studied in more detail are the campaign against drug abuse, the cultural revolution in the universities, the country's leading English-language medical journal, wartime conditions, and the society in the aftermath of the conflict. As well as predating and outlasting the war, the unfavourable climate of repression is seen to have exacerbated its effects in many ways. The population has displayed considerable resilience in the face of overwhelming odds, but the overall picture cannot give much grounds for optimism with regard to either their physical or mental well-being in the future. Particular cause for concern is the profound damage and prolonged neglect sustained by the most basic preconditions for health and medical care.
Although warfare is thought to be responsible for high and increasing levels of morbidity and mortality in the modern era, little comparative epidemiologic research is available on the subject. Most research on past wars has been carried out for purposes of military planning. The present report provides an overview of the direct health impacts of various wars on military and civilian populations during the last 200 years. Risk factors for injury and death are analyzed. Changes in weaponry, military strategy, and medical services are found to modify the health effects of warfare.
More than 30 million refugees and internally displaced persons in developing countries are currently dependent on international relief assistance for their survival. Most of this assistance is provided by Western nations such as the United States. Mortality rates in these populations during the acute phase of displacement have been extremely high, up to 60 times the expected rates. Displaced populations in northern Ethiopia (1985) and southern Sudan (1988) have suffered the highest crude mortality rates. Although mortality rates have risen in all age groups, excess mortality has been the greatest in 1- through 14-year-old children. The major causes of death have been measles, diarrheal diseases, acute respiratory tract infections, and malaria. Case-fatality ratios for these diseases have risen due to the prevalence of both protein-energy malnutrition and certain micronutrient deficiencies. Despite current technical knowledge and resources, several recent relief programs have failed to promptly implement essential public health programs such as provision of adequate food rations, clean water and sanitation, measles immunization, and control of communicable diseases. Basic structural changes in the way international agencies implement and coordinate assistance to displaced populations are urgently needed.
The community-based Iraq Infant and Child Mortality and Nutrition Survey was designed to estimate mortality and nutritional status of Iraqi infants and children under five years of age after the Gulf conflict of 1991. This article presents results from a nationwide nutritional survey conducted between August 25 and September 5, 1991.
A random multistage cluster sample was selected, including a subsample of 2676 children in the anthropometric analysis. The percentage below -2 standard deviations was 21.8% for height-for-age, 11.9% for weight-for-age, and 3.4% for weight-for-height. It is possible that the observed prevalence of wasting was an underestimate, resulting from a survivor bias. This observation suggests that cross-sectional nutritional surveys may not be the most appropriate method for assessing the effect of the Gulf conflict on the nutritional status of children in Iraq. Longitudinal information on child mortality and nutritional status would be more useful in predicting the likelihood of famine.
Embargoes and sanctions are tools of foreign policy. They can induce a decline in economic activity in addition to reducing imports and untoward health effects can supervene, especially among older persons and those with chronic illnesses. Often, violations of the rights of life, health, social services, and protection of human dignity occur among innocent civilians in embargoed nations. This paper examines the effects of embargoes and sanctions against several nations, and calls for studies to determine ways in which economic warfare might be guided by the rule of humanitarian international law, to reduce the effects on civilians. It suggests that the ability to trade in exempted goods and services should be improved, perhaps by establishing uniform criteria and definitions for exemptions, operational criteria under which sanctions committees might function, and methods for monitoring the impact of sanctions on civilian populations in targeted states, particularly with regard to water purity, food availability, and infectious-disease control. Prospective studies are advocated, to generate the data needed to provide better information and monitoring capacity than presently exists.
Sanctions work: the historical record
- K Elliott
- G Hufbauer
- J Schott
Elliott K, Hufbauer G, Schott J. Sanctions work: the historical record. In: Sifry M, Cerf C, eds. The Gulf War Reader: History, Documents, Opinions. New York, NY: Times Books; 1991 1990.
