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Anthocyanin inheritance and instability in purple basil (Ocimum basilicum L.)

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Abstract

The instability of the purple pigments (anthocyanins) in purple basil varieties (Ocimum basilicum L.) limits their use as ornamental plants and as a potential anthocyanin source. Several self-pollinated generations of all purple plants were unsuccessful in stabilizing anthocyanin expression. In this study we investigated the inheritance and stability patterns of leaf traits using the Purple Ruffles variety. The results from the complete diallele crosses indicated anthocyanin expression in vegetative tissue is controlled by two dominant genes and ruffled leaf texture is controlled by a single recessive gene. Genes controlling leaf margin and leaf base structures were tightly linked to leaf texture. Essential oil production and oil constituents in leaves did not change as a result of the reversion in color. Color stability in cuttings was affected by the environment and the location where cuttings were taken. An accumulation of secondary metabolites (apigenin, genistein, and kaempferol) in green-reverted sectors on purple leaves was detected using reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis; this suggested a potential block in the anthocyanin pathway. We hypothesize the reversion mutation is occurring in an anthocyanin regulatory gene.

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... Simple genetic control has been reported for leaf color, including Brassica juncea (Luo et al. 2011), barberry (Cadic 1992), birch (Hattemer et al. 1990), copper beech (Heinze and Geburek 1995), castor bean (Anjani et al. 2007), Hypericum androsaemum (Olsen et al. 2006), hazelnut (Mehlenbacher and Smith 1995;Smith and Mehlenbacher 1996;Mehlenbacher and Thompson 1991;Thompson 1985), Malus (Alston et al. 2000), Paspalum (Bennett 1960) and pear (Lespinasse and Guerif 2011). The nuclear inheritance for purple-colored leaf was reported in rice (Kadam 1974), Brassica juncea (Luo et al. 2011) and Ocimum basilicum (Phippen and Simon 2000). Many genetic studies have shown that lobed leaf was controlled by a pair of alleles in species including Indian mustard (Singh et al. 1968), hibiscus (Mendiola 1926), roselle (Adamson 1983), kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.; Joyner and Pate 1956), Ipomoea bederacea (Elmore 1986), and mungbean (Talukdar and Talukdar 2003). ...
... (Kulakow et al. 1985). The inheritance of leaf color has been investigated in various plant species (Luo et al. 2011;Lespinasse Olsen et al. 2006;Branch 2001;Alston et al. 2000;Phippen and Simon 2000;Smith and Mehlenbacher 1996;Chaparro et al. 1995;Heinze and Geburek 1995;Chaparro et al. 1995;Cadic 1992;Mehlenbacher and Thompson 1991;Hattemer et al. 1990;Thompson 1985;Naragund et al. 1979;Bennett 1960). Genetic studies in Paspalum species (Bennett 1960), hazelnut (Smith and Mehlenbacher 1996;Mehlenbacher and Thompson 1991;Thompson 1985), barberry (Cadic 1992), Hypericum androsaemum (Olsen et al. 2006), and Malus (Alston et al. 2000) revealed that leaf colors are controlled by single recessive genes. ...
... In contrast, leaf colors of birch (Hattemer et al. 1990), copper beech (Heinze and Geburek 1995), and Brassica juncea (Luo et al. 2011) are controlled by single dominant genes. In genetic control of purple leaf, for example, anthocyanin expression of purple basil is dominant over the green leaf phenotype and is controlled by two genes (Phippen and Simon 2000). Duplicate factors, R1 and R2, are homologous recessive factors responsible for the absence of purple pigmentation in purple basil (Ocimum basilicum) (Naragund et al. 1979). ...
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Members of the genus Kalanchoe are morphologically diverse; this increases their commercial value. Understanding the genetic mechanism of development of morphological characters could contribute to parent screening and offspring selection in future breeding programs. In this study, we investigated the inheritance of leaf color, leaf shape, anther color, and flower orientation of Kalanchoe species or varieties. Kalanchoe garambiensis, K. garambiensis G., K. gracilis, K. spathulata, and K. manginii ‘Wendy’ were used as experimental parents to establish self and interspecific crosses. The separation ratios of the leaf and flower traits were analyzed using Chi square tests. The results showed that all progenies produced by selfing of K. garambiensis (purple leaf phenotype) had purple leaves, whereas those from selfing of K. garambiensis G. (green leaf phenotype) exhibited green and purple leaves at a ratio of approximately 3:1. The S1 and S2 populations of K. garambiensis G. exhibited an expected 3:1 ratio of leaf color, whereas the S3 populations produced all green leaf inbred lines. Reciprocal hybridization of the progenies of K. gracilis (deeply lobed leaf) with K. garambiensis G. (shallowly lobed leaf) resulted in a 1:1 ratio of shallowly lobed leaves to deeply lobed leaves. The progenies of the two cross combinations (K. garambiensis G. × K. manginii ‘Wendy’ and K. garambiensis × K. manginii ‘Wendy’) produced upright-type flowers and anthers having purplish red color. These findings suggested that leaf color, leaf shape, anther color, and flower orientation of Kalanchoe are controlled by a single pair of alleles. Green leaf, deeply loped leaves, purplish red anthers, and upright-type flowers were found to be dominant traits.
... Ocimum basilicum L. (O.B.) is a plant belonging to the Lamiaceae family that is widely cultivated and used as a culinary herb and a medicinal plant (Javanmardi et al. 2002). O.B.'s leaves contain high amounts of anthocyanins, which are pigments that have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (Phippen and Simon 2000;Flanigan and Niemeyer 2014). Furthermore, O.B.'s leaves contain a rich spectrum of bioactive compounds, including linalool, eugenol, and methyl chavicol (Stanojevic et al. 2017;Koroch, Simon, and Juliani 2017). ...
... In light of the behavioral test outcomes, our investigation highlights the therapeutic promise of O.B. extract in alleviating autistic-like behaviors in mouse models, thereby paving the way for promising future research. Recognizing the welldocumented anti-inflammatory and antioxidant virtues of O.B. (Phippen and Simon 2000;Flanigan and Niemeyer 2014), and considering the critical significance of neuroinflammation and OS in autism pathogenesis (Matta, Hill-Yardin, and Crack 2019;Liao et al. 2020;Pangrazzi, Balasco, and Bozzi 2020), our study extended to include biochemical and molecular assays. ...
Article
A confluence of genetic, environmental, and epigenetic factors shapes autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Early‐life stressors like MS play a contributing role in this multifaceted neurodevelopmental disorder. This research was to explore the efficacy of Ocimum basilicum L. (O.B.) extract in mitigating behaviors reminiscent of autism prompted by maternal separation (MS) stress in male mice, focusing on its impact on neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. MS mice were treated with O.B. extract at varying dosages (20, 40, and 60 mg/kg) from postnatal days (PND) 51–53 to PND 58–60. Behavioral experiments, including the Morris water maze, three‐chamber test, shuttle box, and resident‐intruder test, were conducted post‐treatment. The method of maternal separation involved separating the pups from their mothers for 3 h daily, from PND 2 to PND 14. Molecular analysis of hippocampal tissue was performed to assess gene expression of Toll‐like receptor 4 (TLR4), tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α), and interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β). Hippocampal and serum malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were measured. O.B. extract administration resulted in the amelioration of autistic‐like behaviors in MS mice, as evidenced by improved spatial and passive avoidance memories and social interactions, as well as reduced aggression in behavioral tests. O.B. extract attenuated oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, as indicated by decreased MDA and increased TAC levels, as well as downregulation of TLR4, TNF‐α, and IL‐1β expression in the hippocampus. O.B. extract may offer a novel therapeutic avenue for ASD, potentially mediated through its anti‐inflammatory and antioxidant properties.
... Leaf explants were used from basil as showed by Phippen and Simon (2000). Begum et al. (2002), Shahzad and Siddiqui (2000), Phippen and Simon (2000) showed that numerous in vitro researches have been directed on Ocimum genus, utilizing different explants, as axillary buds and leaf explants. ...
... Leaf explants were used from basil as showed by Phippen and Simon (2000). Begum et al. (2002), Shahzad and Siddiqui (2000), Phippen and Simon (2000) showed that numerous in vitro researches have been directed on Ocimum genus, utilizing different explants, as axillary buds and leaf explants. Yasmin et al. (2001), Sarkar and Biswas (2002), Shah et al. (2003), Farooq et al. (2004), Dahman et al. (2008), Noor et al. (2009) andRashid et al. (2009) studied different concentrations of 2, 4-D for callus induction. ...
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Ocimum basilicum L. sweet basil is native to India and Iran, an aromatic herb and perennial belong to the Lamiaceae family. This study was done at the Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Damanhour University, Egypt from 2019 to 2020. Developing stress tolerant plants using in vitro selection is an effective method; therefore, the purpose of this study was to detect the best concentration of phytohormones to produce embryogenic callus of Ocimum basilicum L. and study the effect of poly ethylene glycol (PEG) on embryogenic callus of basil.Leaf specimens of basil were cultured on MS medium (Murashige and Skoog) with concentration of auxin and cytokinin. A1 (2, 4-D at 0.5 mg/l), A2 (2, 4-D at 1.0 mg/l) and A3 (2, 4-D and BAP at 1.0 mg/l and 0.2 mg/l). Embryogenic callus of basil was sub cultured under normal and drought stress media containing different concentration of polyethylene glycol (PEG; M.W 4000) at 2, 5 and 10%. Results showed that medium A3 was the best medium of embryogenic callus induction. Also, the concentration of PEG at 5% was shown maximized callus survivability compared with the other PEG concentrations with no significant effect. This study adds new information on the effect of 5% PEG which showed the highest (positive) survivability of callus. The morphogenic of calluses on 5% PEG were yellowish, friable while the morphogenic of calluses on 10% PEG turned into brown.
