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The Effect of Wearing the Veil by Saudi Ladies on the Occurrence of Respiratory Diseases
Abstract
It is customary in clinical practice and elsewhere to put on a mask for protection against infection, dust, and so forth. The veil, which is traditionally worn by women in many Muslim countries, especially in Saudi Arabia, may have a similar effect. The study was carried out during 1998-1999 in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia. Adult women were asked to answer a structured questionnaire related to the occurrence of respiratory tract problems and about veil wearing. Veil wearing was practiced by 58% of the sample. Respiratory infections and asthma were significantly more common in veils users (p < 0.00001 and p < 0.0003, respectively). This unexpected finding was probably secondary to infection. More and bigger studies are recommended.
... 20 Furthermore, other studies present the veil as an imperfect substitution for the medical face mask, as Muslim women take off their veil within their homes or in the presence of other women, thus "having the same high risk of disease transmission in a closed environment with exposure to droplet infection". 21 Other potentially relevant distinctions include the absence of a filter and the loose application of the veil to the face in comparison to a face mask, which is elasticized and therefore closely covering the face -a mandatory aspect of clinical practice to prohibit the transmission of viral strains, bacteria, dust, etc. 20 Additionally, Ahmad et al. (2001) found that long-term effects of niqab use include reduced ventilation function and forced vital capacity. 22 This is important, as the combination of airway resistance, increased microclimate temperature, humidity, and skin temperature created inside the niqab could produce an ideal environment for organisms to grow and infect the host. ...
... 21 Other potentially relevant distinctions include the absence of a filter and the loose application of the veil to the face in comparison to a face mask, which is elasticized and therefore closely covering the face -a mandatory aspect of clinical practice to prohibit the transmission of viral strains, bacteria, dust, etc. 20 Additionally, Ahmad et al. (2001) found that long-term effects of niqab use include reduced ventilation function and forced vital capacity. 22 This is important, as the combination of airway resistance, increased microclimate temperature, humidity, and skin temperature created inside the niqab could produce an ideal environment for organisms to grow and infect the host. 22 Other possible reasons why the veil is an imperfect substitute for a clinical face mask is the sharing of veils among family members and the fact that Saudi women do not usually cover their face when alone in their homes, thus resulting in a high risk of contracting infections in closed environments. ...
... 22 This is important, as the combination of airway resistance, increased microclimate temperature, humidity, and skin temperature created inside the niqab could produce an ideal environment for organisms to grow and infect the host. 22 Other possible reasons why the veil is an imperfect substitute for a clinical face mask is the sharing of veils among family members and the fact that Saudi women do not usually cover their face when alone in their homes, thus resulting in a high risk of contracting infections in closed environments. 22 ...
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) is a potentially severe viral respiratory illness that is caused by a new strain from the beta group of coronavirus (CoV). Almost all cases arise from Saudi Arabia, and men are at a greater risk of contracting the virus (68%) in comparison to women. This disparity presents an interesting question: What accounts for these observed sex differences in MERS infection rates? Using an analytic lens that considers the unique dynamics of socially constructed and specific gender roles, this review challenges the common assumption that biological differences in vulnerability (genetic disposition) are the primary drivers for the disparate male infection rates. Specifically, the author uses a gender-based analysis (GBA) to explore gender-based risk factors within Saudi Arabia that may contribute to this disparity. The findings of this review suggest that particular gendered risk factors including religious (Hajj) and cultural practices (shisha smoking) as well as social roles pertaining to livestock management (dromedary camels) may create different exposures to MERS-CoV. Ultimately, this research illustrates a significant gap in the current knowledge and understanding of how gender dynamics affect infectious diseases, especially concerning the issue of containment of and protection from MERS.
... No obstante, en un estudio hay evidencia de que infecciones respiratorias y asma fueron significativamente más comunes en mujeres que usan velos como barrera de tela protectora. 20 Según se relata, el uso de mascarillas de tela puede aumentar potencialmente el riesgo de una infección debido a sus propiedades físicas, su reutilización, la frecuencia de su uso con pobre eficiencia en la limpieza y una mayor retención de humedad. 19 En un ensayo aleatorizado por grupos, mascarillas de tela en comparación con máscaras quirúrgicas en un ambiente hospitalario, se demostró que, debido a la retención de humedad, su reutilización y su filtración deficiente pueden provocar mayor riesgo de infección. ...
