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Matching tire tracks on the head using forensic photogrammetry
Abstract
In the field of the documentation of forensics-relevant injuries, from the reconstructive point of view, the forensic, CAD-supported photogrammetry plays an important role; particularly so when a detailed 3-D reconstruction is vital. This is demonstrated with a soft-tissue injury to the face caused by being run over by a car tire. Since the objects (injury and surface of the tire) to be investigated will be evaluated in virtual space, they must be series photographed. These photo sequences are then evaluated with the RolleiMetric multi-image evaluation system. This system measures and calculates the spatial location of points shown in the photo sequences, and creates 3-D data models of the objects. In a 3-D CAD program, the model of the injury is then compared against the model of the possible injury-causing instrument. The validation of the forensic, CAD-supported photogrammetry, as shown by the perfect 3-D match between the tire tread and the facial injury, demonstrates how greatly this 3-D method surpasses the classic 2-D overlay method (one-to-one photography).
... In recent years, photogrammetry has received more attention in research. Tests have been conducted using a single camera [47,[50][51][52], multi-camera sys-tems [53][54][55][56][57] or videos [58]. These techniques have been applied to deceased [47,51,52,55] and living individuals [54], documenting single lesions, organs or entire bodies. ...
... Tests have been conducted using a single camera [47,[50][51][52], multi-camera sys-tems [53][54][55][56][57] or videos [58]. These techniques have been applied to deceased [47,51,52,55] and living individuals [54], documenting single lesions, organs or entire bodies. ...
... In recent years, photogrammetry has received more attention in research. Tests have been conducted using a single camera [47,[50][51][52], multi-camera systems [53][54][55][56][57] or videos [58]. These techniques have been applied to deceased [47,51,52,55] and living individuals [54], documenting single lesions, organs or entire bodies. ...
In the last two decades, forensic pathology and crime scene investigations have seen a rapid increase in examination tools due to the implementation of several imaging techniques, e.g., CT and MR scanning, surface scanning and photogrammetry. These tools encompass relatively simple visualization tools to powerful instruments for performing virtual 3D crime scene reconstructions. A multi-modality and multiscale approach to a crime scene, where 3D models of victims and the crime scene are combined, offers several advantages. A permanent documentation of all evidence in a single 3D environment can be used during the investigation phases (e.g., for testing hypotheses) or during the court procedures (e.g., to visualize the scene and the victim in a more intuitive manner). Advanced computational approaches to understand what might have happened during a crime can also be applied by, e.g., performing a virtual animation of the victim in the actual context, which can provide important information about possible dynamics during the event. Here, we present an overview of the different techniques and modalities used in forensic pathology in conjunction with crime scene investigations. Based on our experiences, the advantages and challenges of an image-based multi-modality approach will be discussed, including how their use may introduce new visualization modalities in court, e.g., virtual reality (VR) and 3D printing. Finally, considerations about future directions in research will be mentioned.
... By taking a series of overlapping photos from different points of view around a targeted object, it is possible to combine the 2D photographs into a true-to-scale 3D model of the object. The precision of photogrammetry has been found comparable to laser scanners [1,2] and photogrammetry used for 3D documentation has already been demonstrated as a valuable tool in forensic context in a case where tire tracks on the head of a victim were matched to a tire [3]. Slot et al. [4] found that photogrammetry could be used to determine the location of lesions and create models for recreation of body postures. ...
... This study showed that measurements gained by photogrammetry were comparable with manually taken measures by the forensic pathologist within a margin of error around 0.1 cm. Photographs can be taken using a single camera [3][4][5][6] or a multi-camera system [7][8][9][10]. However, multiple-camera systems are expensive and require a rig to be built. ...
... These limits of agreement represent the largest expected differences between the two methods of measurements [12] and were calculated by calculating the mean difference ± 1.96 standard deviations of the differences. The manual measurements of photographs were used as a Bgolden standard^as this method has been proven accurate through various studies [2,3,5,6]. All statistics were performed using ...
Accurate and precise documentation of lesions is an important aspect of the forensic pathologists’ work. Photogrammetry provides a useful tool to take precise measurements from photographs. These photographs are normally acquired with single camera photographs, but the procedure is quite time-consuming. Video recording has the potential to record a larger amount of image data faster. We documented 33 cadaveric skin lesions, using photographs and video recordings. The dimensions of the lesions ranged between 0.27 and 21.8 cm. The measurements of the lesions were extracted with both manual and automatic point measurements from photographs and from video frames, respectively. Very small differences (mean and median < 1 mm) were found between measurements taken in photographs versus video frames. Video frames were often blurred, preventing clear demarcation of the edges of the lesions and presenting a larger amount of noise in the 3D models. The differences between the manual point and automatic point measurements were very small (mean and median < 1 mm), but the manual procedure is to be preferred, since automatic points were not always located on the edges of the lesions. The only aspect in which video frames were superior to photographs was the recording time: video recording was almost five times faster than the photo sessions. In conclusion, this study shows that precise and comparable measurements can be extracted both from photographs and video frames. The video is the fastest method, but the use of photographs is still recommended. Manual measurements are more precise than automatic measurements and equally time-consuming.
... Photogrammetry is a technology which allows 3D documentation of objects, scenes and persons. These 3D models can be used to reconstruct crime scenes, including location, objects and persons, or in forensic medicine to match injuries with an injury causing object (2,(4)(5)(6)(7)(8). To create a photogrammetric 3D model, a series of overlapping images from different angles have to be acquired and digitally processed ...
... Overall, the Photobox allows a quick recording of a whole body that can then be transformed in a 3D model (9). Photogrammetry allows a better reconstruction and visualization of injuries than the standard forensic photography procedure (5,8,10,11). A major problem of the 3D models is that looking at them on a 2D hardcopy or screen reduces the 3D information to 2D, consequently losing the depth information. ...
... Mean discrepancies show that both low-and high-resolution VR measurements are more accurate than the conventional forensic measurements, but less accurate than the photogrammetrical measurements. Photogrammetrical injury documentation has been found as an accurate alternative to forensic injury documentation that uses a single hand-held camera (5,8,10,11). Measurements in VR turned out to be less accurate than photogrammetric measurements. ...
The ability to accurately determine injury dimensions is an essential property of forensic documentation. The current standard for injury documentation is photography using a scale to approximate the injury dimensions in the image. The technical qualities of the photograph, such as orthogonality, depth of the field and sharpness of the desired area, are vital to obtaining a correct measurement. Adequate training of the forensic staff can reduce technical errors; nonetheless, there will always be some loss of information when visualizing an injury as a three-dimensional (3D) object on a two-dimensional (2D) photograph. The shortcomings of 2D photographs can be resolved by using 3D photogrammetry, which allows 3D documentation of persons and their injuries. A series of photographs has to be acquired and processed in photogrammetric software to create a photorealistic 3D model. In a prior study, a mannequin equipped with wound tattoos of known dimensions was documented with 3D photogrammetry using a multi-camera device. On the created 3D model, the dimensions of the injuries were then measured and compared to the dimensions approximated from standard forensic photographs. The results showed that the photogrammetric measurements in 3D are more accurate than the approximations performed with standard forensic photographs. In this subsequent study, the created 3D model was visualized and surveyed in virtual reality (VR), and the results were compared to the previous study. Our goal was to establish how accurately injuries can be measured in VR compared to the standard forensic photo documentation and photogrammetric method that is used on computer screens. We found that the measurements in VR are more accurate than the approximations from forensic photo documentation, but slightly less accurate than the photogrammetric measurements performed on a computer screen in dedicated software. In conclusion, photogrammetric software and virtual reality tools can both be used to make accurate size measurements of forensics-relevant injuries. Furthermore, 3D models can be visualized in varying ways allowing a much better understanding and review of injuries, even after the injury has healed.
... This is true for the documentation at the scene, the subsequent antemortem or postmortem examinations, and the detailed documentation of individual pieces of evidence. For the reconstruction, measurement and visualization of geometrical relationships, optical three-dimensional (3D) imaging has been shown to be a useful tool [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. ...
... However, photogrammetry can be used as an inexpensive alternative for optical 3D imaging. In controlled environments, such as autopsy facilities and forensic laboratories, photogrammetry is applicable to document external and internal postmortem examinations as well as objects and various pieces of evidence [1][2][3][4][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]. However, optical 3D imaging in less controlled environments, such as at a collision scene, can easily become much more challenging. ...