... The germplasm lines, AOB-2, DOB-1, DOB-2, DOB-5 and DOB-8 depicted purple panicle colour, whereas AOB-3, AOB-5, DOB-3 and DOB-4 possessed greenish with purple top, light purple, purple green and greenish purple panicle colour, respectively. The variability of purple pigments in basil varieties is highly marketable for their use as ornamental and culinary purposes (Phippen and Simon, 2000). The AOB-2, AOB-5, DOB-2, DOB-3 and DOB-5 had bunchy panicle, while AOB-3, DOB-1 and DOB- 4 had individual panicle. ...
... The germplasm lines, AOB-2, DOB-1, DOB-2, DOB-5 and DOB-8 depicted purple panicle colour, whereas AOB-3, AOB-5, DOB-3 and DOB-4 possessed greenish with purple top, light purple, purple green and greenish purple panicle colour, respectively. The variability of purple pigments in basil varieties is highly marketable for their use as ornamental and culinary purposes ( Phippen and Simon, 2000). The AOB-2, AOB-5, DOB-2, DOB-3 and DOB-5 had bunchy panicle, while AOB-3, DOB-1 and DOB4 had individual panicle. ...
... In the sweet basil cultivars Dark Opal and Red Rubin, the purple color of leaves is attributable to constitutively elevated levels of anthocyanins (0.6-1.0 mg [g DW] -1 ), compared to the almost negligible concentrations (less than 0.05 mg [g DW] -1 ) found in green-leafed cultivars (Landi et al., 2013;Phippen and Simon, 2000). Polyphenols, including flavonoids and anthocyanins, can increase the antioxidant ability of plant species by quenching the reactive oxygen species (ROS) originated under stress conditions (Camacho-Cristóbal et al., 2002;Steyn et al., 2002;Kytridis and Manetas, 2006). ...
... It has been argued that, in order to scavenge oxy-radicals, anthocyanins should be located near the source of ROS production (e.g., chloroplasts) (Steyn et al., 2002). In purple basil, anthocyanins are localized in the epidermal cell layer of leaf, stem, and floral tissues (Phippen and Simon, 2000). Even though they are therefore not optimally located in relation to the chloroplast source of ROS, they may still contribute to ROS scavenging when free oxygen radicals move out this organelle (Kytridis and Manetas, 2006). ...
Article
This study was undertaken to investigate how different cultivars of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) responded to boron (B) excess. Two purple-leafed and eight green-leafed cultivars were hydroponically grown for 20 days with 0.2 or 20 mg L-1 B in the nutrient solution. Leaf B content, gas exchanges, chlorophyll a fluorescence and oxidative stress were determined at the end of the treatment along with the severity of leaf necrosis. A range of tolerance to B toxicity was found: the green cultivars were more susceptible than the purple-leaved ones characterized by a higher constitutive anthocyanin content. In all the genotypes B excess resulted in oxidative stress as determined by accumulation of malondialdehyde by-products (MDA), reduced photosynthesis and the occurrence of leaf burn. A close correlation was found between leaf B accumulation and oxidative stress, as well as between oxidative stress and the severity of leaf burn. Net photosynthesis (Pn) was reduced due to both stomatal and non-stomatal limitations in the green cultivars whereas the reduction of Pn in the purple leaves was only attributable to stomatal factors. Chlorophyll a fluorescence revealed a decrease in the maximum quantum yield of PSII (Fv/Fm) and in the electron transport rate (ETR) in plants grown with B excess although less reduction was observed in the purple genotypes. The quantum yield of PSII decreased as a result of B toxicity only the green cultivars. It is concluded that anthocyanins were likely involved in attenuation of the negative effects of B toxicity.
... Ocimum basilicum L. (basil) is a culinary herb of the Lamiaceae family. It is native of tropical zones of central Africa and southeast Asia, and it can be also found in Mediterranean region [9]. Basil can be infected by several phytopathogens, such as Fusarium sp. ...
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The rhizosphere is a rich source of actinomycetes which can produce several potential biologically active secondary metabolites. The principal goal for this research is to extract, purify, and characterize the bioactive secondary metabolites produced by three different strains of actinomycetes isolated from the rhizosphere of rosemary, black locust, and olive. The plant growth-promoting effect (PGPE) of the studied strains of actinomycetes on Ocimum basilicum L. (basil) and the disease-control effect on necrotic stem lesions of “black leg” caused by Fusarium tabacinum on basil were evaluated in silico. The cell-free culture filtrates from the studied actinomycetes isolates were evaluated in vitro for their antimicrobial activity against some common phytopathogens. The secondary metabolites obtained from the cell-free culture filtrates have been chemically characterized using high-resolution electrospray ionization of liquid-chromatography/mass-spectrometric detection (ESI-(HR)Orbitrap-MS). Results of the in silico trial showed that all studied isolates demonstrated PGPE on basil seedlings, improved some eco-physiological characteristics, and reduced the disease incidence of F. tabacinum. The extracted metabolites from the studied actinomycetes demonstrated antimicrobial activity in a Petri-plates assay. The chemical analysis revealed the presence of 20 different components. This research emphasizes how valuable the examined isolates are for producing bioactive compounds, indicating their putative antimicrobial activity and their potential employment as fungal biocontrol agents. In particular, the obtained results revealed the possibility of green synthesis of some important secondary metabolites, such as N-Acetyl-L-histidinol, Rhizocticin A, and Eponemycin, from actinomycetes. The bioactive metabolites may be successively used to develop novel bio-formulations for both crop protection and/or PGPE.
... Basil (Ocimum spp., Lamiaceae) contain a wide range of essential oils rich in phenolic compounds (Hussain, Anwar, Hussain-Sherazi, & Przybylski, 2008;Juliani & Simon, 2002;Phippen & Simon, 2000;Simon, Quinn, & Murray, 1990). Juliani & Simon, 2002, reported that among the essential oils extracted from the basil cultivars, the highest antioxidant activity was found in the sweet basil essential oils, with significantly lower activity observed in the essential oils from 'Dark Opal' and 'Osmin purple', and much lower activity in the 'Lemon', 'Purple Ruffles', Italian Large Leaf', 'Cinnamon', and 'Holy Basil' oils. ...
Article
This study was to evaluate the BHA and basil essential oil on the quality attributes of deep-fried sardine fillets and frying oil. The extent of lipid oxidation was monitored by measuring peroxide value (PV), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), TBA, and changes in free fatty acids. Sensory analysis and color values upon the frying period were also determined. PV, FFA, TBA, and TBARS values in fish fillets and frying oil have peaked and then decreased at the end of frying except for the control. BEO showed the highest sensory scores compared to others. As a result, it is not possible to make a clear judgment about the effect of the natural or synthetic antioxidants on all lipid oxidation products that may occur during frying both fish fillets and frying oil. This study suggests that secondary oxidation products in frying oil and the sensorial quality of fish fillets can be better controlled by using basil essential oil.
... In order to breed a new cultivar efficiently, it is effective to clarify the inheritance and expression patterns of the required traits. Although the inheritance of anthocyanin accumulation has been clarified in many vegetables, such as onion, radish, tomato, and basil (Asako et al., 2011;Hoshi et al., 1963;Jones et al., 2003;Khar et al., 2008;Phippen and Simon, 2000), the inheritance of red rhizome coloration in lotus has not been clarified. Moreover, the color of 'Tomohiro' rhizomes at the young elongation stage is white, and they turn red as they mature (based on our preliminary observation). ...
Article
Characteristics and inheritance of rhizome coloration in the red rhizome lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) ‘Tomohiro’ were investigated to achieve stable production and breeding of red rhizome cultivars. Rhizome coloration proceeded from the basal internodes to distal ones during the growing stage, and coloration of enlarged distal rhizomes was completed in October. No individuals with both red and white rhizomes in one plant were found, and there were no rhizomes with a mottled pattern or an intermediate color between red and white. The coloration of the skin and flesh was synchronized in red rhizome plants. It was therefore estimated that the skin and flesh coloration of rhizomes was controlled by the same gene. Rhizomes of all selfed plants of ‘Tomohiro’ and white rhizome cultivars were red and white, respectively, and all F1 plants generated by crossing ‘Tomohiro’ and white rhizome cultivars were white. Rhizome color in F2 plants generated by self-pollination of F1 plants divided into white and red individuals with a 3:1 ratio. These results suggested that red rhizome coloration is governed by a single locus, designated RHIZOME COLOR (RHC), with dominant white (Rhc) and recessive red (rhc) coloration alleles.
... Similar results were obtained for other indices under study (the data are not provided). This can be attributed to the varietal characteristics of the purple basil, which, depending on a variety, is characterized by instability of the purple pigments (anthocyanins) in both individual leaves and the whole plant [33]. Additionally, the uneven distribution of the index is affected by shadows due to uneven lighting and the glare of reflected light from the glossy surface of the leaf. ...
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This research is aimed at the assessing the impact of the ultraviolet radiation in the A, B, and C ranges (as additives to the main light) on general plan condition, the stress experienced by them, the pigment concentration in the leaves and leaf reflective characteristics. Under studying, there were the photo-protective reactions of the purple variety basil plants. The plants were grown in plastic pots in a phyto-chamber equipped with an automatic microclimate system. The phyto-chamber was divided into four compartments where, in addition to the main lighting, there were installed the additional LEDs emitting their radiation in the ranges UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C. Plant reactions were evaluated by the contents of the main pigments as detected by the spectrometric method. Then correlations were revealed between those values and the vegetative indices obtained based on the hyperspectral images. A strong correlation (R2 ˃ 0.83) was observed between the values of the vegetative indices ARI and mARI and the anthocyanins concentration in basil leaves. A weak correlation (R2 = 0.0479) was found between the ARI and mARI values and the carotenoids index CRI700, which is attributed to the shielding effect of the anthocyanins. Deviations in the results are influenced by leaf surface unevenness, its thickness and density. Additional research is needed including developing reflection indices taking into account the shielding effect of the purple pigments.