Con el surgimiento del SARS-CoV-2 en Wuhan (China) hacia finales del 2019, el mundo se ha enfrentado a una nueva pandemia, que hasta el momento supera ya los 5 millones de infectados, llamada COVID-19. Al no existir un tratamiento eficaz contra la infección, las medidas de salud pública han obtenido una gran relevancia para la contención del virus. Entre ellas destacan el lavado de manos y el distanciamiento social. El uso generalizado de mascarillas en el ámbito comunitario por su parte ha sido una medida de salud pública que, hasta el momento, no ha sido del todo adoptada por la comunidad internacional debido a la escasa evidencia científica con la que se dispone. En esta revisión se expone la evidencia científica actual en cuanto la eficacia de esta medida para mitigar la propagación de esta y otras pandemias. Así como los beneficios y riesgos que de ella emanan.
... There is no doubt that the veil is regarded as preservation and concealment for women, and it is evidence of the purity of the heart and compliance with the commands of God Almighty. The veil or niqab consists of two or three layers of cloth pieces (17). In 2013, a report was published by The New England Journal of Medicine on the outbreak of Saudihospital Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). ...
The study aimed to determine the low-cost measurement of facemask efficacy especially the Niqab against the spread of COVID-19 during the speech. It is evident from the data provided by UN Women that the countries with a Muslim majority where covering the face with Niqab is culture has a less percentage of women affected by the COVID-19 virus as compared to the countries where women do not cover their face with niqab. conclusion: people are looking for low-cost measures for prevention against the spread of Covid-19. A niqab is made up of different types of cloth and works in a similar way to a cloth mask.
... The long-term use of traditional niqab can adversely affect the functional vital capacity and the fractional expiratory volume at one second (FEV1) among Saudi adult females (Alghadir, Aly, & Zafar, 2012). Respiratory infections and asthma were significantly more common among veils users (p < 0.00001 and p < 0.0003, respectively, probably secondary to infection (Ahmad et al., 2001). Discomfort levels increase with duration of time wearing masks and nasal resistance increases upon removal of an N-95 mask or a surgical facemask, potentially due to nasal physiological changes (Zhu, Lee, Wang, & Lee, 2014). ...
We aimed to analyze factors impacting the Covid-19 epidemic on a macro level, comparing multiple countries across the world and verifying the occurrence at a micro level through cluster analysis. The severity of the epidemic was most strongly related to exposure to ultraviolet light and extrapolated levels of vitamin D and to the health of the population, especially with regards to obesity. We found no county with an obesity level < 8% with a severe epidemic. We also found that countries where the population benefited from sun exposure or vitamin D supplementation and spent time outside fared well. Factors related to increased propagation of the virus included the use of heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC), population density, poorly aerated gatherings, relative humidity, timely policies of closing clustering places until aeration was improved, and daily amount of ridership on public transportation, especially subways. Population lockdowns, masks, and blood type did not provide much explanatory power. Contact tracing was not analyzed as very few countries applied it for long enough. The excess mortality observed is within the ranges of severe past influenza epidemics of 2016/2017 or 1999/2000 and lower than older severe influenza epidemics of the 1940s or 1970s. We estimated that COVID mortality death counts in European countries is over estimated when taking into account excess mortality further confirming the important role of comorbidities independently of lockdown policy. A few countries observed an under-mortality despite of some deaths counts attributed to COVID-19. Treatments or vaccines should protect the fraction of the population that is not suffering from severe comorbidities. Our study suggested that prevention measures should be directed to improving aeration systems, enhancing diets and exercise, and ensuring adequate levels of vitamin D. Prevention measures and attention should be paid to anxiety resulting from this episode which may be associated with increases in obesity, addictions, vitamin D deficiency, depression, suicide, and hunger ultimately weakening population resiliency.
