Understanding reasons for drug use amongst young people: A functional perspective
Abstract
This study uses a functional perspective to examine the reasons young people cite for using psychoactive substances. The study sample comprised 364 young poly-drug users recruited using snowball-sampling methods. Data on life-time and recent frequency and intensity of use for alcohol, cannabis, amphetamines, ecstasy, LSD and cocaine are presented. A majority of the participants had used at least one of these six drugs to fulfil 11 of 18 measured substance use functions. The most popular functions for use were using to: relax (96.7%), become intoxicated (96.4%), keep awake at night while socializing (95.9%), enhance an activity (88.5%) and alleviate depressed mood (86.8%). Substance use functions were found to differ by age and gender. Recognition of the functions fulfilled by substance use should help health educators and prevention strategists to make health messages about drugs more relevant and appropriate to general and specific audiences. Targeting substances that are perceived to fulfil similar functions and addressing issues concerning the substitution of one substance for another may also strengthen education and prevention efforts.
... Several studies have reported on co-use of LSD/psilocybin and MDMA, with prevalence rates ranging from 8 to 52% among recreational drug users with lifetime LSD/psilocybin use 41,42,[52][53][54] . Among polydrug users in the United Kingdom, participants reported co-using LSD and MDMA to improve the effect of LSD and to ease its aftereffects 41 . ...
... Controlling for potential confounds, co-use of MDMA (specifically low dose) with psilocybin/LSD was associated with lower levels of total challenging experiences, as well as grief and fear (measured by CEQ Total and CEQ subscales, respectively). These reductions in total challenging experience, fear, and grief are in line with research indicating that MDMA reduces experiences of sadness and fear 44,45 and anecdotal reports regarding the effects of "hippy flipping" and "candy flipping" 41,55 . Although death-related challenging experiences were also significantly lower among individuals that co-used low dose MDMA and psilocybin/LSD, when controlling for potential confounds, co-use of MDMA was not associated with significant differences in death-related or other aspects of challenging experiences (i.e., physical distress, insanity, isolation, and paranoia). ...
Psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) experiences can range from very positive to highly challenging (e.g., fear, grief, and paranoia). These challenging experiences contribute to hesitancy toward psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy among health care providers and patients. Co-use of 3,4-Methylenedioxy methamphetamine (MDMA) with psilocybin/LSD anecdotally reduces challenging experiences and enhances positive experiences associated with psilocybin/LSD. However, limited research has investigated the acute effects of co-use of MDMA and psilocybin/LSD. In a prospective convenience sample (N = 698) of individuals with plans to use psilocybin/LSD, we examined whether co-use of MDMA with psilocybin/LSD (n = 27) is associated with differences in challenging or positive experiences. Challenging experiences were measured using the Challenging Experiences Questionnaire and positive experiences were measured using the Mystical Experience Questionnaire and single-item measures of self-compassion, compassion, love, and gratitude. Potentially confounding variables were identified and included as covariates. Relative to psilocybin/LSD alone, co-use of psilocybin/LSD with a self-reported low (but not medium–high) dose of MDMA was associated with significantly less intense total challenging experiences, grief, and fear, as well as increased self-compassion, love and gratitude. Co-use of psilocybin/LSD and MDMA was not associated with differences in mystical-type experiences or compassion. Findings suggest co-use of MDMA with psilocybin/LSD may buffer against some aspects of challenging experiences and enhance certain positive experiences. Limitations include use of a convenience sample, small sample size, and non-experimental design. Additional studies (including controlled dose–response studies) that examine the effects and safety of co-administering MDMA with psilocybin/LSD (in healthy controls and clinical samples) are warranted and may assist the development of personalized treatments.
... Most studies that investigate drug use expectancies focus entirely on a sample that has (recent) experience using drugs [5,[15][16][17]. Less is known about the reasons young adults do not use drugs and the expectancies they might have regarding drug use. ...
