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Social Reactions to Rape Victims: Healing and Hurtful Effects on Psychological and Physical Health Outcomes
Abstract
In this study, 102 rape survivors were interviewed about the social reactions they received from family and friends post-rape. Results supported Ullman's (1996b) conclusion that the overall contribution of positive social reaction (e.g., providing support, listening, believing) on victims' recovery is negligible, but that negative social reactions (e.g., blaming) hinder recovery. In contrast to Ullman's (1996b) work, this research also examined whether rape victims have similar perceptions as to what constitutes a "positive" and "negative" social reaction. Results indicated that victims often agree as to what reactions are healing (positive), but that they do not agree as to what is hurtful (negative). By taking victims' perceptions into account, this study was able to compare the relative contributions of social reactions that were considered healing, social reactions that were considered hurtful, and the absence of social reactions. Results indicated that survivors who had someone believe their account of what happened or were allowed to talk about the assault--and considered these reactions to be healing-had fewer emotional and physical health problems than victims who considered these reactions hurtful, or victims who did not experience these reactions at all. Implications for future research on social reactions are discussed.
... Psychological and cognitive changes also characterize aging, with many elderly individuals experiencing shifts in cognitive processes and emotional regulation [6]. Conditions such as dementia, depression, and anxiety are prevalent among older populations, posing significant challenges to mental health [6], [26]. ...
... Psychological and cognitive changes also characterize aging, with many elderly individuals experiencing shifts in cognitive processes and emotional regulation [6]. Conditions such as dementia, depression, and anxiety are prevalent among older populations, posing significant challenges to mental health [6], [26]. Socially, aging often leads to social isolation and loneliness due to factors like retirement and reduced mobility, resulting in a contraction of social networks [10], [22]. ...
... This study explores the multifaceted roles of social workers within the ATENSI-LU program at the Pangudi Luhur Integrated Center (STPL) Bekasi, focusing on their implementation and the challenges they face in fulfilling their roles effectively [6]. The research identifies eleven distinct roles played by social workers in the ATENSI-LU program: Enabler, Broker, Advocate, Mediator, Negotiator, Educator, Initiator, Empowerer, Coordinator, Researcher, and Group facilitator. ...
The purpose of this study is to determine, explain, and analyze the role of social workers in the elderly social rehabilitation assistance program (ATENSI-LU), especially the role of social workers in implementing the stages of the service process and providing assistance to the elderly. This research design is descriptive-qualitative research. The informants were social workers, the elderly, and the head of the institution (supervisor of social workers). The data collection techniques used were focus group discussions, interviews, observations, and documentation studies. Data validity used tests of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. The data analysis technique used the Miles and Huberman model, namely data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing. The role of social workers in the ATENSI-LU program is quite good, because they have been able to carry out eleven roles, namely as: Enabler, Broker, Advocate, Mediator, Negotiator, Educator, Initiator, Empowerer, Coordinator, Researcher, and Group facilitator, but there are two roles that have not been implemented, namely the role of Activist and Public speaker. This is because social workers depend on the assignment of the head of the institution and budget availability. Social workers lack the courage to innovate and be creative in making policy improvements to improve the quality of services and assistance, and fulfill the needs and rights of the elderly. Social workers assume that the task of informing the problems and needs of the elderly is the task of the head of the institution. The role of social workers still needs to be improved because: (1) Not all types of social worker roles can be implemented, (2) Social workers have not been able to carry out each role optimally, (3) Social workers focus more on administration to reduce inspection findings, and (4) The program is implemented by all employees, making it less professional. To improve the role of social workers then: (1) Social workers need to better master the program, be more sensitive and concerned about receiving complaints from the elderly, and fight for the fulfillment of the needs and rights of the elderly. (2) STPL Bekasi needs to establish cooperation to improve and develop the capacity of social workers. (3) The Ministry of Social Affairs needs to socialize the program, coordinate, and improve and develop the capacity of social workers.
... Intersectional factors, including race, ethnicity, class, and sexual orientation, intersect with gender to shape survivors' experiences and reporting likelihood. Marginalised groups, such as women, face additional barriers due to systemic inequalities and discrimination (Anderson and Overby 2020; Campbell et al. 2001). In conclusion, survivors' choices to report are shaped by moral judgments, justice perceptions, cultural views, and gender dynamics. ...
While the non-reporting of rape is problematic internationally, it is particularly worrisome in the Lupane rural district of Zimbabwe. Therefore, this study was designed to understand the reasons behind non-reporting. Data was collected using narrative unstructured interviews with 44 purposively selected participants, consisting of 30 villagers and their 14 village heads. Three non-government organisations (NGO) registered as service organisations for the district formed part of the sample. The leave to interview Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP) personnel was sought, and the Commissioner-General of ZRP declined to provide gatekeeper permission. Thematic data analysis identified key themes and their relationships and meanings. New conversations are recommended for village communities to initiate culturally sensitive awareness and improve the reporting of rape.
