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Signature Murders: A Report of the 1984 Cranbrook, British Columbia Cases
Abstract
Two females, Denean Worms and Brenda Hughes, were murdered in separate events in Cranbrook, British Columbia in 1984 within three months of each other. Terrence Wayne Burlingham was found guilty of both murders and he appealed. The Supreme Court of Canada granted Burlingham a new trial in the Worms case, but no evidence from Burlingham's confession nor the murder weapon could be used. The Crown counsel requested an evaluation of the two murders to determine if they were committed by the same person. The analyses of those murders revealed that they were linked by a personal "signature" of the killer. The murder cases reported here demonstrate a control-oriented signature. The killer used a .410 shotgun as his method of control and death, engaged in overkill of each victim by shooting them twice in the head, and left the victims in sexually degrading positions. Another signature feature was the absence of typical wounds to the victims which would be expected from a serial sex offender. All of these characteristics, in combination, accounted for this killer's personal expression.
... It is this signature that is used in order to conduct a signature analysis; the crimes suggested to be linked are assessed in order to consider whether they contain the same "signature," the same set of behaviours indicative of an offender's inner desires. Keppel (1995Keppel ( , 2000a has described a number of case studies in order to demonstrate the identification of a signature during CLA, including one in Canada (Keppel, 2000b), looking for the same underlying theme while also accounting for an offender's escalation, which could result in the evolution of the specific signature behaviours. ...
... The second is "multivariate behavioural linkage," using databases of behaviours to establish the commonality of one or more specific behaviours in combination, and thus their utility in linking crimes. Similar database usage has been highlighted by Keppel (2000b), noting that searches can be run on the Homicide Investigation Tracking System (a Washington database of sexual assaults and murders) to determine behaviour frequency. Godwin (2000) also highlighted similar decision support systems designed to help police with the linkage process, often based on ANACAPA; "a tabulation process whereby all information considered relevant to an inquiry can be collated in chart form" (p. ...
... ViCLAS is typically used to search for potential links to an index offence/series and as such, although not specified, all three studies of the interrater reliability of ViCLAS coding make implicit reference to the practice of CCA. As noted above, Keppel (2000aKeppel ( , 2000b ...
Crime linkage has been the subject of increasing attention in academic research. Research has found support for the principles of behavioural consistency and distinctiveness, which underpin crime linkage, but this does not provide direct evidence as to whether crime linkage is useful in practice. This literature review draws together documentation that refers to the practice of crime linkage, from assessing analysts' efficacy, to discussing the usage of computerised tools to assist with the linkage process, to providing a comprehensive outline of the process itself. The implications of the amount and type of information currently available are discussed, including the variations in practice and terminology that were explored. Avenues for future investigation and the manner in which future research could be conducted are set out in a research agenda.
... Searches using crime scene behaviors can rely on aspects of an offender's modus operandi (MO), which is defined as a behavior or set of behaviors exhibited by the offender that allow him or her to successfully carry out the crime (Kangas, 2001; Martineau & Corey, 2008; Ressler, Burgess, & Douglas, 1988). However, because MO can change across an offender's crimes (Douglas & Munn, 1992), some analysts may also search for " behavioral signatures " (Gault, 2010; Keppel, 2000; Keppel, Weis, Brown, & Welch, 2005). Unlike MO, behavioral signatures are thought to be unnecessary for the successful completion of a crime but instead represent distinctive behaviors exhibited by an offender across his or her crimes to satisfy some psychological need (e.g., positioning a victim's body in a particularly degrading manner after death; Douglas & Munn, 1992). ...
... Albeit implicit, the third assumption made by some developers and users of crime linkage systems is that violent serial offenders will exhibit behaviors across their crimes that are relatively stable and distinctive when compared to behaviors exhibited by other offenders. This assumption is important because, as indicated above, MO behaviors and/or behavioral signatures often seem to be relied on for linking crimes (e.g., Gault, 2010; Kangas, 2001; Keppel, 2000; Keppel et al., 2005; Martineau & Corey, 2008; Ressler et al., 1988). For example, as Martineau and Corey (2008) state in their study of ViCLAS, " [W]hen an analyst identifies a number of cases that share significant behavioral similarities . . . the analyst will link the cases to form a potential series " (p. ...