... These 29 items were formulated based on a previous study in which 43 young adults were interviewed about their behaviours, beliefs, and expectancies regarding their use of illegal drugs and inspired by the Ecstasy Use Motives Questionnaire [5,29], the measure for outcome expectancies constructed by Engels and ter Bogt [9], the Drinking Motives Questionnaire [30,31], and the Marijuana Motives Questionnaire [32,33]. Positive expectancies were (1) relax/chill; (2) improve sleep; (3) have a good time with friends; (4) loosen inhibitions; (5) alter perception/expand mind; (6) enjoy the taste; (7) laugh/have happy/cheerful feelings; (8) have more energy; (9) improve functioning/better focus; (10) experience crazy things/adventures; (11) satisfy curiosity; (12) distract from negative feelings; (13) reduce stress; (14) not be sober; (15) shake up routine; and (16) have better sex. Negative expectancies were (1) forgetting what happened/black out; (2) physical problems during use; (3) physical problems the day(s) after; (4) mental complaints during use; (5) mental complaints the day(s) after; (6) long-term risks to my mental or physical health; (7) arguments/ fights with friends or family; (8) shame/regret; (9) problems with the police; (10) it's too expensive; (11) loss of control/behaving differently; (12) missing appointments/not honouring agreements or obligations; and (13) uncertainty about the quality/content of the substance. ...
Introduction:
This study offers insights into Dutch young people's expected social and personal consequences of ecstasy use. Substance use expectancies are assumed to be an essential component in explaining substance use behaviour and, therefore, the development of effective substance use prevention and treatment strategies.
Method:
Dutch young adults with an online interest in drug-related social media posts were targeted with an online survey about their use of alcohol and drugs. This resulted in a convenience sample (N = 4182, 73.4% female, Mage = 21.11), of which 35.5% had used ecstasy at least once in their life and 29.3% had used ecstasy last year. Latent class analyses were used to identify subgroups based on both positive and negative expectancies of ecstasy use. Cross-class differences were examined using multinomial logistic regression.
Results:
This study yielded four distinct classes: only negative expectancies (13.6%), high positive and negative expectancies (23.5%), low to moderate positive and negative expectancies (20.6%), and mostly positive expectancies (22.4%). These classes differed significantly in lifetime experience with ecstasy use, intention to use ecstasy, perception of harmfulness and availability, and social norms regarding the use of ecstasy.
Conclusion:
Findings show that ecstasy use expectancies can be used to create meaningful classes of users and non-users, and that these classes are different enough to warrant varied prevention approaches. Expectancies young people have regarding the use of ecstasy are associated with various ecstasy use-related variables and should be taken into consideration when developing and implementing preventive interventions.
... Questionnaires assessing drug use in general may not be appropriate or accurate, since cannabis use has certain peculiarities that distinct it from other substances, such as beliefs that the substance is not dangerous or addictive as other drugs (Menghrajani et al., 2005), that it can help with forgetting problems and having fun (Morales-Manrique et al., 2011), that it heightens creativity (Plancherel et al., 2005) and provides relaxing effects (Boys et al., 2001). Some specific measurement tools on the use and misuse of cannabis are available, including the Cannabis Abuse Screening Test (CAST) (Legleye et al., 2007), the Cannabis Use Disorders Identification Test (CUDIT) (Adamson & Sellman, 2003). ...
Despite the widespread use of cannabis and its relative acceptance among Arab young adults, there still remains high social stigma in addressing these issues and providing treatment options. In addition, research on cannabis use among young adults from Arab nations is still scarce, which is in part due to the lack of valid and reliable measures that are tailored to the Arab social-cultural contexts. This leaves young cannabis users, health care providers, researchers, legislators and policy makers without the evidence needed to make informed decisions about cannabis use. For these reasons, this study aimed to translate and validate the Cannabis Use Intention Questionnaire (CUIQ) into Arabic in a sample of university students. A cross-sectional, web-based study was carried-out in three Arab countries (Egypt, Kuwait and Tunisia). A total of 2033 Arabic-speaking university students (mean age of 23.25 ± 5.00 years, 76.0% females) were administered an Arabic translation of CUIQ, along with other measures. Confirmatory factor analysis provided support to the four-dimensional factor structure of the Arabic CUIQ (i.e. Attitudes toward consumption, Subjective norms, Self-efficacy to abstinence and Cannabis use intention) in our sample of Arabic-speaking university students. Excellent reliability (internal consistency) was demonstrated for the total score (ω = .85/α = .85) and for each subscale (ω ranging from .88 to .97 and α ranging from .88 to .97). Measurement invariance was established across gender and country groups. Adequate validity was attested through significant correlations of CUIQ scores with greater cannabis use during the last 6 months, more favourable attitudes towards cannabis and more severe psychological problems. Making available an Arabic-validated version of this sound, brief, simple, easy-to-use and economic self-report measure of cannabis use intention is a valuable contribution to the medical and scientific community.