... The plant growth characters and biological yield had positive relationship with biochemical constituents of particular accessions. The variability of purple pigments in basil varieties was also reported (13,20). Variation have been reported for varieties and seasons for plant height, number of main branches per plant, number of total branches per plant, leaves dry weight, essential oil percent, and essential oil yield (21) (Fig. 3). ...
Article
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Sixteen accessions of sweet basil obtained from different parts of India were studied for qualitative and quantitative characters. The highest oil percent in green herbage, essential oil yield, and anethole yield were recorded in DOB-1 at full bloom stage. DOB-1 leaves had the highest number of peltate glands (PG) at all three stages (young, mature, and old based on leaf position on axis); the lowest was observed in DOB-2. The number of PG and oil content were positively correlated; however, an inverse relationship was observed between leaf age and the number of PG. The extract from green herbage was compared for their chemical compositions through chemical profiling. The highest anethole were observed in DOB-1 at full blooming stage. Overall, the sweet basil accessions DOB-1 and DOB-5 were superior in herbage, oil, and anethole yield that can be used further in improvement programs. ARTICLE HISTORY
... In the fall, leaf anthocyanin differed in all cultivars, with higher values in 'Purple Ruffles' (80.5 ACI) and 'Red Rubin' (36.5 ACI) than in the green cultivars [P < 0.001 (Fig. 6B)]. Phippen and Simon (2000) indicated that the genes controlling anthocyanin expression in purple basil cultivars are unstable, with the crops easily reverting to green pigments. This characteristic might have caused the reduced readings in each harvest in the fall [P < 0.001 (Fig. 6B)]. ...
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Basil ( Ocimum sp.) is a fast-growing, high-value cash crop for aquaponics. Plant suitability evaluation in tropical conditions is critical to recommend new cultivars, increasing grower portfolio and minimizing the production risks associated with untested selections. Two trials were conducted to identify suitable basil cultivars for tropical outdoor aquaponics production using the University of the Virgin Islands (UVI) Commercial Aquaponics System in the U.S. Virgin islands. We evaluated five basil cultivars in Summer 2015 (Genovese, Lemon, Purple Ruffles, Red Rubin, and Spicy Globe), and seven cultivars in Fall 2015 (Cinnamon, Genovese, Lemon, Purple Ruffles, Red Rubin, Spicy Globe, and Thai). In both trials, 3-week-old seedlings were transplanted in net pots at a density of 1.5 plants/ft ² (16.15 plants/m ² ). The 6-inch portions and upper portions of the canopy were harvested as a salable product and the resultant material (leaves and stems) considered as total yield per square meter. In the summer, yield was higher in ‘Genovese’ (14.91 kg·m ⁻² ) and ‘Spicy Globe’ (13.99 kg·m ⁻² ); ‘Purple Ruffles’ resulted in the lowest yield (4.18 kg·m ⁻² ). Leaf anthocyanin was greater for the red cultivars Red Rubin [28.35 anthocyanin content index (ACI)] and Purple Ruffles (34.36 ACI) compared with the other cultivars. Chlorophyll content was the highest in ‘Genovese’ [48.59 chlorophyll content index (CCI)]. In the fall, ‘Cinnamon’ (6.60 kg·m ⁻² ), ‘Genovese’ (6.70 kg·m ⁻² ), and ‘Spicy Globe’ (6.35 kg·m ⁻² ) showed the highest yield and ‘Purple Ruffles’ the lowest (1.68 kg·m ⁻² ). Leaf anthocyanin differed in all cultivars, with the higher values in Purple Ruffles (80.5 ACI) and Red Rubin (36.5 ACI). Chlorophyll content was a response of plant growth and cultivar, with values increasing over time and ranging from 12.06 (Lemon) to 17.99 CCI (Cinnamon). Plant growth index (PGI) was higher than that of other cultivars in Genovese and Lemon on day 58 (summer), and higher in Cinnamon on day 87 (fall). Yield was greater during the summer, which was calculated from May to August, in comparison with the fall, calculated from September to November. Yield declined for the fourth harvest in the summer, indicating that growers may need to end production after the third harvest and replant the crop. The results of this experiment indicate that basil has potential as a specialty, short-season, and high-value crop in the UVI Commercial Aquaponics System. Of the cultivars tested, Genovese and Spicy Globe were the highest yielding cultivars within the environmental and geographical conditions of this study for two consecutive seasons (summer and fall).
... Similar to cannabis plants, the phytochemical profile of Japanese plum varieties is influenced by horticultural practices, processing and storage conditions [75]. Other commercial plants, such as violet cauliflower and Thai purple basil, gain their unusual purple colouring through modifications to anthocyanin regulatory genes [76,77]. Therefore, it is possible that plants can be manipulated naturally and artificially (i.e., genetically) to maximise anthocyanin content. ...
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‘Medicinal cannabis’ can be defined as pharmaceutical grade cannabis-based products used for the treatment of illness. Beneficial treatment effects of cannabidiol (CBD), a major non-intoxicating compound isolated from the cannabis plant, have been shown in multiple states of cognitive impairment, including neurodegenerative (Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s and Parkinson’s disease), neuroinflammatory (sepsis-induced encephalopathy) and neurological disorders (ischemic brain injury). CBD can also treat some of the symptoms of schizophrenia, including cognitive deficits (impairments in learning and memory), which is a major symptom domain of the illness that is largely resistant to existing antipsychotic medications. However, empirical evidence suggests the presence of an ‘entourage effect’ in cannabis; that is, observations that medicinal cannabis seems to work better in some instances when administered as a whole-plant extract. While scientific evidence highlights isolated CBD as a strong candidate for treating cognitive impairment, the entourage effect suggests that the co-operation of other plant molecules could provide further benefits. This chapter explores the scientific evidence surrounding the benefits of CBD and other specific key phytochemicals in cannabis: linalool, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, flavonoids and anthocyanin, on brain health and cognition. (15) (PDF) The United Chemicals of Cannabis: Beneficial Effects of Cannabis Phytochemicals on the Brain and Cognition. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330944467_The_United_Chemicals_of_Cannabis_Beneficial_Effects_of_Cannabis_Phytochemicals_on_the_Brain_and_Cognition [accessed Mar 03 2019].
... In nearby plots there were purple morphotypes. Previous researches have shown that the anthocyanin expression in vegetative tissue is controlled by two dominant genes (Phippen and Simon, 2000). The seeds were collected in two seasons and we could not find any purple plant among green type landraces in next generation. ...
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Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is one of the most important culinary and aromatic plants in Iran. Surprisingly, no commercial cultivar is available across the country and farmers are cultivating landraces. The main purpose of the present study was to describe the diversity among and within landraces of sweet basil as well as developing new genotypes for cultivar development. Twenty two genotypes of basil including Iranian landraces and international cultivars were evaluated in a randomized complete block design with three replications in 2017. Three Iranian landraces, ‘Isfahan3’ ‘Birjand’ and ‘Malayer’ were recognized as superior landraces. Dry herb for them was recorded as 3309, 3191 and 3175 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. Also, the content of essential oil in ‘Isfahan3’ ‘Birjand’ and ‘Malayer’ was obtained as 1.43, 1.85, and 1.79% (w/w on dry weight basis), respectively. Due to existence of high diversity among landraces, broad-sense heritability estimates were over 98% for all of the evaluated traits. Among these landraces, 14 full-sib families were produced via controlled pollination. In another experiment the full-sib families were compared. For all measured traits, there were highly significant differences among full-sib families. The best family in each landrace was selected for cultivar development in future breeding programs.
... Fresh or dried leaves of basil can be used as a spice. Basil contains a wide range of essential oils rich in phenolic compounds (Phippen and Simon 2000) and other natural products including polyphenols such as flavonoids and anthocyanins (Phippen and Simon 1998) which contribute to its strong antioxidant activity. ...
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Biochemical changes in response to storage conditions and packaging were investigated in basil leaves of variety Genovese in order to find out suitable conditions for their storage. Fresh basil leaves placed in open trays or packed in lowdensity polyethylene (LDPE) bags were stored at 5, 12 °C and under ambient conditions (12.2–21.0 °C) for 12 days. Chlorophyll content, total phenols, total flavonoids and antioxidant activity of basil leaves decreased with simultaneous increase in electrolyte leakage and TBA reactive compounds during whole storage period. Packaging of leaves and storage at 5 °C slowed down the changes in these quality parameters in comparison to those kept in open trays and stored at 12 °C and ambient temperature respectively. Activities of enzymes catechol oxidase and lipoxygenase which increased during storage were slowed down by packaging and decrease in storage temperature. Irrespective of storage conditions and packaging, activities of antioxidative enzymes viz. catalase, peroxidase and superoxide dismutase increased during storage. Rapid increase in activities of antioxidative enzymes was observed LDPE packed leaves than those held in open trays and in leaves stored at 5 °C as compared to 12 °C and ambient temperature. Basil leaves packed in LDPE and stored at 5 °C showed the slowest changes in biochemical parameters and the highest activities of antioxidative enzymes and could be stored for 12 days in comparison to 6 days in open trays at ambient temperature.
... Nuclear inheritance for purple colour leaf was reported in rice (Kadam 1974) and Ocimum basilicum L. (Phippen and Simon 2000). Similar inheritance pattern for Liriomyza trifolii resistance was reported in Lycopersicon cheesmanii Riley (Bordat et al. 1995) and melon (Dogimont et al. 1999). ...
... Medicinal plants from the Lamiaceae family have been used since ancient times for their pharmaceutical properties (Bais et al. 2002) due to the secondary metabolites such as phenolic compounds (including flavonoids and phenylpropanoids) as well as anthocyanins (Phippen and Simon 2000). Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) belonging to the Lamiaceae family is a rich source of phenolic antioxidant compounds and flavonoids (Juliani and Simon 2002;Jayasinghe et al. 2003). ...