... In contrast to MO, we are not aware of any empirical, published research that has examined the potential value of behavioral signatures for linking crimes (at least not using commonly accepted definitions of behavioral signatures; see Bateman & Salfati, 2007). Although case studies have been presented to support the idea that signature behaviors can be identified and used to link serious violent crimes (e.g., Douglas & Munn, 1992; Keppel, 1995 Keppel, , 2000 Keppel & Birnes, 1997; Keppel et al., 2005), such anecdotes may not be generalizable. Of course it might be possible to link crimes without relying on MO or behavioral signatures . ...
Computerized crime linkage systems are meant to assist the police in determining whether crimes have been committed by the same offender. In this article, the authors assess these systems critically and identify four assumptions that affect the effectiveness of these systems. These assumptions are that (a) data in the systems can be coded reliably, (b) data in the systems are accurate, (c) violent serial offenders exhibit consistent but distinctive patterns of behavior, and (d) analysts have the ability to use the data in the systems to link crimes accurately. The authors argue that there is no compelling empirical support for any of the four assumptions, and they outline a research agenda for testing each assumption. Until evidence supporting these assumptions becomes available, the value of linkage systems will remain open to debate.
... While MO can change over time and reflect the nature of the crime, signature characteristics remain stable and reflect the nature of offender. Although an offender's signature may evolve, the core features of the signature will remain constant (Douglas & Munn, 1992a;1992b;Douglas & Olshaker, 1997;Geberth, 1996;Keppel & Birnes, 1997;Keppel, 1995a;1995b;Keppel, 2000;2004). Signature analysis is a widely used crime scene assessment practice in the United States, and is the only crime scene assessment technique that is accepted in court testimony and appellate decisions (State of California v Cleophus Prince, 1992; State of Delaware v Steven B. Pennell, 1989;State of Louisiana v Nathanial Code, 1994;State of Washington v George Russell, 1994;Keppel & Weis, 1993a). ...
... Since the signature characteristics of a killer are known to be rare among murderers in general (Geberth, 1996;Keppel & Birnes, 1997;Keppel, 1995a;1995b;Keppel, 2000;2004), an analysis of all 3359 cases from the Homicide Investigation Tracking System (HITS) that occurred between 1981 and 1995 was conducted to determine the frequency in contemporary murders of the main characteristics observed in the Jack the Ripper murders. HITS is a computerized repository of all homicide cases for Washington State (Keppel & Weis, 1993a;1993b) which have occurred since 1981. ...
A number of females, commonly recognized as 11 victims, were murdered in separate events in Whitechapel, London between 1888 and 1891. An evaluation of the murders revealed that six of those murders were linked by a number of distinct, personal signature characteristics, including picquerism, overkill, incapacitation, domination and control, open and displayed, unusual body position, sexual degradation, mutilation, organ harvesting, specific areas of attack, preplanning and organization, and a combination of signature features. The signature characteristics observed in these infamous Jack the Ripper murders were compared to a 1981–1995 cohort of 3359 homicide cases from Washington State's HITS database. The analysis revealed that the signature displayed in six of the Whitechapel murders was extremely rare. There were only six records of female victims, one a prostitute, with probed, explored, or mutilated body cavities. There were only two cases, both females who were not prostitutes, where the body was left in an unusual position and body cavities were explored, probed, or mutilated. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... However, research suggests that perfect discriminators are unlikely to be found in the criminal context. Although claims have been made for the existence of such criminal 'signatures' [9,10] there are strong grounds for thinking they are likely to be rare and unlikely to be identifiable for very frequent crimes such as burglary [ l l ] . While some studies have found some degree of behavioural similarity across crimes committed by the same offender [1,2], the extensive literature on offender versatility [I21 suggests that high levels of behavioural similarity will not be categorically associated with linked offences. ...