... These findings are consistent with other studies which reported that drug users often use more than one substance at a time [16][17][18][20][21][22][23]. This may indicate that substance users merely derive pleasure from experimenting with more than one category of substance or that there is easy availability of different substances. ...
Substance use is a growing public health problem and the consequences of substance use disorder are costly to the community. The absence of data on the pattern of substance-use among drug using patients attending the University of Benin Teaching Hospital (UBTH) and other hospitals in south-south Nigeria and the negative consequences of substance use justified the study. Thus, the objectives of the study were to investigate the pattern of substance use, the socio-demographic characteristics and clinical indices associated with drug use among the patients attending the De-Addiction Unit in UBTH. It was a cross-sectional study that obtained data from casefiles of 48 patients. Cannabis was the most frequently used substance (52.1%), followed by alcohol (18.8%), tobacco (16.7%), tramadol (14.6%) and pentazocine (12.5%). Majority of the respondents were males 38 (79.2%), age group 18 to 27 years (75%), singles 38 (79.2%), multiple substance users 34 (70.8%), reported peer pressure influence 35 (72.9%) and reported ‘smoking’ as route of substance use 32 (66.7%). It was observed that prevalence of use of drugs among females was rising. The commonest psychiatric co-morbidity among them was depression 19 (39.6%), followed by bipolar affective disorder 10 (20.8%) and schizophrenia 7 (14.6%). Substance use prevention, treatment and control measures need to pay attention to males and female users, since the prevalence of substance use among female is rising. Such programs must bear in mind the adolescent and young adult age groups and measures to mitigate the use of common substances such as alcohol and cannabis must continue to enjoy priority. During screening/assessment for substance use, a high index of suspicion for comorbidities especially depression is important. Peer group influence and curiosity, which are identified reasons for initiating substance use, may be checked by targeted health education.
... There is a p l et h o ra o f b o t h q u a l i ta ve a n d quan ta ve studies that have addressed factors that predispose or cause individuals to experiment with or abuse illicit substances and drugs (e.g. Boys et al., 2001;Jadidi & Nakhaee, 2014;Spooner, 1999). Broadly, the theore cal explana ons offered for the e ology of illicit drugs and substances abuse could fall under three perspec ves viz: social control (Hirschi, 1969;Nagazawa et al., 2000), social learning (Akers, 1985(Akers, , 1998 and intrapersonal factors such as sensa on seeking behaviours (Newcomb & Earleywine, 1996;Pokhrel et al., 2010;Rober , 2004). ...
There is an illicit drug/substance abuse problem in Nigeria, especially among youths. This morphed when cadets of the Nigeria Police Academy were arrested by the drug law enforcement agency for having illicit drugs. This spurred our study's objectives. Using an interpretative phenomenological approach, police cadets identified, through snowball sampling technique, to be involved in illicit drug/substance abuse were interviewed on causes of drug/substance abuse among cadets; accessibility to illicit drugs; perceptions on the effectiveness of punitive measures; effects on academic performance, police training, and interpersonal relationship. Findings are discussed in line with extant literature and inferences indicate the important need for a robust drug/substance use screening exercise for entrants into the Academy. Advocacy is made for the engagement of preventive measures which focus more on dissuading this behaviour through counselling and educational enlightenment initiatives.
... This questionnaire was designed as an extended version of the 18-item reasons for drug-use scale by Boys and colleagues. [15] The added items included motives related to social context, self-exploration, and escapism, as derived from qualitative interviews. [16] The full list of motivational statements can be found in Appendix A. ...