Background
: Three-dimensional (3D) documentation of crime and crash scenes is common practice during forensic and medicolegal investigations. Such documentation at a scene is usually carried out by specially trained personnel using various 3D imaging devices and methods, such as terrestrial laser scanners. Unfortunately, this causes the implementation of 3D documentation at the scenes to be expensive and not readily accessible. In 2020, Apple introduced a light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensor into their high-end mobile devices. In 2022, Recon-3D, an iOS application (app), was launched. This app turns an iPhone or iPad into a 3D scanner and is specifically targeted at crime and crash scene applications.
Objectives
: The aim of this study was to test the Recon-3D app based on exemplary scenarios to see whether this technology is generally applicable to document crime or crash scenes.
Materials and Methods
: An iPhone 13 Pro in combination with the Recon-3D app was used to document two indoor scenarios, a mock-up crime scene and a garage, as well as an outdoor scenario of a parked car. Each scenario was documented multiple times.
Results
: On average, data acquisition for one scene took less than 2 minutes. Known distances within the scenes were measured with a mean absolute error of 0.22 cm and a standard deviation of 0.18 cm.
Conclusion
: The imaging workflow was simple and quick, enabling any person to perform 3D documentation at a crime or crash scene. Overall, Recon-3D appeared to be a useful application for forensic investigators.
... Errickson et al. showed that digital and analog 3D models provide better jurors' understanding and decision-making in court than do digital photographs [3]. Furthermore, 3D documentation has already been established in a variety of forensic applications for documenting crime scenes, relevant traces and objects [4,5]. These are a number of reasons that 3D images are useful in forensic examinations. ...
... Additionally, photogrammetry is used in engineering, where it has been an accepted and important technology for several years [12]. Another field of application is road traffic accident reconstruction, where it is used to document incident sites for forensic reconstructions [4,5]. In general, photogrammetry represents a rapid, inexpensive and simple method for the 3D documentation of places and subjects. ...
Physical injuries caused by interpersonal violence or accidents are usually documented with photographs. In addition to standard injury photography using 2D photographs, the Institute *INSTITUT NAME BLINDED FOR REVIEW* uses a Botspot Botscan ® multi-camera device (Photobox; Aniwaa Ltd, Berlin, Germany) that allows for 3D documentation of a subject. The Photobox contains 70 cameras positioned at different heights looking at a central platform. Within a fraction of a second, all cameras are activated and acquire the necessary images for 3D documentation. In previous studies by Michienzi et al. (2018), the geometric correctness of 3D documented injuries was analyzed. While their work concentrated solely on artificial injuries and their dimensions, the work presented in this study analyzes whether the Photobox allows for accurate medical interpretation of injuries, by forensic pathologists. To perform this analysis, 40 datasets of a variety of real cases were processed to 3D models. The created 3D models were then examined by forensic pathologists on 2D computer screens, and the findings were compared with the original reports. While the aim of this work was to assess whether examinations based on a 3D model allows comparable results to immediate examinations of the subject, the results showed that examinations based on a 3D model are 85% accurate when comparing with physical examinations. This indicates that 3D models allow for reasonably accurate interpretation, and it is possible that accuracy might increase with improved equipment and better trained personnel.
... Surface injuries Back in 2000 photogrammetry was used to match tyre treads to a facial injury with results found to be superior than the traditional 2D photographic overlay method (Thali et al. 2000). Recently, abundant research on 3D documentation of surface injuries has been emerging, indeed Ebert et al. (2016) observe that injuries with shape, such as those from "weapons, tools, shoes, dental imprints, forged coins or drugs", have the potential to be matched with objects. ...
... Courtroom Display Thali et al. (2000) promoted the use of photogrammetric 3D models for demonstration of evidence, stating that 3D models are more easily understood by laypersons, a concept that is still portrayed (Villa et al. 2017;Blau et al. 2018). The utility of 3D digital data for courtroom demonstrations of osteological evidence and the potential advantages of having 3D models over 2D photographs was detailed by Errickson et al. (2014). ...
The Journal of Forensic Radiology and Imaging was launched in 2013 with the aim to collate the literature and
demonstrate high-quality case studies on image-based modalities across the forensic sciences. Largely, the focus of this journal has been on the transmissive aspect of forensic imaging, and therefore a significant number of high-quality case studies have been published focusing on computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. As a result, the ‘and imaging’ aspect is often neglected. Since 2013, technology has fundamentally evolved, and a number of new techniques have become accessible or have been demonstrated as particularly useful within many sub-disciplines of forensic science. These include active and passive surface scanning techniques, and the availability of three-dimensional printing. Therefore, this article discusses non-contact techniques, their applications, advantages, and considerations on the current state of play of imaging in forensic science.
https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1YPXj7t3okMgmu
... During the last decade, 3DSS has begun to play an important role in forensic medicine. Prior to the advent of 3DSS, 3D photogrammetry techniques were applied to supply 3D models of, for example, an injury [99,100]. These techniques allowed generation of a 3D model from an object after having merged different photographs taken from different sides and angles. ...
... They were, however, complicated and time consuming, as for every 3D point obtained from the model, identical points had to be found manually on every image to be inserted. As an aid, a grid projection was projected upon the object during the photogrammetric capturing to facilitate the confirmation of more identical points in every image [99,100]. ...
Modern post-mortem investigations use an increasing number of digital imaging methods, which can be collected under the term “post-mortem imaging”. Most methods of forensic imaging are from the radiology field and are therefore techniques that show the interior of the body with technologies such as X-ray or magnetic resonance imaging. To digitally image the surface of the body, other techniques are regularly applied, e.g. three-dimensional (3D) surface scanning (3DSS) or photogrammetry. Today's most frequently used techniques include post-mortem computed tomography (PMCT), post-mortem magnetic resonance imaging (PMMR), post-mortem computed tomographic angiography (PMCTA) and 3DSS or photogrammetry. Each of these methods has specific advantages and limitations. Therefore, the indications for using each method are different. While PMCT gives a rapid overview of the interior of the body and depicts the skeletal system and radiopaque foreign bodies, PMMR allows investigation of soft tissues and parenchymal organs. PMCTA is the method of choice for viewing the vascular system and detecting sources of bleeding. However, none of those radiological methods allow a detailed digital view of the body's surface, which makes 3DSS the best choice for such a purpose. If 3D surface scanners are not available, photogrammetry is an alternative. This review article gives an overview of different imaging techniques and explains their applications, advantages and limitations. We hope it will improve understanding of the methods.
... This demand can oftentimes be met by utilizing photogrammetry. Photogrammetry is already in use to document incidents, such as traffic accidents, and allows better reconstruction and visualization of incident circumstances than do standard forensic photographs [3][4][5]. Additionally, injury size measurements are useful for understanding injury extent. Furthermore, 3D models allow for forensic reconstructions, for example, in the matching of injury-causing instruments to a wound pattern [4]. ...
... Additionally, injury size measurements are useful for understanding injury extent. Furthermore, 3D models allow for forensic reconstructions, for example, in the matching of injury-causing instruments to a wound pattern [4]. The standard photogrammetric procedure for recording injuries involves taking a series of slightly differently angled photographs with a single handheld camera. ...
As forensic science technologies progress, digital photography has become outdated for certain documentations that require exact measurements. Recording three-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional photograph leads to a potential loss of relevant information. Photogrammetry has been utilized to record persons, objects or crime scenes and prevents this loss. Photogrammetry enables accurate documentation and visualization of events or matching of injuries and injury-causing instruments. To reduce inaccuracies during photogrammetric recording, a multi camera device, Botscan by Botspot, can be used to record living persons in three-dimensional space (3D). The device can record a full body in a fraction of a second, which leads to a significant reduction of inaccuracies due to movement. Photogrammetric measurements were compared with measurements from forensic photographs to evaluate the applicability of this device for medical forensic documentation of injuries. For this purpose, a mannequin fitted with different types of artificial injuries was used as an example. The results showed that the photogrammetric measurements obtained using the software Agisoft PhotoScan were more accurate than the measurements from the forensic photographs.