The status of Islamic women varies in different Muslim countries, which interpret Islamic religion and law differently, especially with regard to their attitudes toward women. Most of these Islamic countries have specific beliefs about women and have restrictions concerning them. Gender stereotypes of Islamic women have their origin in the evolution of the Muslim religion. This is similar to the early development of many other religions and how the gender stereotypes of women developed along with the development of these religions. This paper describes the meaning of being a Muslim and the doctrine of the Qur'an, which came from the revelations to Muhammad, Islam's founder and prophet about 610 C.E. During Muhammad's life, he was sympathetic toward women and was concerned about their equal treatment, including full religious responsibility. Although the restrictions were still there on women, their treatment was much more favorable than after Muhammad's death. Conditions for women under Muhammad's successors became worse. Attitudes and perceptions about women were even more negative. Women were isolated, secluded, forced to pray at home—not in the mosque, and exclusion was put into practice. Women were essentially removed from most sectors of society. Veiling of women included covering specific parts of their body to prevent enticing men. Women's status declined rapidly and any freedoms they had were essentially abolished. And as Islam spread across the centuries, these restrictions and practices were adopted, amended, or made more extreme by most if not all Muslim countries and have continued until the present time. The current status of women in Islamic countries is described along with the intensified discussions and debates concerning women, presently taking place. In some states, bills and laws were passed to improve conditions of women but some have already been revoked. In other countries, new restrictions have been proposed. Nevertheless, Islamic women and women's groups are continuing the struggle for their rights. This struggle, amidst the continuing turmoil in the Middle East and the increase in fundamentalist groups, has unfortunately made the final outcome for women yet to be decided.
The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of asthma among United Arab Emirates school children aged 6-14 years. A cross-sectional study of 850 school children living in both urban and rural areas (average age 9.36 +/- 2.11 years, 46.8% boys and 53.2% girls) was conducted using self-administered questionnaires between October 1992 and May 1993. The population sample had a high prevalence rate of diagnosed asthma (13.6%), breathlessness or tightness in chest (9.7%), allergic rhinitis (22.9%), and nocturnal cough (8.9%). Allergic rhinitis was the most frequently seen respiratory illness when compared to other respiratory symptoms. The frequency of asthma, allergic rhinitis and eczema among parents reflected the same pattern as that seen in the children. Prevalence rate of asthma was not significantly higher in fathers (5.9%) than in mothers (5.3%). The differences between the sexes were not significant in any of the age group studied for any of the allergic conditions, except for diagnosed asthma in which the prevalence rate in males was significantly higher than that in females. On the whole, the prevalence rate of all the conditions increased with age. But the frequency of allergic rhinitis symptoms was significantly higher in mothers (16%) than in fathers (10.8%). These results are consistent with those obtained in neighbouring gulf countries and are higher than those of some developed countries, but the differences are not statistically significant.
Dental instruments such as the right angle or straight handpiece, air turbine, and ultrasonic scaler have the ability to produce dental aerosols containing water, saliva, microorganisms, blood, tooth particles, lubricating oil, and restorative materials. The purpose of this study was to find out whether personal protective equipment (mask, glasses) was used by dental personnel, and to investigate possible work related disease in the dental profession.
Cross sectional data were collected with a self administered questionnaire sent to 69 randomly chosen general dental practices in the West Midlands Region. All members of the dental team completed questionnaires (dentists (n = 122); nurses (n = 115); hygienists (n = 86); and receptionists (n = 74) and answered questions on use of personal protective equipment and the prevalence of upper and lower respiratory tract, eye, and skin symptoms (reported and work related). Reception staff were included as a low exposure, control group. Also, a longitudinal study of dental hygienists was carried out on 31 people who had taken part in a similar study five years earlier.
Use of a face mask and glasses differed between clinical groups with hygienists and nurses being the most and least prevalent users respectively. Although several reported symptoms were significantly more prevalent among clinical staff, only one work related symptom (skin rashes or itchy or dry skin) was reported by the clinical staff more than by the non-clinical receptionists. Among female clinical staff, age < 35 years and atopy were the factors that predisposed to work related symptoms. Also, reported symptoms were related to duration of use of instruments that generated aerosols.
This study shows a low level of work related symptoms in dentistry, but highlights a group vulnerable to prolonged exposures to dental aerosols. It also supports the need for enforcement of the use of personal protective equipment among dental nurses.