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Mycorrhizal fungi, algae and cyanobacteria are some of the most important soil microorganisms and major components of a sustainable soil-plant system. This study presents for the first time evidence of the impact of green alga and cyanobacterium solely and in combination with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on plant-antioxidant capacity. In order to provide a better understanding of the impact of AMF and soil microalgae on Ocimum basilicum L. performance, changes in the pattern and activity of the main antioxidant enzymes (AOEs), esterases and non-enzymatic antioxidants including phenols, flavonoids, ascorbate, and α-tocopherols were evaluated. The targeted inoculation of O. basilicum with AMF or algae (alone and in combination) enhanced the antioxidant capacity of the plants and the degree of stimulation varied depending on the treatment. Plants in symbiosis with AMF exhibited the highest antioxidant potential as was indicated by the enhanced functions of all studied leaf AOEs: 1.5-, 2- and more than 10-fold rises of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and glutathione reductase (GR), respectively. The greatest increase in the total esterase activity and concentration of phenols, flavonoids and ascorbate was marked in the plants with simultaneous inoculation of mycorrhizal fungi and the green algae. 2,2-diphenyl-1-pycril-hydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging method and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay proved the increased plant antioxidant capacity after co-colonization of green algae and mycorrhizae.
... The germplasm lines, AOB-2, DOB-1, DOB-2, DOB-5 and DOB-8 depicted purple panicle colour, whereas AOB-3, AOB-5, DOB-3 and DOB-4 possessed greenish with purple top, light purple, purple green and greenish purple panicle colour, respectively. The variability of purple pigments in basil varieties is highly marketable for their use as ornamental and culinary purposes (Phippen and Simon, 2000). The AOB-2, AOB-5, DOB-2, DOB-3 and DOB-5 had bunchy panicle, while AOB-3, DOB-1 and DOB-4 had individual panicle. ...
... Ocimum basilicum is an outcrossing [32] tetraploid [18,33] that has demonstrated disomic inheritance for multiple traits [34,35], suggesting a diploidized polyploid genome. This allopolyploid hypothesis is supported by cytological evidence that demonstrated preferential pairing of O. basilicum, O. americanum (syn. ...
Article
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Limited understanding of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) genetics and genome structure has reduced efficiency of breeding strategies. This is evidenced by the rapid, worldwide dissemination of basil downy mildew (Peronospora belbahrii) in the absence of resistant culti-vars. In an effort to improve available genetic resources, expressed sequence tag simple sequence repeat (EST-SSR) and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers were developed and used to genotype the MRI x SB22 F 2 mapping population, which segregates for response to downy mildew. SNP markers were generated from genomic sequences derived from double digestion restriction site associated DNA sequencing (ddRADseq). Disomic segregation was observed in both SNP and EST-SSR markers providing evidence of an O. basilicum allotetraploid genome structure and allowing for subsequent analysis of the mapping population as a diploid intercross. A dense linkage map was constructed using 42 EST-SSR and 1,847 SNP markers spanning 3,030.9 cM. Multiple quantitative trait loci (QTL) model (MQM) analysis identified three QTL that explained 37–55% of phenotypic variance associated with downy mildew response across three environments. A single major QTL, dm11.1 explained 21–28% of phenotypic variance and demonstrated dominant gene action. Two minor QTL dm9.1 and dm14.1 explained 5–16% and 4–18% of phenotypic variance , respectively. Evidence is provided for an additive effect between the two minor QTL and the major QTL dm11.1 increasing downy mildew susceptibility. Results indicate that ddRADseq-facilitated SNP and SSR marker genotyping is an effective approach for mapping the sweet basil genome.
... Secondary metabolites production is always affected by the plant's genetic and environmental conditions during its growth (31). In this respect, Phippen, and Simon (30), stated that most of the allelochemicals directly affects many physiological and biochemical reactions and thereby, influences the growth and development of plants. The allelochemicals reduce the cell division and have several phytotoxic effects including the reduction of water use efficiency, inhibition of foliar expansion and root elongation in addition to the reduction of rate of photosynthesis and nutrient uptake (21). ...
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We evaluated the effects of aqueous extracts of H. bacciferum root, leaves and inflorescences on seed germination and seedling growth of maize and faba bean and identified the Allelochemicals using GC-MS. The seed germination of both test plants was inhibited and the lower germination was recorded at the highest extract concentration (75%). Maize was more sensitive to the phytotoxicity of the tested soluble extracts than faba bean. Root extract was more toxic to seed germination followed by leaves and inflorescences extracts. Similar trend was observed for radical and plumule length and seedling dry biomass of both test plants. The maize was more sensitive than faba bean and root extract was the most toxic. In GC-MS analysis, 19-compounds were identified in each H. bacciferum extract and classified into 4-classes (alkaloids, phenols, organic acids and flavonoids). In root extract, the major constituents were phenols (78.13%). While in leaves and inflorescences extracts, alkaloids were more dominant 33.787% and 24.79%, respectively. As a total relative values, roots had the highest 86% content compared to 45% in leaves and inflorescences. This is the first report on the allelochemicals constituents of H. bacciferum.
... Wide arrays of natural products that cause allelopathy are secondary compounds synthesized by plants and microorganisms. The compounds belong to different chemical classes such as, phenolic acids, tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, steroids, and quinons (DUKE et al., 2000;PHIPPEN and SIMON, 2000;EINHELLING andLEATHER, 1988, CHOU, 1980). Phenolics and other secondary products, including flavonoids and antocyanins are common constituents of aromatic plants. ...
Article
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In this study, the potential uptake of caffeine by spearmint (Mentha piperita L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), sage (Salvia officinalis L.), and oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and conversely, the allelopathic effects of these herbs on physiological parameters in coffee (Coffea arabica L.) were investigated. Two ecological conditions in rural area of Puebla State, Mexico (2004-2005), as well as laboratory bioassays were evaluated. To summarize the results: (i). Intercropping sage, spearmint, basil and oregano stimulated the plagiotropic growth of Coffea arabica plants, (ii). Volatiles from essential oils induced stomata opening in coffee leaves, (iii). Aromatic species, principally sage and oregano absorbed caffeine and may contribute to reductions of the caffeine contamination of the soil. (iv). Finally, coffee growers can get extra income by intercropping aromatic plants during the no-harvest period (April - November) in between coffee rows of young production systems.
... As the use of pesticides is restricted in the cultivation of medicinal plants, biological alternatives have a high priority. AMF can stimulate mineral content and secondary metabolites, such as flavonoids and phenylpropanoids, in medicinal plants (Phippen & Simon 2000). The strong increase in artemisinin concentration observed in leaves of mycorrhizal Artemisia annua is of both medical and economical interest, since artemisinin is considered to be an essential malaria treatment (Chaudhary et al. 2008). ...
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The importance of herbal plants is evident in the prevalent use as flavoring ingredients in food. However, meeting the growing demand for organic grown spices and ‘medicinal plants’ of regional origin is often hampered by technical difficulties during cultivation. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can support their host, by helping them to adapt to prevailing local conditions and thus increase the health of the plants. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the effects of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AMF) on the plant’s health, using St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) - Colletotrichum cf. gloeosporioides (Cfg) as the model plant pathosystem. Following inoculation with AMF, the attack of St. John’s wort with Cfg led to a clear reduction in wilting of the two St. John’s wort cultivars. Furthermore, the yield of mycor-rhizal plants increased compared to non-mycorrhizal plants, irrespective of whether they were pathogen-infected or not. Compared to non-mycorrhizal plants, in mycorrhizal plants levels of ascorbic acid were elevated and activity of antioxidant enzymes increased after inoculation with Cfg. Furthermore, in mycorrhizal plants the progress in lipid peroxidation following pathogen attack was reduced, suggesting that the reduction of lipid peroxidation and the induction of antioxidants may play a crucial role in the plant’s defense against Cfg.
... Wide arrays of natural products that cause allelopathy are secondary compounds synthesized by plants and microorganisms. The compounds belong to different chemical classes such as, phenolic acids, tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, steroids, and quinons (DUKE et al., 2000;PHIPPEN and SIMON, 2000;EINHELLING andLEATHER, 1988, CHOU, 1980). Phenolics and other secondary products, including flavonoids and antocyanins are common constituents of aromatic plants. ...
Article
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Caffeine released from decaying seeds and leaves accumulates in a soluble form in the soil. The compound is known to inhibit mitosis, reduce the access of nutrients and water to surrounding plants which is one of limiting problems in intercropped coffee plantations. The allelopathic interactions between coffee (Coffea arabica L.) and mint (Mentha piperita L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and sage (Salvia officinalis L.) could be a diversification alternative and extra income activity for coffee growers outside the harvest period that could cope with high levels of caffeine in the soil. We tested the interaction of the proposed system (2004 – 2005) in rural area of Puebla State, Mexico. The results demonstrate that intercropping sage, spearmint, basil and oregano stimulate the plagiotropic growth of Coffea arabica plants most effectively in young production systems, through volatile essential oils. Intercropping basil, sage, spearmint and oregano in coffee plantations seems to be a promising approach for higher income and increasing yield and quality production in coffee farms.
... To evaluate this intercropping system, it is important to consider many secondary compounds synthesized by aromatic plants and coffee (Coffea arabica L.), which cause * Correspondence author 1 EARTH University -Guácimo, Limón -Costa Rica; 2 Rheinische Friedrich -Wilhelms -Universität Bonn, Institute of Plant Molecular Physiology and Biotechnology (IMBIO), D-53115 Bonn, Germany Pacheco et al 2 allelopathic effects. Essential oils rich in phenolic complexes and a wide array of other natural products, including polyphenols such as flavonoids and anthocyanins produced by aromatic plants, cause allelopathic effects that can inhibit plant growth or otherwise influence surrounding plants (12,13). A group of phenolics (namely benzoic and cinnamic acids), present in aromatic plants are potent inhibitors of K and P absorption. ...