... 3D models of both internal and external structures can be created, but skin injuries, such as bruises or superficial wounds, are not adequately documented. A proper recording of skin injuries can be acquired using surface scanners [7] or photogrammetry [8][9][10][11][12]. ...
... In earlier studies, a procedure for whole-body internal and external 3D documentation has been demonstrated by the VIRTOPSY group [9,[13][14][15][16]: internal and external data, obtained from CT and MR, were combined with external data, acquired using photogrammetry and structured light scanning. The obtained 3D models of the bodies are very detailed, accurate and precise and their usefulness in forensic investigations has been clearly demonstrated [12,17,18]. However, it is unlikely that the described approach can find wider use in forensic institutes, mainly because it requires that photogrammetry or surface scanning is performed during CT scanning [9,19,20]. ...
This study presents a procedure for combining 3D models obtained from CT scanning (internal and external data) and photogrammetry (external data). 3D data were acquired at different times, without the support of reference points. The procedure has been tested on 30 injured areas caused by different wounding mechanisms. The alignment of the different 3D models was in most of the cases very precisely (mean distance around 1. mm, SD around or lower than 2. mm). Ad hoc procedures should be followed in case of injuries on the head, joints and back.
... 3D models of both internal and external structures can be created, but skin injuries, such as bruises or superficial wounds, are not adequately documented. A proper recording of skin injuries can be acquired using surface scanners [7] or photogrammetry [8][9][10][11][12]. ...
... In earlier studies, a procedure for whole-body internal and external 3D documentation has been demonstrated by the VIRTOPSY group [9,[13][14][15][16]: internal and external data, obtained from CT and MR, were combined with external data, acquired using photogrammetry and structured light scanning. The obtained 3D models of the bodies are very detailed, accurate and precise and their usefulness in forensic investigations has been clearly demonstrated [12,17,18]. However, it is unlikely that the described approach can find wider use in forensic institutes, mainly because it requires that photogrammetry or surface scanning is performed during CT scanning [9,19,20]. ...
... The surface scanning technologies come from the field of photogrammetry and include approaches such as structure from motion (SFM) photogrammetry and pattern light scanning [8][9][10][11][12]. The documentation can be used to document injuries and body stature and then be used for subsequent reconstruction of the incident, including matching an object or weapon to an injury [12][13][14][15]. Forensic radiology is often used to supplement traditional autopsies, as it helps in understanding underlying pathologies [16,17], locating and extracting foreign bodies [18], and planning dedicated autopsy procedures [19][20][21]. ...
Forensic investigations require a vast variety of knowledge and expertise of each specialist involved. With the increase in digitization and advanced technical possibilities, the traditional use of a computer with a screen for visualization and a mouse and keyboard for interactions has limitations, especially when visualizing the content in relation to the real world. Augmented reality (AR) can be used in such instances to support investigators in various tasks at the scene as well as later in the investigation process. In this article, we present current applications of AR in forensics and forensic medicine, the technological basics of AR, and the advantages that AR brings for forensic investigations. Furthermore, we will have a brief look at other fields of application and at future developments of AR in forensics.
... 1970'lerin sonlarında Wüllenweber ve arkadaşları tarafından ateşli silah yaralanmalarının tespitinde BT tetkikinin kullanılabileceğinin gösterilmesi sonrasında Radyolojinin adli yönden potansiyeli değerlendirilmeye başlanmıştır (Wüllenweber, Schneider, & Grumme, 1977). 2000'li yılların başlarında ise Prof. Dirnhofer ve Prof.Vock, 3 boyutlu fotogrametri ve yüzey taramaları ile modern adli görüntüleme teknikleri ile belgeme amacıyla İsviçre'de ''virtopsi'' projesini başlatmıştır (Baglivo et al., 2013;Thali, Braun, Brüschweiler, & Dirnhofer, 2000;Thali et al., 2003). 2001 yılında İsviçre'de Alman Tıp Hukuku Kongresinde Virtopsi projesinin ilk sonuçları sunulmuş olup, 2002 yılında Bisset ve arkadaşları İngiltere'de postmortem MR görüntüleme sonuçlarını sundular ve Thali ve arkadaşları tarafından ''Sanal Otopsi'' ifadesi ortaya çıkmıştır (Bisset, Thomas, Turnbull, & Lee, 2002;Thali et al., 2002). ...
Radyolojik görüntüleme tekniklerinin ilerleyen teknolojiyle birlikte
gelişimi sonucunda medikolegal iş akışıyla da entegre hale gelmiş, bununla
birlikte adli tıp ile ilgili kurumların BT (Bilgisayarlı Tomografi),
MRG (Manyetik Rezonans Görüntüleme) gibi görüntüleme araçlarını satın
alarak rutin bir şekilde kullanıma girdiği görülmektedir. Görüntüleme
yöntemlerinin adli tıp alanında kullanımı her ne kadar çok eski zamanlara
uzansa da gelişmiş tekniklerin rutin kullanıma girmesinin oldukça yeni olduğu
görülmektedir.
... 3D digitization has become increasingly common and widely used in different fields of research (Aramendi et al., 2017;Bates et al., 2010;Buzi et al., 2018;Fau et al., 2016;Gaboutchian et al., 2019Gaboutchian et al., , 2020Giacomini et al., 2019;Knyaz and Gaboutchian, 2016;Lussu and Marini, 2020;Medina et al., 2020;Moraes et al., 2014) including forensic sciences (Donato et al., 2020;Santoro et al., 2017;Thali et al., 2000;Villa et al., 2018). Nowadays photogrammetric 3D surface models are widely used for research, exhibition, and museum archiving. ...
X-rays micro-Computed Tomography (X-μCT) is a non-invasive and non-destructive technique primarily used for the 3D reconstruction of internal/external object structures. Despite the great potential, X-ray exposure for samples of archaeo-anthropological interest can compromise the integrity of the finds, altering the results for future investigations. The aim of this study is to evaluate whether close-range photogrammetry is a viable alternative in terms of non-invasiveness, low cost, efficiency and precision to the 3D external surface models with respect to X-μCT scanning. Photogrammetry was applied to small and highly diagenized archaeological human teeth characterized by irregular and fragmented surfaces. The accuracy of the 3D model and the metric information obtained from photogrammetry was evaluated comparing the micro-measurements obtained by digital caliper and Confocal laser scanning microscope (CLMS). The results obtained show the effectiveness of close-range photogrammetry to create a 3D model with metric information as accurate as those from micro-CT, with the advantage of reproducing textural information.
... Various authors showed the use of 3D scanning in vehicular accidents with respect to the injuries examination, cause of death and vehicle damage. They concluded that a combination of PMCT and autopsy can prove to be the best way for the determination of cause and manner of the death in traffic accidents [31][32][33][34][35]. ...
In the field of forensic science, autopsy that is postmortem examination involves a thorough corpse examination done in order to determine the cause and manner of the death by invasive method. With the advancement of technology a new term: “Virtopsy” meaning virtual autopsy employs the application of imaging techniques namely computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has proven its advantages in the forensic field. It involves the scanning of dead bodies in a non-invasive manner. It a great alternative to the traditional autopsy as it provides wide-range and systemic examination of the whole body in a less time duration, benefits in diagnosis as well as renders respect to religious sentiments. Method is more specific, sensitive, & precise and accurately reflect soft tissue injuries, organ damage, wound extent, fractures which provides instinctive and powerful court evidence for forensic identification. The chapter will be describing the importance of “Virtopsy” in the field of forensic science and its future scope in forensic crime investigations.
... In the documentation of accidents and crime scenes, 3D scanning methods are becoming a standard procedure [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. The availability of 3D data -whether laser scans of incident scenes, 3D surface scans of objects or postmortem computed tomography scans (PMCTs) of deceased -allows detailed 3D reconstructions and visualizations [8][9][10]. ...
The forensic holodeck was first introduced in 2013, using the first upcoming commercially available virtual reality gaming headsets to visualize forensic 3D reconstructions. Following the publication of this development virtual reality was introduced in case work in a variety of different ways. After 8 years of using virtual reality in a professional forensic capacity this professional practice report will show, which equipment is necessary in addition to a virtual reality setup. This mostly includes audio-visual and broadcasting technology for complete documentation of the application of virtual reality, but also some other IT equipment, which should be available for as low as 20’000 US$. Guidelines, hints and tips regarding equipment acquisition, setup and use will be provided and discussed.