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a Southeast Asian plant containing various alkaloids which induce pharmacological effects in humans. In Western countries, online vendors sell a variety of different kratom strains which are marketed to have distinct effect profiles. However, as of yet such marketing claims are unsubstantiated, and therefore the current study investigated whether differently colored kratom products can induce unique effects, as self-reported by users. 644 current kratom users were anonymously surveyed to compare the self-reported effects and motivations for using kratom products sold as red, green, and white strains. Most of the survey respondents were customers of the same kratom vendor, the products of which had been assessed for their alkaloid content by an independent laboratory. The survey respondents reported distinct subjective experiences for different kratom strains, in a manner congruent with common marketing descriptions. However, the product analyses revealed no significant cross-strain differences in alkaloid content, suggesting that the reported effect differences might be disproportionally influenced by marketing narratives and anecdotal reports. Future studies should engage a more diverse population and include kratom strains from various vendors. Controlled, blinded experiments could assess whether the reported effect differences stem from a placebo effect or from alternative factors, e.g. minor alkaloids and terpenes.
... Contextualization is an important objective of qualitative research; it is significant to contextual investigations of substance use conducted in the service of developing, monitoring and evaluating all public health interventions [17]. It is thought that a deeper understanding of the specific reasons for substance use can help to effectively tailor communications and policy development to the appropriate target populations [18,19]. ...
... The exact doses cannot be clearly pointed out, as there is a large natural variance in the hedonic effects of alcohol between individuals. However, also a maximal alcohol-induced euphoria is relatively weak [87,88]. Human beings self-titrate alcohol doses individually to induce mild hedonic effects. ...
Self-management includes all behavioural measures and cognitive activities aimed at coping with challenges arising throughout the lifespan. While virtually all of these challenges can be met without pharmacological means, alcohol consumption has long been instrumentalized as a supporting tool to help coping with problems arising selectively at adolescence, adulthood, and ageing. Here, we present, to our knowledge, the first systematic review of alcohol instrumentalization throughout lifespan. We searched MEDLINE, Google Scholar, PsycINFO and CINAHL (from Jan, 1990, to Dec, 2022) and analysed consumption patterns, goals and potential neurobiological mechanisms. Evidence shows a regular non-addictive use of alcohol to self-manage developmental issues during adolescence, adulthood, and ageing. Alcohol is selectively used to overcome problems arising from dysfunctional personality traits, which manifest in adolescence. A large range of psychiatric disorders gives rise to alcohol use for the self-management of distinct symptoms starting mainly in adulthood. We identify those neuropharmacological effects of alcohol that selectively serve self-management under specific conditions. Finally, we discuss the adverse effects and associated risks that arise from the use of alcohol for self-management. Even well-controlled alcohol use adversely impacts health. Based on these findings, we suggest the implementation of an entirely new view. Health policy action may actively embrace both sides of the phenomenon through a personalized informed use that allows for harm-controlled self-management with alcohol.
... Previous substance use, family history of use, psychological distress or other mental health issues, and peer influence have been reported as the predictors of substance use [6,22,25]. Many reasons exist why young people use substances, most importantly to relax, become intoxicated, keep awake at night while socializing or surfing the internet, enhance activity or alleviate depressed mood, or a combination of these reasons [26]. ...
Objectives: Earlier studies suggest that self-esteem is an important predisposing factor to substance use among young adults. In this study, we intended to determine the risk, patterns of substance use, and the association between self-esteem and substance use among undergraduate students. Methods: This is a cross-sectional study in a state university in Nigeria. The study university students completed a copy of sociodemographic questionnaire inquiring about their substance use and an assessment with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Results: A sum of 448 students took part in the study. Among them, the odds ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval) of 198 (44.2%) students was found to be 0.442 (0.395–0.489) for a lifetime history of any substance use while OR (95% confident interval) of 141 (31.5%) students was found to be 0.315 (0.272–0.360) to have a history of current use of any substance. We also found that 182 students, i.e., 0.406 (0.360–0.453) and 118 students, i.e., 0.263 (0.223–0.307) had lifetime and current use of alcohol, respectively. This was followed by nicotine, tramadol, and cannabis. Participants who were 21 years and above, male, in third year and above, and who were not satisfied with their finances were significantly more to have a lifetime and current history of substance use (p < 0.05). There was no significant association between self-esteem and either lifetime or current substance use. Conclusion: The patterns of substance use in this study were similar to those obtained in the general population, however, with a relatively higher rate of alcohol use. Students with substance use were more likely to be males, older, have some financial difficulties, and low to normal self-esteem.