... However, the level of overall accuracy obtained when using inter-crime distances and entry behaviours is not significantly greater than the level of accuracy obtained when using inter-crime distances alone (p0. 10). This result may seem at odds with the finding in the experimental sample, where the optimal regression model fit the data significantly better than the distance-only model. ...
This paper uses statistical models to test directly the police practice of utilising modus operandi to link crimes to a common offender. Data from 86 solved commercial burglaries committed by 43 offenders are analysed using logistic regression analysis to identify behavioural features that reliably distinguish between linked and unlinked crime pairs. Receiver operating characteristic analysis is then used to assign each behavioural feature an overall level of predictive accuracy. The results indicate that certain features, in particular the distances between burglary locations, lead to high levels of predictive accuracy. This study therefore reveals some of the important consistencies in commercial burglary behaviour. These have theoretical value in helping to explain criminal activity. They also have practical value by providing the basis for a diagnostic tool that could be used in comparative case analysis.
... According to some other authors, clear examples of overkill could be the following: a victim so brutally beaten with a blunt object to leave impressions all over the head; a neonate with blunt lesions on the cranium associated with several stabs in the neck and the thorax [18], as well as victims shot twice in the head [19,20]. ...
“Overkill” is characterized by the finding of excessive wounds on the victim’s body. Despite the large use of this term, it does not have a definition in the literature yet. Our study aimed to analyze the information related to the dynamics of overkill cases, collecting objective variables, and producing a profile of the players involved in this type of homicides. Data on 71 overkill cases from reports of the autopsies performed in the Section of Legal Medicine of the University of Rome Tor Vergata from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2020 were collected. The victims and the perpetrators of overkill shared similar characteristics: they were usually male aged between 20 and 50 years, more likely in the 20–35 years range; victims however also showed another age peak in the range 50–55 years. The type of damage can be linked to the sole action of a cold weapon or the simultaneous use of multiple harmful tools with no significant differences. The most common motive proved to be a dispute for futile reasons; however, in the case of a single perpetrator of the crime, the economic and passionate motives are as frequent as the previous one. Implications of the findings and avenues for future research are discussed.
... A victim brutally beaten with a blunt object to the point of leaving impressions all over her head, a neonate with blunt lesions on the cranium together with several stabs in the area of the neck and the thorax [8], as well as victims shot twice in the head are all clearer examples of overkill reported in the literature [9,10]. ...
The term overkill usually indicates the infliction of massive injuries by far exceeding the extent necessary to kill the victim. Only few articles or textbooks report this term that is mostly associated with sex-motivated homicides where injuries, generally stabbing, are directed to significant sexual parts of the body. The aim of this study is to shed light on the phenomenon of overkill by reviewing some cases personally analyzed by the authors from both a forensic pathology rather than forensic psychiatry views. The reported results coupled with the literature revision confirmed the importance of a complete analysis of all criminological elements for better defining overkill cases.
... *Bennell, C., Bloomfield, S., Emeno, K., & Musolino, E. (2013). Classifying serial sexual murder/murderers: An attempt to validate Keppel andWalter's (1999) model. Criminal Justice andBehavior, 40, 5-25. ...
In the 4 decades since offender profiling (OP) was established, hundreds of journal articles, books, book chapters, reports, and magazine articles have been published on the topic, and the technique has been used by countless law enforcement agencies around the globe. However, despite the popularity and extensive literature published on OP, very little is known about its evolution, current state, or findings of the field to date. Therefore, this study presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of 426 publications on OP from 1976 through 2016. Results of this systematic review suggest that there have been considerable improvements in the scientific rigor and self-assessment being conducted in the discipline, although in total, few studies have used a strong empirical approach to develop new profiles. Even fewer evaluations of the effectiveness of OP have been conducted. The first summary of offender profiles proposed for major crimes in OP literature is also presented, with results indicating some recurrent themes in profiles, but wide variations in the number, name, and description of the profiles often found. A meta-analysis of case linkage analysis research indicates that this area is statistically sophisticated, and has yielded moderate to strong accuracy rates for linking crimes to a single offender. Finally, the first analysis of the most prolific authors, researchers, departments, and outlets for OP research, and the methods, approach, and most cited publications in OP are identified. Suggestions for future research on OP and the potential impact that this may have on policy and practice are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
... The signature of the murderers, on the other hand, promises to be a more valuable criterion to capture the peculiarities of the perpetrator in terms of his personality and behavior. The term signature refers to unmistakable action sequences that appear to be of great relevance to the perpetrator but that have no clear strategic or rational function Keppel, 1995Keppel, , 2000. The signature acts are primarily an outcome of a perpetrator's pathological or neurotic personality structure and are frequently of a ritualistic nature. ...