... Examination of pedestrians at the scene of a crash with careful photographic documentation under good lighting with measurements of such tire markings will ensure that this potentially important type of evidence is not compromised by handling of the body and transport. More complex photographic matching of tire tracks with skin markings can then be subsequently performed in the morgue if this evidence has been preserved [9]. ...
A 32‐year‐old man was found dead beside a road with severe complex traumatic brain injuries due to blunt craniocerebral trauma compatible with being run over by a vehicle. A subsequent review of closed‐circuit television (CCTV) footage showed him to be unaccompanied and to fall over beside the road. At autopsy, distinctive black patterned markings were present on the left side of his face and head, which were not associated with significant underlying patterned bruising or abrasions. These corresponded to the pattern of tire tread taken from a vehicle identified by police as likely to have been involved in the incident. This case demonstrates an unusual form of tire track marking on the skin due to the transfer of oil/dirt/rubber from the projecting tread, that is, a vehicular form of Locard's principle where every contact leaves a trace. Although this may be extremely useful in linking a particular vehicle to a crash, the superficial nature of the residue renders it vulnerable to being wiped off by rubbing with a body bag during transport or washing if a body is cleaned. Careful photographic documentation of such tire markings at the scene will preserve this type of evidence and avoid it being subsequently compromised by body handling.
... In addition, 3D data can be used to acquire measurements on the body [14,18,19,22]. Finally, 3D data can be used for 3D reconstructions of crime and accident scenes [6,7,9,24] to perform matching between an injury and an injurycausing object [1][2][3][4][5]71]. ...
Multispectral photography offers a wide range of applications for forensic investigations. It is commonly used to detect latent evidence and to enhance the visibility of findings. Additionally, three-dimensional (3D) full-body documentation has become much easier and more affordable in recent years. However, the benefits of performing 3D imaging beyond the visible (VIS) spectrum are not well known, and the technique has not been widely used in forensic medical investigations. A multicamera setup was used to employ multispectral photogrammetry between 365 and 960 nm in postmortem investigations. The multicamera setup included four modified digital cameras, ultraviolet (UV) and near-infrared (NIR) light sources and supplemental lens filters. Full-body documentation was performed in conjunction with the use of a medical X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanner to automate the imaging procedure. Textured 3D models based on multispectral datasets from four example cases were reconstructed successfully. The level of detail and overall quality of the 3D reconstructions varied depending on the spectral range of the image data. Generally, the NIR datasets showed enhanced visibility of vein patterns and specific injuries, whereas the UV-induced datasets highlighted foreign substances on the skin. Three-dimensional multispectral full-body imaging enables the detection of latent evidence that is invisible to the naked eye and allows visualization, documentation and analysis of evidence beyond the VIS spectrum.
... With this method, it is possible to document the 3D shape and orientation of an object in space by using two or more overlapping images [6]. In forensic medicine, photogrammetry has been used to match injurycausing objects to detected wounds [7][8][9][10] and has been shown to be more precise in the measurement of wound size than the 2D photography method [11]. 3D documentation requires the examined object to stay stationary during data acquisition, which can be an issue, especially with living persons. ...
Evidence acquisition, interpretation and preservation are essential parts of forensic case work that make a standardized documentation process fundamental. The most commonly used method for the documentation and interpretation of superficial wounds is a combination of two modalities: two-dimensional (2D) photography for evidence preservation and real-life examination for wound analysis. As technologies continue to develop, 2D photography is being enhanced with three-dimensional (3D) documentation technology. In our study, we compared the real-life examination of superficial wounds using four different technical documentation and visualization methods.
To test the different methods, a mannequin was equipped with several injury stickers, and then the different methods were applied. A total of 42 artificial injury stickers were documented in regard to orientation , form , color , size , wound borders , wound corners and suspected mechanism of injury for the injury mechanism. As the gold standard, superficial wounds were visually examined by two board-certified forensic pathologists directly on the mannequin. These results were compared to an examination using standard 2D forensic photography; 2D photography using the multicamera system Botscan©, which included predefined viewing positions all around the body; and 3D photogrammetric reconstruction based on images visualized both on screen and in a virtual reality (VR) using a head-mounted display (HMD).
The results of the gold standard examination showed that the two forensic pathologists had an inter-reader agreement ranging from 69% for the orientation and 11% for the size of the wounds. A substantial portion of the direct visual documentation showed only a partial overlap, especially for the items of size and color , thereby prohibiting the statistical comparison of these two items. A forest plot analysis of the remaining six items showed no significant difference between the methods. We found that among the forensic pathologists, there was high variability regarding the vocabulary used for the description of wound morphology, which complicated the exact comparison of the two documentations of the same wound.
There were no significant differences for any of the four methods compared to the gold standard, thereby challenging the role of real-life examination and 2D photography as the most reliable documentation approaches. Further studies with real injuries are necessary to support our evaluation that technical examination methods involving multicamera systems and 3D visualization for whole-body examination might be a valid alternative in future forensic documentation.
... To photograph the entire external surface of the samples in this study, the skulls were elevated on a cylindrical stand measuring approximately 1220 mm by 15 mm, where the stand was inserted through the foramen magnum allowing the skulls to balance on top of the stand. This setup was simple and allowed the author to photograph the entire surface of the skull with ease when compared to the more complex photogrammetry described in previous research where DLSR cameras were used on tripods and overhead projectors were used to project light points on the forensically relevant objects [20,[35][36][37][38]. The difference between these photogrammetry methods can be attributed to the advancement in camera technology [19,39]. ...
Osseous remains provide forensic anthropologists with morphological and osteometric information that can be used in building a biological profile. By conducting a visual and physical examination, an anthropologist can infer information such as the sex and age of the deceased. Traditionally, morphological and osteometric information is gathered by physically handling remains for analysis. With the advancement of digital technology, there has been a shift from direct to indirect methods of analysis by utilizing models generated from three-dimensional (3D) imaging, which includes computed tomography (CT) scanning and 3D photogrammetry. Although CT scanning is more common, photogrammetry has found application in a range of fields such as architecture, geography and road accident reconstruction. The application of modern-day photogrammetry for forensic anthropology purposes, however, has not been discussed extensively. The aim of this research was to validate the accuracy of 3D models generated by photogrammetry by comparing them to both 3D models generated by CT scanning and the actual physical models. In this study, six 3D models were created using photogrammetry (n = 3) and CT scanning (n = 3). The 3D models were generated from three different Bone Clone® human skulls. A mobile phone camera was used to capture images, which were then processed in Agisoft Metashape®. Intrarater, interrater, and intermethod reliability tests gave correlation coefficients of at least 0.9980, 0.9871, and 0.9862, respectively; rTEM results ranged from 0.250 to 6.55%; and an analysis of variance (ANOVA) yielded P values under 0.05 for all measurements except one. Statistical tests therefore showed photogrammetry to be a reliable and accurate alternative to more expensive CT scanning approaches.
... Some early studies proposed the use of photogrammetry for the matching of vehicle tire marks left on the heads of victims during pedestrian-vehicle collisions. In these studies, accurate digital models were produced of injuries and successfully matched them, proving the usefulness of this technique not only in the study of flat weapons but also in more complex objects, such as tires [41]. However, this technique was also found to be limited by its low image resolution, preventing its use in the assessment of smaller wounds. ...
Up until the beginning of the 21st century, the technique of choice for the forensic medical examination of a deceased individual was the traditional medical autopsy. This, however, has begun to change with the introduction of post-mortem imaging. Post-mortem imaging, or ‘virtual autopsy’, is a novel area of radiology that utilises non-invasive imaging techniques for the examination of a body. Many of the techniques used to conduct a virtual autopsy are more commonly employed within clinical diagnostic, such as computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging. In recent years, post-mortem imaging has gathered significant momentum as a robust and objective methodology capable of compiling relevant intelligence without disturbing a body. This review identifies and describes the techniques currently available for post-mortem imaging and provides an insight on their advantages and disadvantages compared to traditional autopsy methods. The aim of this paper is to highlight the most relevant milestones accomplished in this field and the potential application of this technique within current forensic frameworks.