... A potential explanation for this pattern is that individuals in these communities may not have previously been in spaces where others disclosed information about their experience with GBV, leaving them to feel alone with their experiences. Previous studies have noted the positive effects and therapeutic benefits of disclosing sexual abuse and other types of GBV when met with positive reactions [51][52][53]. By providing a space where recent GBV survivors could connect with others who had similar experiences, this intervention may have allowed individuals to experience these benefits and heal. ...
Colombia hosts the largest number of refugees and migrants fleeing the humanitarian emergency in Venezuela, many of whom experience high levels of displacement-related trauma and adversity. Yet, Colombian mental health services do not meet the needs of this population. Scalable, task-sharing interventions, such as Group Problem Management Plus (Group PM+), have the potential to bridge this gap by utilizing lay workers to provide the intervention. However, the current literature lacks a comprehensive understanding of how and for whom Group PM+ is most effective. This mixed methods study utilized data from a randomized effectiveness-implementation trial to examine the mediators and moderators of Group PM+ on mental health outcomes. One hundred twenty-eight migrant and refugee women in northern Colombia participated in Group PM+ delivered by trained community members. Patterns in moderation effects showed that participants in more stable, less marginalized positions improved the most. Results from linear regression models showed that Group PM+-related skill acquisition was not a significant mediator of the association between session attendance and mental health outcomes. Participants and facilitators reported additional possible mediators and community-level moderators that warrant future research. Further studies are needed to examine mediators and moderators contributing to the effectiveness of task-shared, scalable, psychological interventions in diverse contexts.
... These early help-seeking experiences and the responses that they receive have important implications for victim-survivors. A number of studies have demonstrated that victim-survivors of sexual violence and other forms of gender-based violence who receive negative reactions from disclosure recipients-for example, victim blaming, minimisation, distancing-report more severe symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression than victim-survivors who receive positive or more supportive reactions (Campbell et al. 2001;Ullman & Peter-Hagene 2014;Woerner, Wyatt & Sullivan 2019). ...
A significant proportion of users subjected to dating app facilitated sexual violence (DAFSV) make a report to the platform. However, the experiences of victim-survivors reporting to dating platforms has been underexamined in research. Based on the analysis of a survey completed by 1,555 dating platform users in Australia who had reported DAFSV to the platform, this study found overall positive experiences reporting to platforms. However, victim-survivors’ experiences differed depending on their gender and sexual identity; LGB+ women reported the lowest levels of satisfaction with platforms’ responses, and heterosexual men the highest. Further, respondents who were satisfied with how platforms responded to their reports of DAFSV were more likely to say that they would report again in the future. Respondents who said that the dating platform had provided them with information about other services were also more likely to report the incident to the police.
... Negative reactions (e.g., victim-blaming, disbelief) are associated with PTSD symptoms, hindered recovery, and poorer adjustment (Campbell et al., 2001;Orchowski et al., 2013;Ullman, 1996;Ullman & Peter-Hagene, 2014), even after controlling for demographics, trauma history, and assault-related factors (Ullman et al., 2007). ...
Sexual trauma (ST) occurs with alarming frequency in the United States in the form of both childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and adulthood sexual assault (ASA). It is well established that the effects of ST are pervasive and that ST can be a risk factor for the development of several psychiatric disorders. However, the potential for distinct psychological consequences or neural correlates between CSA and ASA has received little attention. Furthermore, despite the high prevalence of sexual revictimization, the combinatorial effects of CSA and ASA are understudied in comparison to each form of ST on its own. In the current review, we present results from both clinical psychology and neuroscience research on the impacts of CSA and ASA, describing major psychological, biopsychosocial, and neuroimaging findings for each form of ST. We further highlight limitations in the current state of the research and needed areas of future research to better understand the distinct, overlapping, and cumulative effects of ST in both childhood and adulthood. The present study summarizes the state of the literature on this critical form of trauma and provides recommendations for future clinical research practices to mitigate the deleterious outcomes of ST.
The #MeToo movement of 2017 ushered in a wave of online disclosure of sexual victimization. The ways in which people respond to the disclosure of sexual victimization can play an important role in a survivor’s recovery process. This study conducted an exploratory structural equation model (ESEM) of a questionnaire aimed at characterizing the ways in which others respond to the disclosure of sexual victimization in online spaces. Participants ( N = 767) were recruited via social media to participate in a study of disclosure of unwanted sexual experiences, with 25.4% ( n = 195) endorsing disclosing an unwanted sexual experience online using the hashtag #MeToo and were included in analyses. Participants completed the Online Social Reactions Questionnaire (OSRQ). The questionnaire included all 16 original items from the Short Version of the Social Reactions Questionnaire (SRQ). An additional 8 items specific to online disclosure, not covered by the SRQ were added at the end, bringing the proposed OSRQ to a total of 24 items. The updated measure included the 16 original items of the Short Version of the SRQ as well as 8 additional items, for a total of 24 items. ESEM confirmed the OSRQ as a 23-item measure with a four-factor structure: (a) Turning Against+, (b) Unsupportive Acknowledgment, (c) Positive Support+, and (d) Online Sharing; model fit: χ ² (186) = 387.125, p < .001, CFI = 0.976, RMSEA = 0.074 (90% CI [0.064, 0.085]), SRMR = 0.034. The OSRQ revealed excellent Cronbach’s alpha (α = .93) and McDonald’s Omega (ω = .93). The OSRQ represents a new measure that can be used to characterize the way in which others respond to online disclosure of sexual victimization.