Uyuşturucu veya uyarıcı niteliği bulunan maddelerin pek çok yönden suçla ilişkili olduğu bilinmektedir. Uzun zamandan beri başvurulan bir yöntem olarak, işlenecek suçu kolaylaştırmak maksadıyla uyuşturucu veya uyarıcı madde kullanılması durumunda da bu ilişki açık bir biçimde görülmektedir. Üstelik madde ile kolaylaştırılmış suçların işlenme oranlarının tüm dünyada arttığı da bilinen bir gerçektir. Cinsel suçların işlenmesini kolaylaştırmak maksadıyla da çeşitli uyuşturucu veya uyarıcı maddelerden yararlanılmaktadır ve bu durum madde ile kolaylaştırılmış cinsel suçlar olarak ifade edilmektedir. Son zamanlarda yapılan pek çok çalışmada da madde ile kolaylaştırılmış cinsel suçların işlenme oranlarının önemli ölçüde arttığı sıklıkla vurgulanmaktadır. Yapılan bu çalışmada ilk olarak, madde ile kolaylaştırılmış cinsel suç, kavramsal olarak tanımlanacaktır. Daha sonra ise söz konusu suçun işlendiği oranda tespit edilememesine ilişkin nedenlere yer verilecektir. Ardından bu çalışmanın konusunu yalnızca yetişkinlere karşı gerçekleştirilen madde ile kolaylaştırılmış cinsel saldırı suçlarının oluşturacak olmasından dolayı, bu türden cinsel saldırılarda mağdurun rızası meselesi Türk Ceza Kanunu'nun 102. maddesinde yaptırıma bağlanan cinsel saldırı suçu kapsamında değerlendirilecektir.
Four factors were found to reflect 15 reasons for drug use, Enhance Positive Affect and Creativity, Reduce Negative Affect, Social Cohesion, and Addiction. These factors were found to reflect second-order latent factors of Alcohol Motivations as well as Cannabis Motivations and to be invariant by sex. All Alcohol and Cannabis Motivation scales were significantly correlated with actual use of alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, and hard drugs. In both bivariate and latent variable longitudinal analyses over a 1-yr period, motivations for alcohol use increased actual use of alcohol, whereas motivations for cannabis use increased all types of drug use. Very similar patterns of effects were noted for boys and girls. We conclude that self-acknowledged cognitive motivations or reasons for drug use are important etiological factors in understanding actual drug-use behavior and discuss the counseling and prevention implications of these results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent surveys in the UK indicate that approximately half of all young people aged 16-22 have used an illegal drug. Despite such observations, remarkably little research has been conducted in the UK about the motivating factors which shape the decisions that young people make to use drugs or alcohol. This paper reports on a qualitative study exploring the range of factors which young people reported to be influential over such decisions. Results are presented from in-depth interviews conducted with 50 16-21-year-olds. Analysis of the data revealed individual-level influences (the perceived functions of drug use (or specific purpose for using a particular substance), drug-related expectancies, physical/psychological state, commitments and boundaries) and social/contextual-level influences (environment, availability, finance, friends/peers and media) on decision-making. Of these, the perceived function for using a particular substance was identified as particularly influential. The findings are related to existing drug prevention approaches and opportunities for their further development are discussed.
Over the last decade, concern about young people and stimulant drugs has primarily focused on the use of amphetamines and ecstasy. In the United Kingdom, this concern has recently expanded to include the use of cocaine hydrochloride (powder cocaine). This study examined patterns of illicit substance use, with a particular focus on cocaine consumption, among a sample of 364 young drug users aged between 16 and 22 years. The sample was recruited using snowballing methods and respondents were interviewed in informal settings by peer interviewers. Over half the sample reported lifetime use of powder cocaine and just over 40% of these had used crack cocaine. A seven-item scale was used to measure cocaine-related problems. The three most common problems endorsed by the cocaine users were impaired control, ‘prioritizing spending money on cocaine over other things’ and being pre-occupied with using. In a multiple regression analysis, 50% of the variance in cocaine-related problem scores was predicted by the perceived functions for cocaine use, the number of times of lifetime cocaine use and the total number of days of recent stimulant use. Use of cocaine to alleviate depressed state or negative mood was the most powerful predictor of cocaine problems. The inclusion of a functional appraisal component could be usefully incorporated in further research studies and in service assessment protocols for young people.