... Despite these drawbacks, the 3D documentation of injured persons not only allows precise measurements of injury location and dimension but could also allow the use of 3D models for subsequent 3D reconstructions, e.g. matching of injury-causing object to injury [26][27][28][29]. ...
Documenting the existence, size, position and shape of injuries is an important part of medical forensic examinations. In the photography of an injury, the documentation is limited to an approximation of size and position of the injury based on a ruler included in the image. The documentation of injuries can be improved with photogrammetry, which allows the creation of scaled 3D models of an injury that can be used to not only document and visualize the injury but also to match the injury with an injury-causing object. In this paper, the multicamera device “Botscan” was used to perform 3D whole-body documentation and measure the positions of injuries. A major advantage of 3D whole-body documentation compared to photography is that the former can be performed at a later stage of the investigation. This makes the whole-body 3D documentation of injuries an important tool for re-examination.
... Examples of this include Zimmer et al. (9) and Matthews et al (10). The use of photogrammetry in other areas of forensic practice highlight the perceived value and general feelings of the community regarding the technique; specifically regarding levels of accuracy and validity (11,12). Currently, three-dimensional footwear impressions are either cast or photographed in 2D. ...
This paper examines the reliability of Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry as a tool in the capture of forensic footwear marks. This is applicable to photogrammetry freeware DigTrace but is equally relevant to other SfM solutions. SfM simply requires a digital camera, a scale bar, and a selection of oblique photographs of the trace in question taken at the scene. The output is a digital three‐dimensional point cloud of the surface and any plastic trace thereon. The first section of this paper examines the reliability of photogrammetry to capture the same data when repeatedly used on one impression, while the second part assesses the impact of varying cameras. Using cloud to cloud comparisons that measure the distance between two‐point clouds, we assess the variability between models. The results highlight how little variability is evident and therefore speak to the accuracy and consistency of such techniques in the capture of three‐dimensional traces. Using this method, 3D footwear impressions can, in many substrates, be collected with a repeatability of 97% with any variation between models less than ~0.5 mm.
... Entire bodies can also be 3D documented using a multi-camera system [16,17]. Photographs can be taken using a single camera [5,6,18,19] or a multi-camera system [16,17], Recently, the use of video recording has been suggested as a possible alternative [20]. Photogrammetry enables a permanent 3D documentation of the injuries that can be reassessed with great accuracy and precision at any time. ...
Recently, new forms of documentation such as photogrammetry are increasingly used in forensic sciences. Photogrammetry enables an actual 3D recording of crime scenes. This technique can be used to extract 3D models of an object in digital form (coordinates and derived geometric elements, e.g. measurements, surface, area) or graphical form (sketches, maps). Photogrammetry can be applied on large and small scale, from landscape to fingerprints. The aim of this chapter is to introduce forensic experts to the principles and applications of photogrammetry for 3D recording of crime scenes, evidence, and people (living or deceased individuals). Some applications in forensic pathology, including the integration of photogrammetry with post-mortem computed tomography (PMCT), are presented.
... In 2000 Thali et al. [24] matched patterned skin lesions to tyre profiles in run-over cases. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this research article is the first to present a complete morphometric 3D reconstruction of hit-and-run-over or run-over accidents. ...
In traffic accidents, the differentiation of run-over and other injuries is crucial because questions about the origin of fatal injuries often arise. It is sometimes difficult for forensic pathologists to answer them due to the superimposition of injuries or competing, potentially fatal findings. Therefore, using morphometric three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions offers new perspectives based on an interdisciplinary evaluation of all findings and traces.
The morphometric 3D reconstruction includes the allocation of patterned injuries or transferred material, the determination of the origin of injuries as well as the reconstruction of the incident. The generated 3D models of persons, clothes, vehicles, incident sites and relevant objects resulting from forensic imaging, photogrammetry, 3D structured-light and laser scanning are included, as are all detected traces and damages. Three case studies are presented to illustrate the possibilities and results of morphometric 3D reconstruction.
Run-over accidents have received less attention than the topic of pedestrian, bicycle and motorbike accident analysis for which there is a large body of literature. Our goal is to add to the understanding of run-over accidents using morphometric reconstruction in order to improve their analysis in the future.
The possibilities of morphometric reconstructions by means of 3D techniques in run-over accidents are wide-ranging and can provide new, unexpected and significant insights.
... Crime scenes, weapons and vehicles are documented in 3D by using structured light scanners, photogrammetry and laser scanning [12][13][14][15]. By integrating these different 3D data together with conventional evidence, forensic questions regarding the sequence of events, gunshot trajectories and other forensic evidence can be answered [16][17][18][19]. ...
Virtual reality is recently finding its way in forensic work. The required 3D data is nowadays a standard dataset available in many cases, from homicide to traffic collisions, including not only data from the scene but also of weaponry and involved persons. Current investigations use these 3D data to replicated the incident and as discussion base for forensic personal. However, modifying the scene on a 2D viewport is often cumbersome due to the loss of the third dimension. Also to perform the modifications on the scene a 3D operator is often required. Virtual reality might improve this step by its easy use and by visualising the third dimension. This publication presents a variety of tools which can be used in forensic investigations. Additionally to the tools, examples of forensic use of these tools will be presented, showing that already a small number of tools support a variety of forensic applications.
... In modern times, 3D imaging techniques and 3D data sets have become important assets to forensic investigations. Techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and threedimensional (3D) surface imaging not only help document and preserve legally important information but also supplement forensic examinations of the living and deceased [3], assist in identification procedures [4][5][6][7][8], help reconstruct scenes of events [9][10][11][12][13], and make virtual autopsies possible or can even propose the cause of death with imaging prior to autopsy [3,[14][15][16]. ...
Introduction
Modern forensic investigations increasingly revert to 3D imaging techniques, such as computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and 3D surface imaging. Findings are therefore often based on 3D data sets; however, this information is commonly reported and communicated within 2D imagery. The use of interactive 3D PDFs is already established in the scientific community but has yet to be implemented in the field of forensic medicine.
Methods and materials
Three example cases were chosen to serve as exemplary data for the most commonly applied imaging techniques in postmortem imaging. 3D surface models were created from postmortem magnetic resonance imaging (PMMR), postmortem computed tomography (PMCT), and 3D surface imaging data sets.
Results
PMMR revealed a space-occupying subdural hemorrhage that led to ipsilateral compression of the brain tissue of the right hemisphere. PMCT displayed a defect in the skull on the left side of the temporal bone. 3D surface imaging data displayed a patterned discoloration on the inside of the left forearm.
Discussion
Interactive 3D PDFs offer the possibility to communicate 3D information to the reader while maintaining all the benefits of a regular 2D PDF. With Adobe Acrobat, the reader can interactively navigate through 3D data sets and create sufficient depth cues to generate a realistic 3D perception of the data.
Conclusion
The interactive 3D PDF is a useful extension of standard 2D PDFs and has the potential to communicate 3D data to the reader in a more complete, more comprehensible, and less subjective manner than 2D PDFs.
... In the past two decades, photogrammetric techniques have been used in various studies to illustrate their applicability in the field of forensic medicine [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]. 3D imaging techniques are now commonly used and have become beneficial tools in keeping with the aims of forensic investigations [21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]. ...
Two-dimensional photographic documentation is a substantial part of post-mortem examinations for legal investigations. Additional three-dimensional surface documentation has been shown to assist in the visualization of findings and contribute to the reconstruction of the sequence of events. However, 2D photo documentation and, especially, 3D surface documentation, are time-consuming procedures that require specially trained personnel. In this study a 3D imaging system, called VirtoScan-on-Rails, was developed to automate and facilitate 3D surface documentation for photo documentation in autopsy suites. The imaging system was built to quickly acquire photogrammetric image sets of whole bodies during different stages of external and internal examinations. VirtoScan-on-Rails was set up in the autopsy suite of the Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine at the University of Zurich (Zurich, Switzerland). The imaging system is based on a movable frame that carries a multi-camera array. Data quality and the applicability of the system were analyzed and evaluated within two test series. Up to 200 overlapping photographic images were acquired at consecutive image-capturing positions over a distance of approximately 2000 mm. The image-capturing process took 1 min and 23 s to acquire a set of 200 images for one side of the body. During test series one and two, 53 photogrammetric image sets taken from 31 forensic cases were successfully reconstructed. VirtoScan-on-Rails is an automated, fast and easy-to-use 3D imaging setup for autopsy suits. It facilitates documenting bodies during different stages of forensic examinations and allows standardizing the procedure of photo documentation.