This study examined the effects of self-blame attribution and social response after disclosure of sexual assault on the adult female victims’ trauma symptoms. The author applied a sequential explanatory mixed method and quantitatively analyzed the data from 81 women and subsequently conducted in-depth interviews with 10 women who experienced sexual assault in their adulthood. In the final stage, we integrated the two phases and interpreted how self-blame, family reactions, response from institutions, and rape myths affect the sequelae of the victims of sexual assault. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the relationship and impact of individual and social contextual factors of sexual assault sequelae.
Investigated fear reactions in rape victims for 1 yr following their assaults. 150 female victims, over 15 yrs of age, seen approximately 2 wks after the assault and at 1, 2, 4, 8, and 12 mo postrape, were compared with a matched control group of nonvictims seen at the same intervals. To control for the effects of repeated testing, 3 additional groups of victims were assessed only once at either 2, 4, or 8 mo postrape. All participants completed the Modified Fear Survey Schedule (MFS), which yielded a total fearfulness index as well as 6 subscale scores: rape fears, animal fears, classical fears, social–interpersonal fears, tissue-damage fears, and miscellaneous fears. Following the assault, victims were significantly more fearful than nonvictim controls as indicated by their overall MFS score and most of the subscale scores. Although their overall fearfulness declined somewhat and stabilized by 2 mo postassault, victims remained significantly more fearful than nonvictim controls at 12 mo postassault. The rape fears and classical fears subscales seemed to contribute most to this elevation. Results from the single-testing victim groups indicated that repeated assessment had no effect on participants' scores. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study addresses the role of behavior therapies in the recovery from rape trauma by presenting two lines of evidence. First, 60 immediate-treatment seekers are compared to 24 late-treatment seekers. Although the late-treatment seekers began treatment at a time point comparable to the point at which the immediate-treatment seekers completed treatment, both groups of subjects showed comparable pre-post improvement. Second, all treated subjects (N=84) are compared to untreated subjects in assessment-only studies conducted at other sites. Although the treaated subjects in the present study were significantly more symtomatic than subjects in the assessment-only studies at initial assessment, symptom levels were comparable by three-to-four months postassault, suggesting that treatment intervention accounted for the greater change observed in the treated subjects.
A broad range of psychological aftereffects have been noted among women who have experienced male-perpetrated violence. These symptoms vary considerably among individuals, across social contexts, and across different types of violent encounters (Coley & Beckett, 1988; Goodman, Koss, & Russo, 1992; Koss, 1988; Straus, Gelles, & Steinmetz, 1980). Nevertheless, a remarkably consistent picture of the psychological sequelae of violence—particularly sexual and physical assault—emerges from the empirical and clinical literature (Koss, 1988). In this article, we use the posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis—a frame that captures many of the disparate symptoms described by researchers—as a basis for exploring several conceptual models that have been developed to explain women's responses to violence.
Using a structured interview to obtain a lifetime history of criminal victimization, a community sample of 266 adult women who had experienced at least one incident of victimization was identified. These women were administered the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised, the Impact of Event Scale, and a structured clinical interview was used to identify Crime-Related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (CR-PTSD). A recently derived scale based on responses to items on the SCL-90-R was compared to the IES for predicting current diagnosis of Crime-Related PostTraumatic Disorder. Both the scale and the IES were found to improve prediction of CR-PTSD above base rates and to perform in a similar manner. The utility of each of these scales as a screening measure is discussed.
The present study compares systematic psychiatric assessments of recent rape victims with assessments of nonvictimized controls. Rape victims and controls did not differ in the number or kind of past diagnoses; however, victims were significantly more likely to meet criteria for major depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and drug abuse during the month preceding assessment.
This study investigated 25 victims' reactions to sexual assault and the role of social support in their subsequent adjustment. Victims were interviewed 3 months after the assault to gather information about the assault, the type of support they received, and the effects of the assault as measured by two scales of psychological stress: Impact of Events scale and SCL-90-R. Our major findings were that (a) victim's scale scores were significantly elevated, reflecting the considerable distress they were still experiencing; (b) there were significant differences in the availability of support from specific categories of people (e.g., police received significantly high ratings, whereas physicians' ratings were significantly low); (c) the amount of perceived support varied with the stressfulness of the assault; (d) however, contrary to initial hypotheses, the amount of overall support did not predict subsequent adjustment; (e) support from physicians did correlate significantly with both scales of psychological adjustment.
An exploratory model of variables affecting level of sexual assault trauma at given times and change in trauma levels over time is developed and tested using a sample of female rape victims admitted to a treatment center over a two-year period. Based on a one-way analysis of variance and multiple classification analysis, the findings indicate that a previous rape best explains trauma change, while victim's demographics, social supports, and other prior life stress variables are important at specific time periods during the rape trauma syndrome. Implications of these results are discussed in terms of treatment-related issues.