Data are provided from the experiences of 23 young drug users recruited from the London area. Respondents reported a wide range of illicit drug use, centred on the so-called 'dance' drugs of MDMA, LSD and amphetamine sulphate. Friendship networks were important in the initiation and maintenance of drug use. Heroin and injecting were viewed negatively by the majority of respondents. Cocaine was seen in a more positive light, though many felt that it had damaging addictive properties. In the broader context of the young people's lifestyles, drugs were not viewed as a priority. Most stated that being with friends and family was the main priority in their lives. Most reported good levels of communication with parents, most of whom either approved or did not overtly object to some forms of illicit drug use by their children. The data suggest implications for health promotion and drug prevention. Peer education should be encouraged amongst networks of young drug users (where possible involving parents) and music venues should be targeted for outreach initiatives. The anti-heroin and anti-injecting norms identified amongst respondents should be reinforced as a means of curbing the spread of infectious disease.
This paper presents the results of a survey which aimed to explore: 1) patterns of drug use amongst a group of young people who had used psycho-stimulant drugs at least six times during the previous year; 2) any problems this group had experienced as a result of their drug use; and 3) whether or not information and advice could be targeted at this group. Discussion relates the findings of this study to other small scale studies of psycho-stimulant users. The challenge of acting to benefit both socio-operational users of drugs and the wider society within which they live is noted.
Over the last decade, concern about young people and stimulant drugs has primarily focused on the use of amphetamines and ecstasy. In the United Kingdom, this concern has recently expanded to include the use of cocaine hydrochloride (powder cocaine). This study examined patterns of illicit substance use, with a particular focus on cocaine consumption, among a sample of 364 young drug users aged between 16 and 22 years. The sample was recruited using snowballing methods and respondents were interviewed in informal settings by peer interviewers. Over half the sample reported lifetime use of powder cocaine and just over 40% of these had used crack cocaine. A seven item scale was used to measure cocaine-related problems. The three most common problems endorsed by the cocaine users were impaired control, 'prioritizing spending money on cocaine over other things' and being pre-occupied with using. In a multiple regression analysis, 50% of the variance in cocaine-related problem scores was predicted by the perceived functions for cocaine use, the number of times of lifetime cocaine use and the total number of days of recent stimulant use. Use of cocaine to alleviate depressed state or negative mood was the most powerful predictor of cocaine problems. The inclusion of a functional appraisal component could be usefully incorporated in further research studies and in service assessment protocols for young people.
Incarcerated adolescents' attributions for drug use were investigated. A new 50-item questionnaire, the Inventory of Drug Taking Situations (IDTS), was used to assess reasons for use. The IDTS yields eight subscales corresponding to risky situations identified by Marlatt and others. On the IDTS, subjects indicate how frequently they used their drug of choice when confronted with each risky situation. The IDTS scales had good internal consistency and higher scores were significantly associated with self-reports of drug use frequency. Furthermore, IDTS scores were most valid for the type of drug the measure was filled out about. Adolescents reported that they tended to use more frequently in response to positive and/or interpersonal experiences, as opposed to negative and/or internal ones. Positive, negative, interpersonal, and internal reasons for use were all equally correlated with frequency of use. In the most heavily drug-involved adolescents, however, negative reasons were more highly correlated with frequency of use than positive reasons. Treatment implications are discussed.
Personal, social and experiential motivations for drug use were investigated among rural high school students in terms of problematic outcomes as measured by reported frequency of intoxication and number of social complications. Results indicate that while problematic outcomes are significantly associated with increased number of reported motivations in all categories, when proportion scores are examined only personal effects motivations remain significantly related to problematic use. As suggested by previous research on the relationship of motivation and outcome in the use of alcohol, it seems likely that motivations which link the use of other drugs to a need for alteration of self-perception or for assistance in coping with stress are important in the development of problematic use patterns.