... These scans are relevant beyond the pure purpose of documentation and gathering evidence. In cases where it is requested by state attorneys, specific forensic questions can be answered by performing a scene reconstruction based on the available 3D data (Fig. 2a) [3,11]. Based on these reconstructions, questions regarding impact angles, bullet trajectories or object-to-injury matching can be answered (Fig. 2b) [3]. ...
A major task of forensic investigations is the documentation and interpretation of evidence to reconstruct a forensically relevant incident. To accomplish this task, a scene is documented not only with photographs but also with 3D documentation technologies. The resulting 3D data are used for 3D visualization and to perform 3D reconstructions. In this article, we present an approach for using forensic 3D data in conjunction with virtual reality to perform scene walkthroughs in the context of witness or suspect interrogations. The aim is to provide a method for scene visits showing the original scene even years after the incident. These scene walkthroughs in VR can be reproduced and allow to see through the eyes of a witness by recording their behavior and actions. These recordings allow subsequent examinations and reconstruction to support the investigation and scene understanding and can be used as evidence in court.
... The contribution of 3D surface scanning instrumentation was mainly emphasised through specific applications, mostly in combination with other non-invasive imaging techniques such as MDCT (multi-detector-computed tomography) [9][10][11][12][13] or MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) [10,12,13]. These specific applications were shown by case examples, most cases of traffic accident reconstructions [4,5], comparisons of wounds with the injury-causing instrument [3,6,7,[14][15][16] and event scenario assessments [4,5]. Several related case reports praised the high quality of the images and other general advantages of the 3D surface scanning techniques, such as an objective and non-invasive 3D documentation, the high resolution and the accuracy [4,8,17]. ...
3D surface scanning is a technique brought forward for wound documentation and analysis in order to identify injury-causing tools in legal medicine and forensic science. Although many case reports have been published, little is known about the methodology employed by the authors. The study reported here is exploratory in nature, and its main purpose was to get a first evaluation of the ability of an operator, by means of 3D surface scanning and following a simple methodology, to correctly exclude or associate an incriminated tool as the source of a mock wound. Based on these results, an assessment of the possibility to define a structured methodology that could be suitable for this use was proposed. Blunt tools were used to produce ‘wounds’ on watermelons. Both wounds and tools were scanned with a non-contact optical surface 3D digitising system. Analysis of the obtained 3D models of wounds and tools was undertaken separately. This analytical phase was followed by a qualitative and a quantitative comparison. Results showed that in more than half of the cases, we obtained a correct association but the prevalence of wrong association was still high due to mark deformation and other limitations. Even if the findings of this exploratory study cannot be generalised, they suggest that the simple and direct comparison process is not reliable enough for a systematic routine application. The article highlights the importance of an analysis phase preceding the comparison step. Limitations of the technique, ensuring needs and possible paths for improvement are also expounded.
... lts in comparison with forensic documentation standards. The image-based method proposed by Zancajo-Blanquez et al. (2015) is instead applied to the forensic infography technique, which aims to relate all the evidences in order to determine and demonstrate the facts related to a crime scenario. Another novel application can be found in the work of Thali. (2000), which successfully applied photogrammetric techniques for the documentation of forensicrelevant injuries. and digital crimes. In Sharma and Dhavale (2016), a review of passive forensic techniques for the detection of copy-move attacks on digital videos is illustrated due to the urgent requirement of authenticating the integrity of the ...
This paper aims to propose and validate a methodology which can support forensic technicians while documenting a crime scene, after a contamination event (either accidental or deliberate) has changed its original appearance. Indeed, investigators need fast and automated tools to detect changes that occurred at a scene over time, and solutions to this problem are still an open issue. The contribution of the paper for addressing this need is twofold. First, a new methodology is introduced, that exploits panoramic images acquired with the Ricoh Theta SC camera, and 2D feature-based methods. The core idea is that SIFT features inherently contain scene information and, thanks to their good stability and invariance, can be exploited to detect possible changes that occurred at a scene surveyed with multi-temporal images. Second, in order to evaluate the performance of the proposed methodology, a reference approach is applied, based on state-of-the-art change detection algorithms (MAF/MAD), originally developed for remote sensing applications. Both methods are tested by simulating a typical crime scene, and a contamination event at the Crime Scene House (UK).
... The technique used for 3D surface scanning of the body area was the primary issue, a decision had to be made whether the area was reconstructed using 360°scanning, complete scanning over the entire area, or scanning only one surface, desired surface, in the stable manner. The previous works 1, 5,9,10,22,34 reconstructed injuries by scanning only the injured surface; however, in order to decide the scanning technique in this work, a foot was scanned in two ways; i.e. 360°scanning and scanning only one surface in the stable manner. The scanning process in both methods was undertaken with the same experimental conditions and with the same scanner parameters. ...
Non-contact three-dimensional (3D) surface scanning methods have been applied to forensic medicine to record injuries and to mitigate ordinary photography shortcoming. However, there are no literature concerning practical guidance for 3D surface scanning of live victims. This paper aimed to investigate key 3D scanning issues of the live body to develop a series of scanning principles for future use on injured victims. The Pico Scan 3D surface scanner was used on live test subjects. The work focused on analysing the following concerns: (1) an appropriate 3D scanning technique to scan different body areas, (2) the ideal number of scans, (3) scanning approaches to access various areas of the body and (4) elimination of environmental background noise in the acquired data. Results showed that scanning only a required surface of the body area in the stable manner was more efficient when compared to complete 360°-scanning; therefore, it used as a standard 3D scanning technique. More than three scans were sufficient when trying to obtain an optimal wireframe mode presentation of the result. Three different approaches were suggested to provide access to the various areas of the body. Undertaking scanning using a black background eliminated the background noise. The work demonstrated that the scanner will be promising to reconstruct injuries from different body areas, although the 3D scanning of the live subjects faced some challenges.
... The image-based method proposed by Zancajo-Blanquez et al. (2015) is instead applied to the forensic infography technique, which aims to relate all the signs in order to determine and demonstrate the facts related to a crime scenario. Another novel application can be found in the work of Thali, M.J. (2000), that successfully applied photogrammetric techniques for the documentation of forensicrelevant injuries. The study has shown how it is possible to reconstruct and match tyre tracks marks on body parts after an accident occurs, through image-based modelling techniques combined with CAD-based tools. ...
Crime scene documentation is a fundamental task which has to be undertaken in a fast, accurate and reliable way, highlighting
evidence which can be further used for ensuring justice for victims and for guaranteeing the successful prosecution of perpetrators.
The main focus of this paper is on the documentation of a typical crime scene and on the rapid recording of any possible
contamination that could have influenced its original appearance. A 3D reconstruction of the environment is first generated by
processing panoramas acquired with the low-cost Ricoh Theta 360 camera, and further analysed to highlight potentials and limits of
this emerging and consumer-grade technology. Then, a methodology is proposed for the rapid recording of changes occurring
between the original and the contaminated crime scene. The approach is based on an automatic 3D feature-based data registration,
followed by a cloud-to-cloud distance computation, given as input the 3D point clouds generated before and after e.g. the
misplacement of evidence. All the algorithms adopted for panoramas pre-processing, photogrammetric 3D reconstruction, 3D
geometry registration and analysis, are presented and currently available in open-source or low-cost software solutions.
... Images are subsequently processed through photogrammetric software; creating a 3D model that can be measured, manipulated, and viewed. Photogrammetric methods have advanced considerably and developed into an effective archaeological and forensic documentation method (e.g., [6,[8][9][10][11][12]16,23]. Geospatial software has also been recently employed as a useful technique with photogrammetry [13][14][15][16]. ...