A study was undertaken to assess whether the therapeutic aspects of published international asthma management guidelines are practically applicable in developing countries.
Questionnaires were sent to expatriate doctors working in developing countries.
Forty one replies were received from 24 countries in Africa and Asia. Oral salbutamol was prescribed "usually" or "often" by 35 of the 41 respondents, theophyllines by 30, inhaled bronchodilators by 12, inhaled steroids by two, and cromoglycate by two. Theophyllines were locally available in all 41 cases, oral salbutamol in 40, inhaled bronchodilators in 34, and inhaled steroids (usually beclomethasone 50 micrograms) in only 15. Where they were available, the median (range) coat of a beclomethasone 50 micrograms inhaler was 20% (6.8-100%) of average local monthly income, salbutamol inhaler 13% (3.3-250%), 90 salbutamol 4 mg tablets 3.8% (0.8-75%), and 90 aminophylline 100 mg tablets 4.5% (0.5-70%). If they were available locally at a cheaper price, 34 (83%) respondents would prescribe more inhaled steroids and 37 (90%) would prescribe more inhaled bronchodilators.
Many asthma patients in developing countries are not receiving adequate treatment because the required drugs are not available in their area or are prohibitively expensive.
Respiratory diseases are common in childhood and may lead to chronic disease in adult life; environmental factors probably play an important part in their causation.
A survey of respiratory symptoms in children aged 12-14 years was conducted throughout Great Britain as part of the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC). Information was obtained on certain aspects of the home environment in order to assess their importance as risk factors.
The response rate was 79.3%, and 25,393 children in 93 schools participated. In a multiple regression analysis, wheeze was reported more often in nonmetropolitan areas and in association with active smoking, passive smoking, the presence of a furry pet, bottled gas, paraffin, and other unusual heating fuels; small regional differences persisted. Current smoking, previous smoking, and passive smoking accounted for 10.4%, 6.8%, and 6.5%, respectively, of wheezing in the past 12 months, and furry pets accounted for 5.0%. Cough and phlegm were associated with active and passive smoking and with the miscellaneous fuels; similar associations were found for rhinitis, but were less consistent for rhinitis occurring in spring and summer. Gas cooking showed little association with respiratory symptoms.
Passive as well as active smoking is an important cause of respiratory symptoms in adolescence. Pets seem to increase the risk of wheeze and rhinitis, and fumes from certain unusual heating fuels may have adverse effects. Home environment and geographical location have independent effects on the prevalence of respiratory symptoms.
Prevalence rates for asthma in various parts of the world are different and this cannot be entirely explained by differences in methodology. Low prevalence rates are found in third world countries, particularly marked for children. The reasons for these differences are obscure but are largely environmental. Some suggestions are made herein about their nature.
An increasing number of women are becoming victims of their smoking habit. A broader cross-section of women, other than the very rich and the "indecent," began to smoke in the 1920s, and over the past 50 years tobacco advertising has linked smoking with women's emancipation and achievement of equality with men. The marketing efforts directed to women include special packaging for feminine appeal, "designer" cigarettes, and offering discounted women's products with the purchase of a particular brand of cigarettes. Sponsorship of sporting events coupled with sports themes in cigarette advertisements associates smoking with enhanced physical capacity--a deception. The marketing experts promote smoking as a way of remaining slim in a culture obsessed with thinness. The woman who smokes today is a heavier smoker, on average, with the percentage of women smoking more than 25 cigarettes/day almost doubling from 13% in 1965 to 23% in 1985. Women start smoking at younger and younger ages. 84% of women smokers who are now 28-37 years began to smoke before age 20 as compared with 42% of those now 58-67 years. Today more young women than young men smoke. In addition to the risk of lung cancer, women who smoke also have sex-specific risks, such as those pertaining to a women's reproductive organs and processes. When smoking is of long duration, it appears to increase the risks of intraepithelial neoplasia of the cervix and of invasive cervical cancer. An antiestrogen effect of smoking may provide the explanation for why smoking women reach menopause 1-2 years earlier than nonsmokers. The same mechanism, which has been supported by several case-control studies, may increase postmenopausal osteoporotic fractures, particularly among nonobese women. Possibly the worst consequences of smoking by women are its effects on reproduction and on children. Both a dose-response depressant effect of smoking on fetal development and birth weight have been confirmed. Smoking also reduces fertility, increases the rate of spontaneous abortion of chromosomally normal fetuses, and increases the incidence of abruptio placentae, placenta previa, bleeding during pregnancy, and premature rupture of the membranes. A growing body of evidence also suggests that smoking during pregnancy has longterm effects on children. Those organizations at work to promote the rights of women might consider devoting some attention to help women stop smoking.