Article
Full-text available
In this study, the potential uptake of caffeine by spearmint (Mentha piperita L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), sage (Salvia officinalis L.), and oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and conversely, the allelopathic effects of these herbs on physiological parameters in coffee (Coffea arabica L.) were investigated. Two ecological conditions in rural area of Puebla State, Mexico (2004-2005), as well as laboratory bioassays were evaluated. To summarize the results: (i). Intercropping sage, spearmint, basil and oregano stimulated the plagiotropic growth of Coffea arabica plants. (ii). Volatiles from essential oils induced stomata opening in coffee leaves. (iii). Aromatic species, principally sage and oregano absorbed caffeine and may contribute to reductions of the caffeine contamination of the soil. (iv). Finally, coffee growers can get extra income by intercropping aromatic plants during the no-harvest period (April –November) in between coffee rows of young production systems.
... Wide arrays of natural products that cause allelopathy are secondary compounds synthesized by plants and microorganisms. The compounds belong to different chemical classes such as, phenolic acids, tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, steroids, and quinons (Duke et al., 2000; Phippen and Simon, 2000; Einhellig and Leather, 1988; Chou and Waller, 1980b). Phenolics and other secondary products, including flavonoids and antocyanins are common constituents of aromatic plants. ...
Article
Full-text available
Caffeine released from decaying seeds and leaves accumulates in a soluble form in the soil. The compound is known to inhibit mitosis, reduce the access of nutrients and water to surrounding plants which is one of limiting problems in intercropped coffee plantations. The allelopathic interactions between coffee (Coffea arabica L.) and mint (Mentha piperita L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and sage (Salvia officinalis L.) could be a diversification alternative and extra income activity for coffee growers outside the harvest period that could cope with high levels of caffeine in the soil. We tested the interaction of the proposed system (2004 – 2005) in rural area of Puebla State, Mexico. The results demonstrate that intercropping sage, spearmint, basil and oregano stimulate the plagiotropic growth of Coffea arabica plants most effectively in young production systems, through volatile essential oils. Intercropping basil, sage, spearmint and oregano in coffee plantations seems to be a promising approach for higher income and increasing yield and quality production in coffee farms.
... Basil called Rehan in Arabic (Ocimum basilicum L.) belonging to plant family Lamiaceae, which contains essential oils rich in phenolic compounds, polyphenols such as flavonoids and anthocyanins [5]. Basil seeds improved productive performance of broiler chicks and decreased serum cholesterol but have no effect on carcass parameters [6]. ...
Conference Paper
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The effects of basil and/or chamomile seed supplementation on the growth of Hubbard broiler chicks were evaluated. The antioxidant effects of these supplements were also assessed. 120 1-day-old broiler chicks were randomly divided into four equal groups. The control group (group 1) was fed a basal diet (BD) without supplementation. Groups 2, 3, and 4 were fed the BD supplemented with 10g basil, 10g chamomile, and 5g basil plus 5g chamomile per kg of food, respectively. Basil supplementation alone or in combination with chamomile non-significantly (P≥0.05) increased final body weight (3.2% and 0.3%, respectively) and weight gain (3.5% and 3.6%, respectively) over the experimental period. Chamomile supplementation alone non-significantly (P≥0.05) reduced final body weight and weight gain over the experimental period by 1.7% and 1.7%, respectively. In comparison to the control group, herbal seed supplementation reduced feed intake and improved the feed conversion and protein efficiency ratios. In general, basil seed supplementation stimulated chicken growth and improved the feed efficiency more effectively than chamomile seed supplementation. The antioxidant activities of basil and/or chamomile supplementation were examined in the thymus, bursa, and spleen. In chickens that received supplements, the level of malondialdehyde was significantly decreased, whereas the activities of glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and catalase were significantly increased (P<0.05). Supplementation of basil and/or chamomile did not affect blood protein levels, but had lipid-lowering effects as evidenced by reduced serum levels of total lipids, triglycerides, and cholesterol. In conclusion, supplementation of basil and/or chamomile improved growth parameters in broiler chicks and had antioxidant and blood lipid-lowering effects. These beneficial effects of basil and/or chamomile supplementation resulted in economically viable production of high-quality white meat containing no harmful residues.
... Taxonomic issues in this genus based on morphology and chromosome number were recently reviewed based on molecular markers and nuclear DNA content (Aghaei et al. 2012;Carovic-Stanko et al. 2010;Vieira and Simon 2006). Basils also vary significantly in their morphology including growth habit, size, shape, texture, leaf orientation, and color of leaf, stem, and flower (Phippen and Simon 2000), resulting in a wide variety of ornamental cultivars (Simon et al. 1990). ...
Article
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Downy mildew, caused by the oomycete Peronospora belbahrii, is a devastating disease of sweet basil. In this study, 113 accessions of Ocimum species (83 Plant Introduction entries and 30 commercial entries) were tested for resistance against downy mildew at the seedling stage in growth chambers and, during three seasons, in the field. Most entries belonging to O. basilicum were highly susceptible whereas most entries belonging to O. americanum, O. kilimanadascharicum, O. gratissimum, O. campechianum, or O. tenuiflorum were highly resistant at both the seedling stage and the field. Twenty seven highly- resistant individual plants were each crossed with the susceptible sweet basil 'Peri', and the F1 progeny plants were examined for disease resistance. The F1 plants of two crosses were highly-resistant, F1 plants of twenty four crosses were moderately-resistant and F1 plants of one cross were susceptible, suggesting on full, partial or no dominance of the resistance gene(s), respectively. The data confirm the feasibility of producing downy mildew-resistant cultivars of sweet basil by crossing with wild Ocimum species.
... These effects have been attributed to antioxidant components such as plant phenolics, including flavonoids and phenylpropanoids among others [14]. Basils (Ocimum spp., Lamiaceae) contain a wide range of essential oils rich in phenolic compounds [15] and a wide array of other natural products including polyphenols such as flavonoids and anthocyanins [16]. ...
Article
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Reactions of free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) with biological molecules in vivo play an important physiological role in many diseases. 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) is a stable free radical and often used as a routine reagent to evaluate the antioxidant capacity of an antioxidant. This study was undertaken to investigate the free radical-scavenging and antioxidant activities of Zinc, Vitamin C and mixture of them. UV-Vis spectrophotometry method was used to evaluate the ability of Zinc, Vitamin C and mixture of them to scavenge DPPH radical. The kinetic parameters such as rate constant and activation energy in experimental conditions were calculated. The rate constants of the H atom abstraction by DPPH (1 k), in the presence of Zinc, Vitamin C and mixture of them were obtained (0.4209, 2.092 and 1.82 min -1) respectively, under pseudo-first-order conditions at 25 o C.
... These effects have been attributed to antioxidant components such as plant phenolics, flavonoids and phenylpropanoids among others 26 . Basils (Ocimum spp., Lamiaceae) contain a wide range of essential oils rich in phenolic compounds 27 and a wide array of other natural products including polyphenols such as flavonoids and anthocyanins. O. sanctum is mentioned in the oldest Sanskrit Ayurvedic text-Charak Samhita and Rig Veda. ...
Article
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Antioxidant activities of standardized ethanolic (90 %) extract of Ocimum sanctum (EEOS) leaves was studied for its free radical scavenging property on different in vitro models e.g., 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl radical (DPPH), superoxide anion radical, nitric oxide radical, hydroxyl radical scavenging and reducing power assays. The extract showed significant activities in all antioxidant assays and measurement of total phenolic compounds by Folin-Ciocalteu phenol reagent indicated that the extract (1 mg) contained 56.7 μg pyrocatechol equivalent of phenolics. Moreover, the reductive power of ethanolic extract of Ocimum sanctum and butylated hydroxy toluene found to be 1.155 and 0.771 at 500 μg/mL, respectively. The antioxidant activities of ethanolic extract of Ocimum sanctum increased in a concentration dependent manner. The IC50 values were found to be 31.37, 31.83, 29.17 and 400.90 mg/mL, respectively, in DPPH radical scavenging, nitric oxide radicals generated from sodium nitroprusside, scavenging the superoxide generated by phenazine methosulphate (PMS)/ nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)-nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) system and hydroxyl radical generated by Fenton's reaction. The results obtained in the present study indicate that the antioxidant property of ethanolic extract of Ocimum sanctum may be due to high content of phenolic compounds and justify the therapeutic applications of the plant in the indigenous system of medicine, augmenting its therapeutic value.
... Extensive phytochemical investigations revealed the presences of essential oils (Grayer et al., 1996), i.e., phenylpropenes (Gang et al., 2001) including esters of cinnamic acid either methyl cinnamate (Siddiqui et al., 2007a), phenylpropanoid (Deschamps et al., 2010) and hydroxylated phenylpropanoids (Gang et al., 2002) including eugenol (Louie et al., 2007), methyleugenol (Miele et al., 2001), isoeugenol , chavicol , methyl chaviocol and trans-anethole (Prajapatti et al., 2003), terpene (Yang et al., 2007) i.e., trans ß-ocimene (Johnson et al., 1999), geraniol (Iijima et al., 2004), linalool and linolyl acetate (Grayer et al., 1996), citral (Iijima et al., 2006), triterpenoids (Siddiqui et al., 2007b) like ursolic acid (Silva et al., 2008), steroidal glycoside (Siddiqui et al., 2007b), anthocyanin (Phippen and Simon, 2000) and carotenoid (Daly, 2010) among the plant constituents. ...
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The aqueous-methanolic extract of Ocimum basilicum, Linn was subjected to in vitro investigations for its possible antispasmodic, bronchodilator and vasodilator activities. The studies included testing on jejunum of rabbit, ileum of guineapig, trachea of rabbit, trachea of guinea-pig and aorta of rabbit. It produced relaxation of spontaneous as well as K+(80 mM)-induced withering in jejunum of rabbit. The extract on application to guinea-pig ileum showed a concentration-dependent (3.0-10.0 mg/mL) contractile response which was blocked on addition of atropine (0.1 μM). It produced nonspecific relaxation of both the carbachol (1 μM) and high K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions in isolated trachea of rabbit and guinea-pig in a manner comparable to verapamil. It also produced relaxation of phenylephrine-induced withering in rabbit aorta in a comparable fashion to verapamil. The observed spasmolytic, bronchodilator, and vasodilator effects on the part of The extract were likely to be mediated through Ca+2 channel blocking activities, whereas observed contractile response in isolated guinea-pig ileum preparations was likely to be mediated through cholinergic agonistic activity. These findings may validate the folkloric use of O. basilicum in constipation, vascular insufficiency and respiratory distress.