Over the past decade, Structure from Motion (SfM) has increasingly been used as a means of digital preservation and for documenting archaeological excavations, architecture, and cultural material. However, few studies have tapped the potential of using SfM to document and analyze taphonomic processes affecting burials for forensic sciences purposes. This project utilizes SfM models to elucidate specific post-depositional events that affected a series of three human cadavers deposited at the South East Texas Applied Forensic Science Facility (STAFS). The aim of this research was to test the ability for untrained researchers to employ spatial software and photogrammetry for data collection purposes. For a series of three months a single lens reflex (SLR) camera was used to capture a series of overlapping images at periodic stages in the decomposition process of each cadaver. These images are processed through photogrammetric software that creates a 3D model that can be measured, manipulated, and viewed. This project used photogrammetric and geospatial software to map changes in decomposition and movement of the body from original deposition points. Project results indicate SfM and GIS as a useful tool for documenting decomposition and taphonomic processes. Results indicate photogrammetry is an efficient, relatively simple, and affordable tool for the documentation of decomposition.
... Possible factors related to traffic accidents may include the following: number of impacts, sequence of events, and the speed and direction of motion of the parties involved. In most cases, the position of impact is the main focus of interest [6]. Buck et al. showed a case where the question "Accident or homicide?" ...
3D reconstructions of motor vehicle collisions are used to identify the causes of these events and to identify potential violations of traffic regulations. Thus far, the reconstruction of mirrors has been a problem since they are often based on approximations or inaccurate data. Our aim with this paper was to confirm that structured light scans of a mirror improve the accuracy of simulating the field of view of mirrors.
We analyzed the performances of virtual mirror surfaces based on structured light scans using real mirror surfaces and their reflections as references. We used an ATOS GOM III scanner to scan the mirrors and processed the 3D data using Geomagic Wrap. For scene reconstruction and to generate virtual images, we used 3ds Max. We compared the simulated virtual images and photographs of real scenes using Adobe Photoshop.
Our results showed that we achieved clear and even mirror results and that the mirrors behaved as expected. The greatest measured deviation between an original photo and the corresponding virtual image was 20 pixels in the transverse direction for an image width of 4256 pixels.
We discussed the influences of data processing and alignment of the 3D models on the results. The study was limited to a distance of 1.6 m, and the method was not able to simulate an interior mirror.
In conclusion, structured light scans of mirror surfaces can be used to simulate virtual mirror surfaces with regard to 3D motor vehicle collision reconstruction.
The existing literature contains some exploration of the ethics concerning human remains in forensic and virtual anthropology. However, previous work has stopped short of interrogating the underlying ethical concepts. The question of how people understand and apply these concepts in practice, and what it means to act ethically, remain underexplored. This thematic review explores the ethical considerations that contribute to the creation and use of 3D printed human remains for forensic purposes. The three main branches of ethical theory are outlined to explore how they may apply to forensic practice. Key themes relating to 3D printing human remains in forensic contexts were explored to better understand the ethics landscape, ethical challenges, and the current guidelines in place. Through this thematic review, nine ethics principles were identified as key principles for guiding best practice: anonymity, autonomy, beneficence, consent, context, justice, non-maleficence, proportionality, and transparency. It is suggested that these principles could be incorporated into adaptable guidelines going forward to support ethical practice. The findings also suggest that holistic ethics cognition training may have value in supporting forensic scientists in ethical decision-making, together with procedural and structural design that may promote best practice and reduce cognitive load.
3D printed human remains offer an alternative presentation format to traditional photographs, that could be more effective and less emotive. However, the perception of the public regarding key questions, such as the use, ownership, and disposal of 3D printed remains in courts of law has not yet been established.This study explored whether the creation of 3D printed human remains could be considered as an ethical practice by members of the public. A survey comprised of 36 questions was designed to gather responses from members of the public (n = 400) about their attitudes to the creation and use of 3D printed human remains. A majority of respondents believed it was ethical to use 3D prints in courtroom demonstrations (more than 90%) and that this may help jurors to better understand expert testimony over photographs. Respondents also indicated that the context of the case and whether consent had been received from next of kin were important considerations.The results of this study indicate that there is a recognition that there is a direct connection between 3D printed remains and the individual from whom a print derives, and that there is a clear public interest in ensuring that prints are used ethically and responsibly. Yet there are currently no guidelines for what constitutes best ethical practice for the creation and utilisation of 3D prints. As we look forward, there is a need to identify how best to treat 3D printed remains with dignity and respect in casework in a manner that is also contextually appropriate.
Progress in Pathology reviews many aspects of pathology, describing issues of everyday diagnostic relevance and the mechanisms underlying some of these processes. Each volume in the series reviews a wide range of topics and recent advances in pathology of relevance to daily practice, keeping consultants, trainees, laboratory staff and researchers abreast of developments as well as providing candidates for the MRCPath and other examinations with answers to some of the questions they will encounter. Highly illustrated in full colour, topics covered in this volume include: Immunohistochemistry as a diagnostic aid in gynaecological pathology, Drug induced liver injury, Childhood lymphoma, Immune responses to tumours, Post-mortem imaging, Understanding the Human Tissue Act 2004 and much more. Volume 7 of Progress in Pathology will be an essential addition to the shelves and laboratory benches of every practising pathologist.
Progress in Pathology reviews many aspects of pathology, describing issues of everyday diagnostic relevance and the mechanisms underlying some of these processes. Each volume in the series reviews a wide range of topics and recent advances in pathology of relevance to daily practice, keeping consultants, trainees, laboratory staff and researchers abreast of developments as well as providing candidates for the MRCPath and other examinations with answers to some of the questions they will encounter. Highly illustrated in full colour, topics covered in this volume include: Immunohistochemistry as a diagnostic aid in gynaecological pathology, Drug induced liver injury, Childhood lymphoma, Immune responses to tumours, Post-mortem imaging, Understanding the Human Tissue Act 2004 and much more. Volume 7 of Progress in Pathology will be an essential addition to the shelves and laboratory benches of every practising pathologist.
Progress in Pathology reviews many aspects of pathology, describing issues of everyday diagnostic relevance and the mechanisms underlying some of these processes. Each volume in the series reviews a wide range of topics and recent advances in pathology of relevance to daily practice, keeping consultants, trainees, laboratory staff and researchers abreast of developments as well as providing candidates for the MRCPath and other examinations with answers to some of the questions they will encounter. Highly illustrated in full colour, topics covered in this volume include: Immunohistochemistry as a diagnostic aid in gynaecological pathology, Drug induced liver injury, Childhood lymphoma, Immune responses to tumours, Post-mortem imaging, Understanding the Human Tissue Act 2004 and much more. Volume 7 of Progress in Pathology will be an essential addition to the shelves and laboratory benches of every practising pathologist.
A sexual offense is a crime of violence against a person’s body that causes physical trauma, emotional distress, and suffering of victims. The investigation of sexual crimes necessitates the involvement of a multidisciplinary team of forensic experts who are dedicated to the discovery, recovery, packing, and analysis of evidence. During the crime scene investigation, identification and recovery of biological evidence are of prime importance, since it is often the only way to confirm sexual contact and the offender’s identity. The investigator must be able to detect proof that would otherwise go overlooked using characteristic technology and techniques. Traditionally, forensic science laboratories use established procedures to classify biological evidence and molecular methods to produce DNA profiles grounded on amplification and DNA sequencing that are laborious and expensive and not provide significant information in DNA mixtures samples. However, now there is a series of a modern method of investigation which overcomes the disadvantages of traditional methods and is very useful to identify the sexual offender in forensic investigation. This chapter explained about the sexual offenses, traditional crime scene investigation, and the recent investigative techniques like DEPArray for sexual offense evidence processing, bite mark utility, spermatozoa detection using ultrasound technique, and the forensic 3D/CAD supported photogrammetry approach which allows for a prevailing and reliable method of analyzing sexual offense data, allowing for unparalleled sensitivity and specificity while also removing the need for conventional human sperm confirmatory tests and qPCR-based DNA quantification.KeywordsSexual offensesDNA profilingDEPArrayBite markPhotogrammetry
Introduction
Radiographers can play an essential role within forensic teams and contribute by producing high quality images. There are several aspects of forensic imaging, these commonly include but are not limited to imaging as part of post-mortem investigations, evaluation of non-accidental injuries and the identification of the presence of illicit drugs.