The structure of crime-scene actions in Finnish homicides was analyzed using the theoretical distinction between instrumental and expressive aggression. Thirty-eight crime-scene actions were derived from the files of single-offender, single-victim Finnish homicides (N = 502). A multidimensional scaling procedure was used to investigate their structure. An expressive core indicating an emotional and impulsive attack without any indication of planning or post-mortem dealing with the body was found. Over 40% of the cases had no additional variables present. A distinction between expressive and instrumental types of aggression was observable in the rest of the crime-scene actions. The instrumental actions were further divided into subthemes indicating either a sexual or a resource-acquirement theme. Likewise, the expressive actions were divided into three subthemes, where the main emphasis had to do with the use of firearms, hiding and moving the body, and removing parts of the body.
... The signature of the murderers, on the other hand, promises to be a more valuable criterion to capture the peculiarities of the perpetrator in terms of his personality and behavior. The term signature refers to unmistakable action sequences that appear to be of great relevance to the perpetrator but that have no clear strategic or rational function Keppel, 1995Keppel, , 2000. The signature acts are primarily an outcome of a perpetrator's pathological or neurotic personality structure and are frequently of a ritualistic nature. ...
Recent literature suggests that different “styles” of homicide will most appropriately be reflected in the different types of behaviors committed by offenders at a crime scene. These distinctions, it has been proposed, can best be understood using an instrumental and expressive thematic framework to analyze the way the offender acts at the crime scene. Multidimensional analysis was carried out on the crime-scene actions of 210 Greek single-offender, single-victim stranger homicides, with the aim of replicating earlier studies. A multivariate structure resulted, encompassing both hypothesized themes, allowing 63% of the cases to be assigned to dominant styles. Results are discussed in terms of implications for cross-national similarities and differences in the thematic structure of homicide and in terms of future avenues for research.
... There are many other criminal databases such as the Washington State Homicide Investigation Tracking System (HITS). Keppel (2000) has used the HITS system to good effect, for example in showing what makes an offence more or less solvable. ...
The newly emerging area of Investigative Psychology provides a behavioural science basis for crime detection by examining investigative processes and criminal behaviour. It draws upon a range of material collected by law enforcement agencies that is not widely utilised in the social sciences. This may be regarded as a form of non- reactive, unobtrusive data that has many of the advantages originally promoted by Webb, Campbell, Schwartz and Sechrest (1966) and more recently explored by Lee (2000). The value of such data, derived from police sources, has been demonstrated in a variety of Investigative Psychology studies. However, law enforcement material is not usually collected as data but rather as evidence. Consideration is therefore given to how to address the challenges this poses. The unobtrusive measures derived from police investigations provide a different perspective on crime and other aspects of human actions from that based on more conventional sources of data such as questionnaires and interviews. To assist in the effective use of measures derived from police information a framework for considering this material is proposed reflecting the range of sources of measures that Lee (2000) identified; personal records, running records, physical traces, and simple observation. As in other areas, close attention to the methods of collecting such material can considerably improve its utility. The measures being utilized in Investigative Psychology therefore offer some fruitful directions for other areas of social science research. Development of these measures can also improve the effectiveness of
... Through the use of these three running records, Wechsler was able to identify relationships among suicide, depressive disorders, and community growth. Running records that are available to the police include a variety of sources such as the FBI's Uniform Crime Reports and criminal databases such as the Homicide Investigation Tracking System (Keppel, 2000). In an attempt to illustrate the utility of graphical methods in analysing homicide data, Maltz (1998) used running record data from the FBI's Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR). ...