Several recent studies have reported associations between short-term changes in air pollution and respiratory hospital admissions. Most of those studies analyzed locations where there was a high correlation between airborne particles and sulfur dioxide (SO2), and between all air pollutants and temperature. Here, I seek to replicate the previous findings in a location where SO2 concentrations were trivial, and the correlation between both airborne particles and ozone with temperature was considerably lower than in previous studies. I constructed daily counts of admissions to all hospitals in Spokane, WA, for respiratory disease (International Classification of Diseases, 9th revision, codes 460-519) for persons age 65 years and older. I computed average daily concentrations of airborne particles whose diameter is 10 microns or less (PM10) and ozone (O3) from all monitors in each city, and I obtained daily average temperature and humidity from the U.S. weather service. SO2 concentrations in Spokane were so low that monitoring was discontinued. I regressed daily respiratory admission counts on temperature, humidity, day of the week indicators, and air pollution. I used a Poisson regression analysis and removed long wavelength patterns using a nonparametric smooth function of day of study. I dealt with a possible U-shaped dependence of admissions on temperature and/or humidity by using nonparametric smooth functions of weather variables as well. I then examined sensitivity analyses to control for weather. Both PM10 and ozone were associated with increased risk of respiratory hospital admissions [relative risk (RR) = 1.085; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.036-1.136 for a 50-microgram per m3 increase in PM10, and RR = 1.244; 95% CI = 1.002-1.544 for a 50-microgram per m3 increase in peak-hour ozone]. The PM10 association was insensitive to alternative methods of control for weather, including exclusion of extreme temperature days and control for temperature on multiple days. The ozone results were more sensitive to the approach for weather control. The magnitude of the PM10 effect in this location, where SO2 was essentially not present, and where the correlation between PM10 and temperature was close to zero, was similar to that reported in other locations in the eastern United States and Europe, where confounding by weather and SO2 is a more substantial concern.
To describe the relationship between risk factors, risk behaviours, symptoms and mortality from cardiorespiratory diseases in an urban area with high levels of socioeconomic deprivation. A cohort study of 15,411 men and women aged 45-64, comprising 80% of the general population of Paisley and Renfrew, Scotland.
Mortality after 15 years from coronary heart disease(ICD 410-4), stroke(ICD 430-8), respiratory disease(ICD 460-519) and all causes.
Mortality rates from all causes were 19% in men aged 45-49, 31% in men aged 50-54, 42% in men aged 55-59 and 57% in men aged 60-64. The rates are considerably higher than those reported in previous UK prospective studies. For women the rates were 12%, 18%, 25% and 38% respectively. In general men and women showed similar relationships between risk factor levels and mortality rates. People in manual occupations had higher mortality rates. Raised levels of systolic and diastolic blood pressure were associated with increased coronary, stroke and all cause mortality rates. Plasma cholesterol had no such association with all cause mortality rates. High and low levels of body mass index were associated with higher mortality rates than intermediate levels. A relationship between short stature and increased mortality rates was observed in men and women. FEV1 expressed as a percentage of the expected value showed the strongest relationship with mortality rates, particularly for respiratory disease, but also for deaths from coronary heart disease, stroke and all causes.
A similar pattern of relationship between risk factor levels and mortality rates exists in men and women in Renfrew and Paisley. Respiratory impairment as measured by FEV1% predicted appears to be the most likely explanation of the observed high all cause mortality rates in this population.
This paper presents an analysis of the sociodemographic factors related to cigarette smoking prevalence and the number of cigarettes smoked daily among nationally representative samples of 18- to 64-year-old French (n = 1,956) and American (n = 20,234) women.