... The development of anthocyanin could establish their usage as ornamental horticultural plants and as a potential anthocyanin source for breeders. Several self-pollinated generations of all purple plants could be successful in stabilizing anthocyanin expression controlled by dominant genes (Phippen et al., 2000). Analysis of plant trait diversity is very useful for germplasm curator as it helps to define the variation structure, thus enabling the assessment of genetic erosion, potential exploration and site conservation priorities and promoting efficient germplasm collection, multiplication and preservation. ...
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The study aims at assessing Basil's genetic phenotypic variability and viral disease incidence in Nigeria for sustainable pathological interventions. Basil (Ocimum basilicum) is important for it's medicinal and nutritive value. It is highly adaptable as a potential crop in the tropics and could therefore enhance the food security of sub Saharan Africa nations. Germplasm seed evaluation and characterization was therefore carried out from the nationwide National Horticultural Research Institute (NIHORT) seed collection survey to expand NIHORT basil genetic base. The field layout was completely randomized design with five replications. The treatments were: O. basilicum, O. gratissimum and the local basil. Treatments were randomly allocated per replication. There were significant phenotypic differences in the O. basilicum variety. These differences were observed in the plant coloration ranging from deep to light purple coloration of stem, leaf, leaf vein and petiole. Our observations also revealed for the first time significant tolerance to Venial Mottle Mosaic Virus (VMMV) in the purple colored compared to the green O. basilicum in the early stages of growth till 50% anthesis. This is the first report of this observation in the African continent. Tolerance to VMMV symptoms increased significantly (LSD 5%) with purplish coloration. We concluded that inducement of purplish coloration in Basil through breeding might improve tolerance to VMMV and thereby increase market value of Basil with sustainable pathological interventions.
... Ocimum tenuiflorum L. syn Ocimum sanctum commonly known as ''Holy basil'' a sacred plant in India, grown in every rural household and distributed to other parts of the Asian subcontinent. Basils (Ocimum sp., Lamiaceae) contain a wide range of essential oils rich in phenolic compounds (Phippen and Simon 2000) and a wide variety of other natural products including polyphenols such as flavonoids and anthocyanins. Various aspects of the stress alleviating potential of the crude extracts of Ocimum sanctum have been established (Archana and Namasivayam 2000). ...
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The effect of triadimefon (TDM) a triazole compound on antioxidant potential and eugenol content was studied in Ocimum tenuiflorum L. The plant was subjected to 15 mg/l TDM by soil-drenching on 50th, 70th and 90th days after planting (DAP). Analyses were carried out on 60th, 80th and 100th DAP. Both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant potential estimation was carried out. The non-enzymatic antioxidant viz ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol and reduced glutathione were found to increase under triadimefon treatment. The antioxidant enzyme like superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase and catalase activities showed significant increase in TDM treatment. Triazole-treated plants yielded more eugenol (a major component of Ocimum-essential oil) in comparison to control. The study evidenced that TDM residues could be detected in the upper soil layer only and does not accumulate in the soil. These preliminary results suggest that TDM may be useful to increase the antioxidant content in medicinal plants and also to act as an elicitor to enhance the production of secondary metabolites of medicinal plants.
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Crossing is one of the breeding programs that can be done to get better plant varieties. Selection is an activity carried out by breeders to determine the seeds that can be planted on subsequent planting. In order to increase the success of selection, segregation need to be determined. The main focus of the study was to determine the frequency distribution and crop segregation. This research was conducted in November 2018 - January 2019 in Agroecotechnopark and Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Breeding, Diponegoro University, Semarang. This studyused F2 seeds from crossing varieties of Fagiola x Aura Hijau. The experimental design was carried out using a single plant design. The results were analyzed using distribution suitability test and chi-square test. Characters that have a normal distribution are plant height, number of leaves, length of pods, and sweetness. The character that is not normally distributed is pod weight. There are two genes that are dominant-recessive epistasis controlling pod weight.
Chapter
The secondary metabolites originating from different plant sources are among the most considerable natural compounds. The biologically active secondary metabolites are mostly polyphenolic chemicals that eliminate free radicals and reactive forms of oxygen, minimizing or lessening the negative effects of oxidative stress. Studies from the last decade showed that a significant amount of plant polyphenolics, in particular flavonoids, serve as essential for the health advantages of medicinal plants. There are numerous reports about potential applications of flavonoid compounds; however, plant extraction or chemical synthesis as traditional approaches does not offer stable and extensive production of various plant phenolic compounds in an industrial level. Numerous countries around the world utilize different genotypes of Ocimum L. (basil) species to obtain natural bioactive compounds. Still, unstable production and genotype and environmental dependence of quantitative and quantitative production of basil bioactive compounds are the main limitations. In vitro plant tissue culture metabolic engineering is an efficient approach for the production of valuable phytochemicals and can be further applied for plant natural products production. This chapter provides information about plant phenolic compounds and natural products. Special emphasis is given to the diversity of basil genotypes, and stable and reliable production of natural products from the group of secondary metabolites originating from various basil taxa through the callus and cell suspension culture techniques.
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Objective: Psychosis (schizophrenic, schizoaffective and affective illnesses) is a group of serious illnesses that affect the mind. In spite of the availability of a number of drugs for the treatment of psychosis, however, at present, there is no satisfactory remedy available for the prevention and management of psychosis. Herbals medicines are tremendously considered to be less toxic than synthetic ones. The present study was undertaken to test the effect of ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Ocimum sanctum leaves (100 and 200 mg/kg, p. o.). Methods: The antipsychotic activity of Ocimum sanctum extracts (ethanol and aqueous) was compared with amphetamine and chlorpromazine in mice using a locomotor activity model. 7 groups of 6 mice each were taken. Control (water) Amphetamine (positive control) Chlorpromazine (standard antipsychotic), 2 Ethanol extracts of Ocimum sanctum (100 and 200 mg/kg), 2 Aqueous extracts of Ocimum sanctum (100 and 200 mg/kg) Locomotor activity was measured before and after drug administration using an actophotometer. Percent change in activity was calculated to assess antipsychotic effects. Results: Amphetamine increased activity significantly (p<0.01). Chlorpromazine decreased activity significantly (p<0.01). Both ethanolic extracts increased activity moderately compared to control. The 200 mg/kg dose of ocimum sanctum showed a significantly increase (p<0.05 vs. amphetamine). Aqueous extracts had minimal effect on activity. Conclusion: This study shows promise for ethanloc extract of Ocimum sanctum as a potential stimulant, but further studies are needed to confirm these findings and to identify active components and understand mechanism of action.
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During the study, the seeds of seven sweet basil cultivars were treated with 100 ppm solutions of gibberellic acid or ascorbic acid prior to a 14-day germination experiment. Values of the first day of germination, germination energy, germinability, mean time and rate of germination, and uncertainty and synchrony of germination were calculated. The results show that both of the substances altered the measured parameters, priming with gibberellic acid proving to be a more effective way to enhance the germination of basil seeds. Also, they revealed major differences among the germination parameters of the examined cultivars.
Chapter
The increased need for natural products leads to the expansion of new techniques and creates the necessity for the implementation of these techniques to adequately respond to the increased interests. Plants of the genus Ocimum L. (basil) are natural sources of biologically active products with widespread use and wide utilization both traditionally and industrially. Numerous basil plants have been used for decades mainly because of their aromaticity, significant amount of essential oils, and biologically active phenolic compounds. Additionally, recent research indicates that isolated compounds from extracts of different basil cultivars possess significant biological effects important for human health. The in vitro plant culture (culture of plant cells, tissues, and organs) includes methods that are in recent years commonly used to produce secondary metabolites, primarily due to the efficient production of particular metabolites at significantly higher concentrations than ex vitro. The present chapter aims to summarize the crucial publications on the genus Ocimum, with a focus on research related to the production and diversity of biologically active secondary metabolites under tissue culture conditions. With a high content of biologically active secondary metabolites and with a multidisciplinary approach, different varieties of basil provide significant opportunities for in vitro manipulation and offer great opportunities for practical application.KeywordsAntioxidant activityCallusCell suspension Ocimum Phenolic compoundsTissue culture
Article
Sweet basil, Ocimum basilicum L., is an important culinary herb grown worldwide. Although basil is green, many landraces, breeding lines, and exotic cultivars have purple stems and flowers. This anthocyanin pigmentation is unacceptable in traditional Italian basil used for Pesto sauce production. In the current study, we aimed to resolve the genetics that underlines the different colours. We used the recently published sweet basil genome to map quantitative trait loci (QTL) for flower and stem colour in a bi-parental F2 population. It was found that the pigmentation is governed by a single QTL, harbouring an anthocyanidin synthase (ANS) gene (EC 1.14.20.4). Further analysis revealed that the basil genome harbours two homologous ANS genes, each carrying a loss-of-function mutation. ObANS1 carries a single base pair insertion resulting in a frameshift, and ObANS2 carries a missense mutation within the active site. In the purple-flower parent, ANS1 is functional, and ANS2 carries a nonsense mutation. The functionality of the ObANS1 active allele was validated by complementation assay in an Arabidopsis ANS mutant. Moreover, we have restored the functionality of the missense-mutated ObANS2 using site-directed activation. We found that the non-functional alleles were expressed to similar levels as the functional allele, suggesting polyploids invest futile effort in expressing non-functional genes, offsetting their advantageous redundancy. This work demonstrated the usefulness of the genomics and genetics of basil to understand the basic mechanism of metabolic traits and raise fundamental questions in polyploid plant biology. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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All living organisms need essential nutrient elements to survive and thrive. For plants, of the 14 essential nutrient elements, over half show deficiency symptoms that include chlorosis. However, this is for plants with green leaves. For purple leaf basil, there has been no reported research on how microelement deficiency is expressed, diagnosed and/or corrected. The purpose of this research was to visually and quantitatively identify micronutrient element deficiencies, specifically, iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn), in ‘Red Rubin’, a purple leaf basil. To do this, three cultivars of basil, Italian Large Leaf, a green leaf basil; Aromatto, a mottled purple and green leaf basil; and Red Rubin, a purple leaf basil, were grown for 13–16 weeks. The experiment design was a split-plot with four treatments and the three cultivars. Data included visual observations, relative greenness (SPAD) measurements and tissue nutrient analysis. ‘Red Rubin’ leaves had similar SPAD values to both of the other cultivars. When Fe, Mn or Zn was deficient, purple pigment was lost. However, visual deficiencies such as yellowing and an increase in green color either veinally, interveinally or on the leaf margins varied. Based upon overlapping symptoms and based on tissue analysis, it is possible that there exists a 3-way or even 4-way interaction/balance among the minor elements Fe, Mn, Zn and possibly copper (Cu).