This article explores how unobtrusive research methods popularized by Webb et al. (1966) can be utilized in forensic research. In particular, the value of the approach is considered with special reference to examining investigative processes and criminal behaviour. Webb et al.’s three non-reactive types of unobtrusive measures (physical traces, archival material and simple observation) are discussed in relation to a variety of types of material collected across the course of police enquiries. The breadth and variation of this material is emphasized with special consideration of its utility for research. We illustrate how the limitations and benefits identified by Webb et al. are echoed within the forensic domain and how close attention to the methods of collecting such material developed by researchers may improve the effectiveness of investigations.
... The signature of the murderers, on the other hand, promises to be a more valuable criterion to capture the peculiarities of the perpetrator in terms of his personality and behavior. The term signature refers to unmistakable action sequences that appear to be of great relevance to the perpetrator but that have no clear strategic or rational function Keppel, 1995Keppel, , 2000. The signature acts are primarily an outcome of a perpetrator's pathological or neurotic personality structure and are frequently of a ritualistic nature. ...
The total number of serial murderers who were convicted between 1945 and 1995 in the Federal Republic of Germany (N = 61) are described in terms of their characteristics, with reference to sociodemographics, family background, social integration, intellectual capability, and personality disorders. A comparison with a larger sample of German single murderers from a previous study shows that the serial perpetrators appear to constitute a particular class of homicide offenders. In particular, the serial murderers have a higher likelihood of personality disorder, cerebral anomalies, and offense premeditation and are more likely to have had no relationship with the victim prior to the offense. With respect to differentiation among serial murderers, differences become apparent between serial murderers whose offenses have a strong sexual component (n = 22) and the remainder of the sample. Finally, the limited capacity of modus operandi and signature for linking cases in ongoing investigations is discussed.
... The signature of the murderers, on the other hand, promises to be a more valuable criterion to capture the peculiarities of the perpetrator in terms of his personality and behavior. The term signature refers to unmistakable action sequences that appear to be of great relevance to the perpetrator but that have no clear strategic or rational function Keppel, 1995Keppel, , 2000. The signature acts are primarily an outcome of a perpetrator's pathological or neurotic personality structure and are frequently of a ritualistic nature. ...
There has been little systematic information presented about homicides in the Netherlands. To address this scarcity of literature, an exploratory, descriptive survey of all homicides in 1998 in the Netherlands is presented. Following the tradition of classic U.S. studies, characteristics of offenders, victims, and characteristics of homicide incidents are presented. After a description of the characteristics of the incident, the offender, and the victim, a number of relations between these characteristics are investigated. Suggestions are made for future research, especially complex analyses to determine more precise, and perhaps more meaningful, descriptions of homicide types.
Serial killers like Seattle's Ted Bundy, Maryland's Beltway Sniper, Atlanta's Wayne Williams, or England's Peter Sutcliffe usually outsmart the task forces on their trail for long periods of time. Keppel and Birnes take readers inside the operations of serial killer task forces to learn why. What is the underlying psychology of a serial killer and why this defeats task force investigations? This is the first book of its kind that combines state-of-the-art psychological assessment experience with the expertise of a homicide investigator who has tracked some of this country's most notorious serial killers. The author also brings to the book hands-on best practices gleaned from the experience of other task forces. Readers, both professionals and students, will benefit from the comprehensive and critical case reviews, the analysis of what went wrong, what went right, and the after-action recommendations of evaluators in the US, UK, and Canada. The book covers: The nature of the psychology of a serial killer. How crime assessment profiling reveals that psychology. Why psychological profiles fail. How serial killer task forces defeat themselves. How the media can, and usually does, undermine the task force operation. The big secret of all serial killer investigations: police already have the killer's name. The best practices for catching a serial killer.
This study examines the validity of a statistical offender profiling technique that predicts the multi-dimensional classification of homicide offenders. Analyzing 539 Japanese homicide cases, we constructed multivariate prediction models that infer classifications defined by three dichotomous variables (stranger offender, solo offender, money-oriented motive) on the basis of crime scene information. We evaluated the validity of the models with a 10-fold cross-validation procedure and a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, and found the models to have moderate accuracy (area under the curve [AUC] = .73 to .82). We discussed the results from the perspective of the offender’s rational choices in the crime scene and crime specialization.