Sanctions in Haiti: Crisis in Humanitarian Action
- G Berggren
- S Castle
- L Chen
- W Fitzgerald
- C Michaud
- M Simunovic
Berggren G, Castle S, Chen L, Fitzgerald W, Michaud C, Simunovic M. Sanctions in Haiti: Crisis in Humanitarian Action. Boston, Mass: Harvard School of Public Health, Program on Human Security; November 1993. Working Paper Series.
resolutions: the complete text In: Sifry M, Cerf C, eds. The Gulf War Reader: History, Documents, Opinions
- United Nations
- U N The
United Nations. The U.N. resolutions: the complete text. In: Sifry M, Cerf C, eds. The Gulf War Reader: History, Documents, Opinions. New York, NY: Times Books; 1991/1990:137–156.
The drift to war (testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee
- Z Brzezinski
Brzezinski Z. The drift to war (testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, December 5, 1990). In: Sifry M, Cerf C, eds. The Gulf War Reader: History, Documents, Opinions. New York, NY: Times Books; 1991 1990.
Health effects of the war against Nicaragua
- Rm Garfield
- T Frieden
- Vermund
Garfield RM, Frieden T, Vermund SH. Health effects of the war against Nicaragua. Am J Public Health. 1987;77:615–618.
The Yugoslav economy under sanctions
- M Unjovic
Unjovic M. The Yugoslav economy under sanctions. Rev Int Aff. 1993;94(1):4–5.
Maternal and Childhood Mortality Survey . N.p.: UNICEF, Regional Office for the Middle East and North Africa
- Unicef Iraq
- Immunization
- Diarrhoeal
UNICEF. Iraq Immunization, Diarrhoeal Disease, Maternal and Childhood Mortality Survey. N.p.: UNICEF, Regional Office for the Middle East and North Africa; 1990. Evaluation Series, No. 9.
Child Survival in Wartime: A Case Study From Iraq
- J Sayegh
Sayegh J. Child Survival in Wartime: A Case
Study From Iraq 1983–1989 [research report].
Baltimore, Md: Department of Population
Dynamics, Johns Hopkins School of Public
Health; 1992.
Functions of survival time
- E Lee
Lee E. Functions of survival time. In: Bogue D, et al., eds. Readings in Population Research Methodology, Volume 6: Advanced Basic Tools. Chicago, Ill: Social Development Center ; 1980.
Taking international law seriously
- M Kinsley
Kinsley M. Taking international law seriously. In: Sifry M, Cerf C, eds. The Gulf War Reader: History, Documents, Opinions. New York, NY: Times Books; 1991:221–224.
Economic Sanctions: Effectiveness as Tools of Foreign Policy
- Us General
- Office
US General Accounting Office. Economic Sanctions: Effectiveness as Tools of Foreign Policy. Washington, DC: US General Account-ing Office; 1992
Give sanctions a chance (testimony before the Senate Armed Services Committee The Gulf War Reader: History, Documents, Opinions
- Aw Crowe
- Jr
Crowe AW Jr. Give sanctions a chance (testimony before the Senate Armed Services Committee, November 28, 1990). In: Sifry M, Cerf C,
eds. The Gulf War Reader: History, Documents,
Opinions. New York, NY: Times Books; 1991.
Economic Sanctions: Ideas and Experiences
- M A Doudi
- M S Dajan
Doudi MA, Dajan MS. Economic Sanctions:
Ideas and Experiences. Boston, Mass: Routledge & Kegan; 1993.
Economic Sanctions: Panacea or Peacebuilding in a Post-Cold War World
- D Reuther
- Un
- Iraq
Reuther D. UN sanctions against Iraq. In: Cortright D, Lopez G, eds. Economic Sanctions:
Panacea or Peacebuilding in a Post-Cold War
World? San Francisco, Calif: Westview Press;
1995.
Scope of United States economic measures
- M Krinsky
- D Golove
Krinsky M, Golove D. Scope of United States
economic measures. In: Krinsky M, Golove D,
eds. United States Economic Measures Against
Cuba: Proceedings in the United Nations and
International Law Issues. Northhampton,
Mass: Alethia Press; 1993:85–134.
Give sanctions a chance (testimony before the Senate Armed Services Committee
- A W Crowe
Economic Sanctions: Panacea or Peacebuilding in a Post-Cold War World
- D Reuther