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The present study was to analyze the in vitro antibacterial activity and the effects on cholesterol esterase activity of the methanol extract from Basil leaves and its hexane, ethyl acetate, butanol, and aqueous fractions. The highest total phenolic and flavonoid contents were recorded in the methanol extract. Total 92 compounds were determined by using GC‐MS belong to hydrocarbons, fatty acids, alcohols, esters, and phenols which reportedly have a variety of biological activities such as antibacterial, antiviral, anti‐inflammatory, and anti‐carcinogenic activities. This study evaluated the antibacterial activity of the Basil methanol extract and its fractions based on the inhibitory concentrations of Escherichia coli at 50 mg/mL. The best results were obtained with the methanol extract, hexane, and ethyl acetate fractions, which exhibited anti‐cholesterol esterase activity.
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The immuno-boosting plants will play a vital role to protect from the infectious diseases like COVID-19. The phagocyte-microbe interactions in the immune system is a defense mechanism but when expressively diploid can harm host tissues and participate in the development of different chronic inflammatory diseases and also cause immune suppressions. There are a huge number of herbal medicines as multi-component agents to modulate the complex immune system in prevention of infections rather than treating the immune-related diseases. Many therapeutic effects of plant extracts have been suggested which is due to their array of immune-modulatory effects and influence immune systems of human body. Thus, the searches for natural products of plant origin as new leads for development of potent and safe immunosuppressant or immunostimulant agents are gaining much more research interest. The present works will give an overview of widely investigated plant-derived compounds which have exhibited potent effects on cellular immune functions before proper vaccinations and designed as per the current situation made due to COVID-19. Clinical studies will be needed to examine the therapeutic utility of enumerated plants and their secondary metabolites in COVID-19 infections.
Chapter
Basil, better known as “the king of herbs,” is widespread today in almost every home garden and is a leading spice worldwide, used for culinary purposes both dried and fresh. It is a source of essential oils and other valuable antioxidant and phenolic compounds and a medicinal herb with a history of tales and lore. In India, basil is considered sacred; in Italy, it is a symbol of love; in ancient Greece, it is a symbol of hatred; and in Judaism, it is one of the scented spices used during the “Havdalah” service, the ceremony performed to mark the end of the holy Sabbath. In the following chapter, we will discuss the genus Ocimum and concentrate on the breeding efforts and approaches that are undertaken by many scientists and researchers worldwide that made the “king of herbs” into a global economy and profitable industry.
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Due to the high variability of fruit properties in the European plum Prunus domestica, a histochemical analysis of fruits at different stages of development was performed to understand the ripening process in the cv. ‘Colora’ (yellow-red skinned) and cv. ‘Topfive’ (purple skinned). Histological analysis showed that carotenoids in the fruit had two different origins. In the fruit flesh they derived from chloroplasts that turned into chromoplasts, whereas carotenoids in the fruit skin derived probably from proplastids. Flavan-3-ols and proanthocyanidins showed differential localization during ripening. They were visible in the vacuole in different fruit tissues or organized in tannosomes in the fruit flesh. Tanninoplast were observed only in hypodermal cells of ‘Colora’. Towards maturity, anthocyanins were detected in the epidermis and later in the hypodermis of both cultivars. The study forms a basis for the analysis of the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in European plums and their biological effects.
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Basil (Ocimum spp.) is an essential oil producing plant and it is used as a condiment for diferent foods, besides serving as raw material for medicinal purposes. This crop has also been showing great importance as an ornamental plant in recent years. However, basil lacks studies concerning its different usages with special regards to its ornamental potential. Therefore, this study aimed at evaluating the vegetative development and the ornamental potential of the basil cultivars ‘Grecco a Palla’ (O. minimum), ‘Alfavaca Basilicão Vermelho’ (O. basilicum), and ‘Thai Basil’ (O. basilicum), under protected cultivation. The following characteristics were evaluated: germination percentage, germination speed index, plant canopy diameter (cm), leaf and inflorescence length (cm), plant height (cm), and fresh and dry leaf mass (g). The ornamental potential was estimated based on visual evaluations of plant canopy volume; leaf shape, texture, size, and color; stem and flower color; and number of days to flowering. Cultivar ‘Thai Basil’ presented the highest leaf dry mass and ‘Grecco a Palla’ showed the highest germination speed index and seed germination percentage. All cultivars bloomed within 60 days after planting and exhibited color and brightness variability, which are desirable traits for a landscape composition. ‘Grecco a Palla’ stood out for its short and compact inflorescences, dwarf size and globular shape when grown as a potted plant. The studied cultivars demonstrated favorable characteristics for ornamental usage based on visual assessments.
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Essential oils provide the characteristic aroma notes to basil varieties and are partially responsible for basil biological activities. The search for new aromas and biological activities are important steps to find new applications for industrial crop and products. The objective of this study was to evaluate the chemical composition of the essential oils from purple basil varieties and their progeny that reverted to green varieties, and to compare the composition of these oils with other nonpigmented basil varieties. This work also evaluated selected biological activities of some of these green and basil varieties in search of new biological activities. The green purple varieties derived from Dark Opal and Osmin Purple varieties exhibited a remarkable similarity, suggesting that these plants reverted to the same green ancestor. Their aromatic volatile oils and their main components exhibited a wide range of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, with several chemotypes (Sweet, Osmin Purple basils) expressing high antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Some of the reverted green types, showed higher levels phenylpropanoids (e.g. higher in eugenol) compared with their parent types (Purple Ruffles). These biological activities of the aromatic oils appear to be related to their phenolic constituents and concentration of the oils (e.g. eugenol, methyleugenol). The results showed that the essential oils of these basils have a number of additional attributes and applications for the nutraceutical industry in addition to their aroma and flavor impact.
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A cladistic analysis of 5S nuclear ribosomal DNA non-transcribed spacer (5S-NTS) sequences representing 55 Saintpaulia accessions and one Streptocarpus outgroup taxon is presented. All formally described and potential Saintpaulia taxa are included except for S. 'mafiensis' and the possibly extinct S. inconspicua. Most notably, Saintpaulia shumensis, the highest elevation species in the Usambara Mountains, is resolved, albeit with marginal parsimony jackknife support, as the sister taxon to all remaining members of the Usambaras/lowland clade, which is otherwise poorly structured. It is hypothesized that Saintpaulia shumensis may show a relictual distribution in the Usambaras, as there appears to be a phylogenetic trend from higher to lower elevation among the major clades of Saintpaulia. Further issues discussed include the implications of intra-individual nucleotide polymorphism and the narrow genetic basis for drastic differences in trichome morphology, a cardinal characteristic for Saintpaulia taxonomy.
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Secondary compounds, essential oils, and flavoring components of leaf tissues are often enhanced in response to environmental stress exposure. The objective of this study was to determine antioxidant contents of Omani basil under various water regimes including normal and stress conditions. The water stress increased antioxidant compounds in basil leaf tissues, and maximum amount of total phenolics and total flavonoids were observed at an irrigation intensity of 25%. The DDPH scavenging activity and reducing power of basil leaves extract was also higher at 25% water regime. Further decrease in water availability up to 12% caused reduction in antioxidant compounds and antioxidant activities of basil extracts. Key words:
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In recent years several different gene silencing phenomena have been discovered in plants. The book summarizes the most recent data on gene silencing phenomena such as trans-, inactivation, paramutation and co-suppression. Plant researchers will find this edition a valuable help in differentiating between a number of puzzling and partly contradictory gene silencing events. Those not familiar with plant molecular biology are introduced into the relevant methods and scientific models. In addition examples and models of gene silencing in flamentous fungi, Drosophila and mammalian systems are presented. By providing a comparative update on gene silencing effects in different eukaryotes, this book should stimulate communication among scientists working in diverse areas of eukaryotic gene regulation.
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Some important species of Ocimum are typified to avoid further confusion in the literature. O. x citriodorum Vis. is shown to be the correct name for the allohexaploid O. americanum sensu Pushpangadan & Sobti. O. americanum L. is the correct name for the widespread diploid species sometimes referred to as O. canum Sims. An interpretive epitype is provided. The relationships between the economically important varieties of O. basilicum L., and O. x citriodorum, O. minimum L. and O. tenuiflorum L. and the resultant taxonomic problems are explored with reference to crossability studies and chromosome numbers. O. tenuiflorum is reproductively isolated from all other taxa in this study. No viable seed was produced in crosses involving O. minimum, although nutlets were formed in some cases. O. minimum is recognized as a species here in order to reflect the morphological differences and the observed reproductive isolation. O. x citriodorum crosses with some varieties of O. basilicum but not others. All crosses between varieties of O. basilicum produced viable seed. This has important consequences which limit the usefulness of varietal names within the complex. It is suggested that a system of standardised descriptors is needed to allow accurate identification and unambiguous communication of forms within this economically and medicinally important group.