In some countries radiographers perform post-mortem imaging before conventional autopsy, a practice that needs to be advanced in less developed countries. In this study, we explored experiences, attitudes and knowledge of radiographers' and forensic pathologists’ in delivering forensic radiography services in Nigeria.
Method
A qualitative exploratory descriptive study was undertaken. Three focus group interviews were conducted with 14 radiographers and five forensic pathologists. Participants were recruited through purposive sampling from two government owned tertiary hospitals in Lagos-State, Nigeria. Focus groups were audio recorded and lasted approximately 1 h. Data were thematically analysed and managed using the Atlas Ti computer software.
Results
Forensic pathologists and radiographers perceived forensic radiography differently. Radiographers reported a reluctance to take images of deceased people and were generally not aware of medicolegal issues involved in performing forensic examinations. Three themes emerged in the study, namely participants' experiences in forensic radiography, participants' knowledge of forensic radiography principles and guidelines, and participants’ attitude towards forensic radiography services.
Conclusion
Improving forensic radiography services is likely to require development of postgraduate curricula in forensic radiography and a fellowship curriculum in radiography for forensic pathologists.
Implication for practice
This paper argues that, for radiographers to produce high quality diagnostic images that can assist the forensic team in medico-legal investigations subspecialisation in the field of forensic radiography would be advantageous.
Forensic Gait Analysis examines the inter-section of podiatric medicine with forensic investigation-that which links or dissociates a suspect to a crime through analysis of their gait, that is their movement-how an individual walks, runs, and bends. This book provides a concise explanation of how an individual's gait and biomechanics are forensically analysed and compared, using video imagery in the process of human identification and investigations. Along with the presentation and delivery of material with case law references illustrating the use of expert evidence. Gait analysis is a long-standing component of the diagnostic and therapeutic tool set of medical disciplines, although the knowledge goes back much further. The area has also captured the interest of technology engineers and others, as the development and use of forensic gait analysis as an investigative and evidential device continues to widen.
On the basis of evidence-based medicine, it is necessary for current knowledge systematizing the use of different imaging methods to be combined with forensic techniques in order to guarantee best practice, aiming for the best and most accurate results. This relationship relies on the ability of radiology to provide evidence characterized not only by high diagnostic credibility but also by important documentary power.
Cette thèse de doctorat propose une méthodologie qui met en valeur le potentiel latent de l’image témoin pour la reconstruction forensique d’un évènement. Les images témoins englobent toutes les images liées à un évènement, qu’elles proviennent de systèmes de surveillance, de témoins, de protagonistes ou des premiers intervenants. De nature ambigüe, elles constituent une mémoire de ce qui se déroule avant, pendant et après un évènement. Elles sont décomposées en traces visuelles et auditives de l’évènement ainsi qu’en traces du système d’enregistrement. Omniprésentes dans les enquêtes actuelles, leur utilisation pose plusieurs défis : les intégrer à l’enquête pour obtenir des indices et des moyens de preuve ; exploiter tout leur potentiel lorsque l’évènement a une certaine durée et qu’une masse d’images doit être gérée ; combiner des photographies et des vidéos enregistrées par plusieurs appareils, fixes et mobiles. En vue d’amener des solutions concrètes à ces défis, cette recherche s’applique à formaliser l’exploitation des images témoins pour reconstruire des activités criminelles de manière efficiente.
La première étape de recherche consiste en une revue de la littérature sur l’utilisation des images en science forensique et les bonnes pratiques, avec une réflexion sur le rôle des images. La seconde étape formalise une méthodologie appliquée, construite sur la base des cas pratiques traités par le chercheur. La troisième étape explore les expériences de praticiens suisses et européens à l’aide d’entretiens individuels et de groupe pour co-construire une méthodologie partagée. La quatrième étape confronte ces manières d’exploiter les images témoins pour proposer une méthodologie consolidée.
Cette méthodologie amène une solution structurée pour gérer les questions, les informations et le matériel d’une affaire litigieuse. Elle intègre graduellement les images qui proviennent de différents appareils et permet d’obtenir des informations mesurables sur la réalité spatiale et le déroulement chronologique. La recherche a permis de mettre en avant plusieurs niveaux d’observation, d’exploitation et de communication qui combinent des traces fragmentaires, illisibles ou ambigües pour révéler des informations nouvelles. Ces nouveaux indices peuvent amener les enquêteurs et les magistrats à ajuster le périmètre et la fenêtre temporelle de l’affaire, générer des hypothèses sur le déroulement des actions et interactions des protagonistes ou des témoins et modifier la direction de l’enquête.
La plus-value amenée par la reconstruction 3D, la chronologie ou les indices sonores devient plus explicite pour les praticiens et les parties prenantes de l’enquête. Le fait de percevoir ce potentiel latent des images constitue un nouveau paradigme. Le potentiel de reconstruction des images est anticipé ; l’observation des images change. Les enjeux pour l’avenir sont de renforcer l’intégration des nouvelles technologies de l’image tout en développant l’accès à une reconstruction ouverte lors de l’enquête et du procès. Un tel accès permettrait aux parties de formuler et d’apprécier leurs propres hypothèses sur le déroulement de l’évènement.
Tyre imprints on the skin are usually considered to be the result of being run over by a motor vehicle. This article reports a traffic accident in which tyre marks on the victim's skin were caused by a collision rather than by being run over. The mechanism of the injury in this case is analysed and discussed. A 23-year-old male drove a motorcycle while under the influence of alcohol and collided with a sign pillar on the side of the road. Both the victim and the motorcycle careened into the bottom of a tractor-trailer. No witnesses or surveillance videos could confirm the process of the accident. Because tyre imprints were found on the victim's skin, traffic police believed that he had been run over during the accident. However, forensic autopsy and analysis of the accident process revealed that the true cause of the imprints was a collision between the victim's body and a tyre.
Postmortem imaging is a fascinating field of forensic radiology that has seen extraordinary growth in the last 10 years. Indeed, if autopsy represents the sole reliable method of determining the definitive cause of death, imaging may provide an efficient guide to supplement conventional autopsy. This is particularly true because of several techniques that are currently available, such as postmortem computed tomography, multiphase postmortem computed tomography angiography, and postmortem magnetic resonance imaging. In this review, we explore the newer imaging techniques in forensic radiology.
Abstract Photogrammetry can be used to investigate injuries to skin, soft tissue and bones. Among other uses, injuries from blows can
be compared with the object that may have caused them. This new application of photogrammetry necessitates a new approach
when photographing the findings. The authors have therefore developed and tested aids to assist the photographer and have
drafted a protocol for their use. The photographs must be taken with a special camera, but by keeping to the instructions
described here a normal camera can be used. The findings must be recorded in three dimensions which means that serial photographs
must be prepared. The serial photographs are evaluated using a RolleiMetric system. This calculates a three dimensional data
model of the injury by reading spot measurements from the individual photographs in the series. The instrument thought to
have caused the injury will be photographed in the same way. Using the CAD-process, the injury and the surface thought to
have been responsible for the injury will be examined to see if there are matching features. The photographs can be taken
by an experienced photographer under the direction of a forensic pathologist. The evaluation using the RolleiMetric system
should be left to a specialist.
RolleiMetric -a RolleiMetric system MR 2. Original work in German
System RolleiMetric MR 2 (First experiences with the
grammetrische Ingenieuranwendungen (RolleiMetric -a
RolleiMetric system MR 2. Original work in German.), Der
system concept for photogrammetric engineering use. Origi-Vermessungsingenieur 1 (1988) 62-67.
nal work in German.), Z. Photogrammetrie Fernerkundung 6
RolleiMetric -ein Systemkonzept fur photo
- G Pomaska
G. Pomaska, RolleiMetric -ein Systemkonzept fur photo-(1988) 134-141.
Photogrammetrische Vermessung morphologischer Befunde (Photogrammetric measurement of morphologic evidence. Original work in German
- W Brüschweiler
- M Braun
- H J Fuchser
Erste Anwendererfahrungen mit dem System RolleiMetric MR 2 (First experiences with the RolleiMetric system MR 2. Original work in German.)
- Kinzel
RolleiMetric — ein Systemkonzept für photogrammetrische Ingenieuranwendungen (RolleiMetric — a system concept for photogrammetric engineering use. Original work in German.)
- Pomaska