Although many studies have been conducted on behavioral profiling of homicide offenders, none of these have empirically shown that this technique has scientific validity and solid accuracy. Based on data from 839 Japanese homicide cases, we constructed multivariate logistic regression models to infer offenders' characteristics of sex, age, stranger offender, criminal record, single offender, member of organized crime, and residential area. We evaluated validity with a tenfold cross-validation procedure and a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. The results indicated that the area under the ROC curve ranged from .70 to .87, suggesting moderate and sufficient accuracy. Such a multivariate approach would be useful to reduce costs and minimize errors in the early stages of an investigation, especially for jurisdictions that possess large homicide databases.
The contribution is devoted to the problem of typology of serial sexual killers. It gives ground to theoretical and practical importance of research of this problem. The typology of serial sexual killers proposed by O.D.Sitkovskiy and L.P.Konysheva was used as a basic model for the research. The results of research of personal and behavioral peculiarities of Russian criminals of the stated category are presented. The authors describe the main stages of testing the assumption that there are different types of serial sexual killers. The data on statistical verification of stable types of criminals which were identified through quality analysis is presented. The contribution briefly formulates the results of verification of the identified types through the use of cluster and discriminant analysis. Personal and behavioral characteristics which statistically validly differ among the representatives of different types of criminals are presented as a table. In the process of discussion of the results a hypothesis is made on which of the identified characteristics discriminate a specific type of criminal.
Keywords: serial sexual killer, typology, personal and behavioral peculiarities
The use of criminal profiling (CP) in criminal investigations has continued to increase despite scant empirical evidence that it is effective. To take stock of the CP field, a narrative review and a 2-part meta-analysis of the published CP literature were conducted. Narrative review results suggest that the CP literature rests largely on commonsense justifications. Results from the 1st meta-analysis indicate that self-labeled profiler/experienced-investigator groups did not outperform comparison groups in predicting offenders' cognitive processes, physical attributes, offense behaviors, or social habits and history, although they were marginally better at predicting overall offender characteristics. Results of the 2nd meta-analysis indicate that self-labeled profilers were not significantly better at predicting offense behaviors, but outperformed comparison groups when predicting overall offender characteristics, cognitive processes, physical attributes, and social history and habits. Methodological shortcomings of the data and the implications of these findings for the practical utility of CP are discussed.
The linking of a series of crimes to one individual has always been problematic, especially in the absence of eyewitness or forensic evidence. During the investigation, another means whereby this can be done is through linkage analysis. Yet a linkage analysis can also play a role during the trial of a serial offender. This paper examines the use of a linkage analysis report as evidence during the trial of the Newcastle serial murderer in South Africa. The linkage analysis examined the circumstances of the crime, modus operandi, and signature behaviour of the offender, to come to the conclusion that all the offences were committed by one individual, despite the lack of eyewitness or forensic evidence linking the suspect to two of the four incidents. This evidence was admitted by the court and the presiding officer concurred that the accused was guilty of committing the crimes during the third and fourth incidents. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Using archival records from the New York Times and the Chicago Tribune, 1851–1899, the current project examines the post-offence characteristics of 19th-century American parricides. Post-offence behaviours of 100 parricide offenders were gathered. Results indicate that post-offence behaviours of parricide offenders can be thematically classified into those that reflect a continuity of violence, attempts to cover up the crime, and unusual behaviours. The implications of post-offence behaviours of parricide offenders in the context of law, mental illness, and criminological theory are discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
There is no empirical research on solvability factors in murder investigations. This paper analyzes data collected in the first study to provide such, focusing specifically on the extent to which information on time and distance among locations of a murder incident are related to solvability. The results show that the more information on the times and distances separating where the victim was last seen, the location of the original contact between the victim and the killer, where the initial assault occurred, the murder site, and the body recovery site the more likely a murder case will be solved. These findings have profound implications for the management and conduction of murder investigations.