This analysis combines 2 separate years (1992 and 1993) of data collected by the National Health Interview Survey in the United States and the Comité Francais d'Education pour la Santé in France. Weighted data analysis of the effects of age, employment status, education, and socioprofessional status was conducted using both SPSS and the SUDAAN complex sample survey analysis program.
The prevalence of smoking among French female smokers was significantly higher than among American women (30.8% vs 26.3%) and particularly among the younger age groups. However, the average number of cigarettes smoked per day was appreciably and significantly lower for French women (12.3) than for American women (18.2). Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed statistically significant interaction terms differentiating the impact of marital status, age, and education on the smoking status of French and American women, as well as the sociodemographic determinants of the number of cigarettes smoked. Education was inversely related to smoking among American women but positively associated with the smoking behavior of French women.
Differences in the smoking behavior of French and American women support the view that sociodemographic factors do not affect the smoking behavior of women in Western industrialized countries similarly and reinforce the importance of international public health measures targeting the increasing rate of smoking among women.
While level of school education has been related to prevalence of cigarette smoking in a number of studies, less information is available on the role of vocational education and related occupational contexts. This study analyses the relative contribution of different types of educational experience to explaining prevalence and intensity of cigarette smoking in a large sample of female and male vocational trainees in Germany. A standardized questionnaire on smoking behaviour and educational performance was applied in 27 educational centers across the country, covering a total of 20,527 respondents (77.3% of the original sample; women: 59.5%, men: 40.5%). Bivariate analysis revealed a high prevalence of current smokers among vocational trainees, both men (51.2%) and women (49.4%). Men were more likely to be heavy smokers, especially with increasing age. In both sexes, prevalence of smoking was particularly high in the following occupational groups: hairdressers, butchers, painters, service personnel (hotels, restaurants), shop assistants/sellers and cooks. Multivariate analysis taking educational level, type of vocational training (occupation), age, sex and urban-rural background into account revealed the highest prevalence odds ratios (POR) of smoking in subjects with the lowest educational level (POR = 5.19 for men and 4.56 for women). Even stronger effects were observed with smoking intensity (> or = 20 cigarettes/day): in men with the lowest educational level the risk of being a heavy smoker was 8.92, and in women 13.54 compared to subjects with a high-school leaving qualification. Poor school education must be considered the relatively strongest predictor of prevalence and intensity of cigarette smoking in a large sample of female and male vocational trainees. Preventive efforts should be directed at specific target groups such as those identified by this study.
Relatively little is known about risk factors for the persistence of asthma and respiratory symptoms from childhood into adolescence, and few studies have included objective measurements to assess outcomes and exposure.
From a large cross sectional study of all 4th grade school children in Munich (mean age 10.2 years), 234 children (5%) with active asthma were identified. Of these, 155 (66%) were reinvestigated with lung function measurements and bronchial provocation three years later (mean age 13.5 years).
At follow up 35.5% still had active asthma. Risk factors for persisting asthma symptoms in adolescence were more severe asthma (OR 4.94; CI 1.65 to 14.76; p = 0.004) or allergic triggers (OR 3.54; CI 1.41 to 8.92; p = 0.007) in childhood. Dampness was associated with increased night time wheeze and shortness of breath but not with persisting asthma. Risk factors for bronchial hyperreactivity in adolescence were bronchial hyperreactivity in childhood (p = 0.004), symptoms triggered by allergen exposure (OR 5.47; CI 1.91 to 25.20; p = 0.029), and damp housing conditions (OR 16.14; CI 3.53 to 73.73; p < 0.001). In a subgroup in whom house dust mite antigen levels in the bed were measured (70% of the sample), higher mite antigen levels were associated with bronchial hyperreactivity (OR per quartile of mite antigen 2.30; CI 1.03 to 5.12; p = 0.042). Mite antigen levels were also significantly correlated with dampness (p = 0.05). However, the effect of dampness on bronchial hyperreactivity remained significant when adjusting for mite allergen levels (OR 5.77; CI 1.17 to 28.44; p = 0.031).
Dampness at home is a significant risk factor for the persistence of bronchial hyperreactivity and respiratory symptoms in children with asthma. This risk is only partly explained by exposure to house dust mite antigen.
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