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Essential oil content and composition of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) was compared under greenhouse and field conditions using 9 cloned methyl cinnamate basil lines. Essential oil content, cis-methyl cinnamate, linalool and 1,8-cineole were significantly higher in field grown plants while trans-methyl cinnamate was significantly higher in greenhouse grown plants. Correlations between the greenhouse and field grown plants for these essential oil constituents were significant, indicating that the performance of the lines in both environments was consistent, although the actual means varied. The significant differences in essentual oil content and composition and consistent response of basil genotypes grown under greenhouse and field conditions demonstrates that the expression of these characters is predictable and can be useful in the improvement of basil.
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The Lamiaceae family, which includes basil, sage, and thyme, has long been recognized as a rich source of diverse and unique anthocyanins. The development of intensely purple pigmented basil in the ornamental and herb trade prompted this examination of eight commercial varieties of purple basils (Ocimum basilicum L.) as a potential new source of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins were isolated and characterized utilizing high-performance liquid chromatography, spectral data, and plasma desorption mass spectrometry. Fourteen different anthocyanins were isolated, consisting of 11 cyanidin-based pigments and 3 peonidin-based pigments. The large-leaf basil varieties, Purple Ruffles, Rubin, and Dark Opal, had an average extractable total anthocyanin content ranging from 16.63 to 18.78 mg/100 g of fresh tissue, while the ornamental small-leaf variety, Purple Bush, had only 6.49 mg/100 g of fresh tissue. The highest concentration of total anthocyanins occurred just prior to flowering, although by day 8 seedlings already had accumulated all 14 anthocyanins. Comparisons were made to other anthocyanin sources, with results showing that purple basils are an abundant source of acylated and glycosylated anthocyanins and could provide a unique source of stable red pigments to the food industry. Keywords: Basil; Ocimum basilicum L.; anthocyanins; HPLC; plasma desorption mass spectrometry
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Flavonoids are a class of low molecular weight phenolic compounds that is widely distributed in the plant kingdom. They exhibit a diverse spectrum of biological functions and play an important role in the interaction between plants and their environment. Flavonoids not only protect the plant from the harmful effects of UV irradiation but also play a crucial role in the sexual reproduction process. A special class of flavonoid polymers, the tannins, plays a structural role in the plant. Yet other classes of flavonoids, flavonols and anthocyanins, have been implicated in the attraction of pollinators. Certain flavonoids participate in the interaction between plants and other organisms such as symbiotic bacteria and parasites. This raises the intriguing question as to how these different compounds arose and evolved. Based on taxonomy and molecular analysis of gene expression patterns it is possible to deduce a putative sequence of acquisition of the different branches of the biosynthetic pathway and their regulators.
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An efficient plant regeneration protocol was successfully developed for basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). Explants from 1 mo. old seedlings yielded the highest frequency of 85% regeneration with an average of 5.1 shoots per explant. The regeneration protocol was performed on three basil varieties (Sweet Dani; methylcinnamate; Green Purple Ruffles). Callus and shoot induction was initiated on Murashige and Skoog basal medium supplemented with thidiazuron (16.8 μM) for approximately 30 d. Shoot induction and development were achieved by refreshing the induction medium after 14 d. The most morphogenetically responsive explants were from the first fully expanded true leaves of greenhouse-grown basil seedlings. All developing bud tissue demonstrated temporary anthocyanin expression; however, anthocyanin expression in Green Purple Ruffles remained stable until maturity. Developing shoots were rooted in the dark on media with thidiazuron removed. Within 20 d, rooted plantlets were transferred and acclimatized under greenhouse conditions where they developed normal morphological characteristics. This is the first report of a successful in vitro regeneration system for basil through primary callus.
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A novel, multicolored flower trait with pink and purple sectors or pink and purple flowers on the same plant was found in the soybean line LN89-5320-8-53 that was derived from stocks containing the wp allele for pink flower color. Some all purple flowered or all pink flowered lines derived from the original mutable plant were inherited in a stable manner. However, many plants that are all pink or all purple flowered do not remain stable and they switch back to other phenotypes during inbreeding. High rates of somatic instability and reversions of the wp locus were observed during self-fertilization in which the percent of plants with multicolored flowers ranged from 0.3 to 28%. In contrast to the behavior of this trait during selfing, the instability of the wp-m allele is not transmissible during outcrossing and stabilizes to the recessive pink phenotype in the F2 plants. In addition, we demonstrate that other mutable alleles for seed color (r-m) and flower color (w4-m) do not interact genetically with stable pink derivatives of the wp-m allele when combined by crossing. In addition, the mutability of the w4-m allele is also reduced in crosses to the pink line. Similarly, stable white derivatives of the w4-m locus are not activated by the wp-m mutable allele. The opposite behavior displayed by the wp-m mutable allele during selfing and outcrossing is unusual compared to other unstable soybean alleles and to mutable alleles resulting from transposable element insertions and excisions in many plant genes. Finally, we demonstrate that novel soybean seed coat colors are produced by a pleiotropic effect of the wp/wp flower color genotype in combination with the homozygous i/i genotype for seed color and that wp, i, and t loci segregate independently.
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The peach [ Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] cultivar Pillar shows variegation in anthocyanin production in both vegetative and reproductive tissues. This phenotype is heritable, although the degree of variegation differs with genetic background in progency of outcrosses. Genetic evidence supports the hypothesis that the unstable phenotype is caused by an active transposable element. Reversion to wild-type anthocyanin production in Pillar gave rise to mericlinal and periclinal chimeras of pigmented and nonpigmented tissues. Reversion events in LI and Lll histogenic cell layers of Pillar produced different phenotypes that could be easily distinguished. The reversion rate in the LI and LII layers was determined using the rate at which periclinal mutant buds and shoots were formed. The reversion rates to wild type in the LI and Lll histogenic layers ranged from 0 to 10−2, and from 0 to 3.6 � 10−2 mutations per branching event, respectively. In families where reversion rates in the LI and LII histogenic layers could both be measured, the reversion rate in the LI layer was about fourfold greater than in the Lll.
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Two instances of genetic transmission of spontaneous epimutation of the maize P-rr gene were identified. Transmission gave rise to two similar, moderately stable alleles, designated P-pr-1 and P-pr-2, that exhibited Mendelian behavior. Both isolates of P-pr conditioned a variable and variegated phenotype, unlike the uniform pigmentation conditioned by P-rr. Extensive genomic analysis failed to reveal insertions, deletions or restriction site polymorphisms between the new allele and its progenitor. However, methylation of the P gene was increased in P-pr relative to P-rr, and was greatly reduced (though not lost) in a revertant to uniform pigmentation. Variability in pigmentation conditioned by P-pr correlated with variability in transcript levels of the P gene, and both correlated inversely with variability in its methylation. Part of the variability in methylation could be accounted for by a developmental decrease in methylation in all tissues of plants carrying P-pr. We hypothesize that the variegated phenotype results from a general epigenetic pathway which causes a progressive decrease in methylation and increase in expression potential of the P gene as a function of cell divisions in each meristem of the plant. This renders all tissues chimeric for a functional gene; chimerism is visualized as variegation only in pericarp due to the tissue specificity of P gene expression. Therefore, this allele that originates from epimutation may exemplify an epigenetic mechanism for variegation in maize.
Article
High performance liquid chromatography protocols have been developed to allow the simultaneous analysis of a very wide range of soluble aromatic secondary metabolites in unfractionated biological extracts. The methods are simple, sensitive, and highly reproducible. They are applicable to a wide variety of natural product investigations in both plants and microorganisms. High resolution of metabolites is achieved in 25 minutes by chromatography on a reverse phase C18 column in a gradient of 0 to 55% acetonitrile in water at pH 3. For example, near-baseline resolution of over 20 phenylpropanoid metabolites and 18 naturally occurring metabolites of indole-3-acetic acid can be obtained. The methods can be applied directly to whole tissue extracts without prepurification or enrichment. Moreover, the simplicity and sensitivity of the protocols allow their application to a large number of very small tissue samples, such as those encountered in research on host-microbe interactions. Such profiles allow one to monitor simultaneously the various alternative metabolic fates of a complex array of molecules. Examination of the profiles over time thus provides one with a powerful tool to correlate many concurrent molecular events that may relate to a given biological phenomenon. The final protocol requires as little as 1 milligram of tissue, which is extracted directly in a microfuge tube in 80% ethanol. With a variable wavelength detector, as little as 100 femtomoles of a given metabolite can be analyzed. Examples of the application of the protocols to a number of plant and microbial secondary product investigations and to screening for flavonoid mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. are given.
Anthocyanins in basil
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Phippen WB and Simon JE, 1998. Anthocyanins in basil. J Agric Food Chem 46:1734–1738
Inher-itance of pigmentation in Ocimum basilicum Linn
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Naragund VR, Krishman R, and Kumar TV, 1979. Inher-itance of pigmentation in Ocimum basilicum Linn. Curr Sci 48:822
The control of flower col-oration In: The molecular biology of flowering
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Martin C and Gerats T, 1993. The control of flower col-oration. In: The molecular biology of flowering (Jordan B, ed). Wallingford, UK: CAB International; 219–255
Epigenetic mechanisms of gene regulation. Cold Spring Harbor
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Russo VEA, Martienssen RA, and Riggs AD (eds), 1996. Epigenetic mechanisms of gene regulation. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 1–4. Received August 9, 1999
The potential for breeding Ocimum basilicum L. ( basil) for essential oil content and composition (Masters thesis)
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Murray RG, 1990. The potential for breeding Ocimum basilicum L. ( basil) for essential oil content and composition (Masters thesis). West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University.