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Cognitive Systems Engineering: New Wine in New Bottles
Abstract
This paper presents an approach to the description and analysis of complex Man-Machine Systems (MMSs) called Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE). In contrast to traditional approaches to the study of man-machine systems which mainly operate on the physical and physiological level, CSE operates on the level of cognitive functions. Instead of viewing an MMS as decomposable by mechanistic principles, CSE introduces the concept of a cognitive system: an adaptive system which functions using knowledge about itself and the environment in the planning and modification of actions. Operators are generally acknowledged to use a model of the system (machine) with which they work. Similarly, the machine has an image of the operator. The designer of an MMS must recognize this, and strive to obtain a match between the machine's image and the user characteristics on a cognitive level, rather than just on the level of physical functions. This article gives a presentation of what cognitive systems are, and of how CSE can contribute to the design of an MMS, from cognitive task analysis to final evaluation.
... Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE) integrates cognitive psychology, engineering, and systems theory to explain how humans interact with a complex, socio-technical system and can further explain how autonomous agents behave as team members. A focal tenet of CSE is that teams that are composed of an intelligent system and human team members should be integrated, "conceived, designed, analyzed, and evaluated in terms of a cognitive system" ( [28],p. 341; [29]). ...
... This idea can be brought to the team level using shared mental model theory, which states that teams have a mental model to understand team interactions and interdependent taskwork while also acting as a guide for how to behave on the team [34]. Typically, the developer designs autonomous agents to compensate for the physical deficiencies of humans, but has now evolved where autonomous agents could outperform humans cognitively [28]. Since previous theories focus primarily on the physical domain, they only consider the limits of humans and the autonomous agent's ability to correct those errors or performance limitations. ...
... Designing a humorous autonomous agent would further the notion from CSE that humans are not only information processors [28]. Traditional engineering psychology views human decision-making and mental processes as a highly mechanical process that would have an expected outcome or decision. ...
... In the 1980 s, Hollnagel (in Scandinavia) and Woods (in the US) developed their own perspectives on cognition, human error and safety and accident models in a CSE context originally created by Rasmussen (Hollnagel, Woods, 1983, Woods, Roth, 1988, Hollnagel, 1993, 1998, Woods, Johannesen, Cook, Sarter, 1994, Woods, 1988. The two authors are conceptually close, and their collaboration leads to the proposition of Joint Cognitive Systems (JCS) in the mid-2000 (Hollnagel, Woods, 2005, a development that started in the early 1980 s (Hollnagel, Woods, 1983). ...
... In the 1980 s, Hollnagel (in Scandinavia) and Woods (in the US) developed their own perspectives on cognition, human error and safety and accident models in a CSE context originally created by Rasmussen (Hollnagel, Woods, 1983, Woods, Roth, 1988, Hollnagel, 1993, 1998, Woods, Johannesen, Cook, Sarter, 1994, Woods, 1988. The two authors are conceptually close, and their collaboration leads to the proposition of Joint Cognitive Systems (JCS) in the mid-2000 (Hollnagel, Woods, 2005, a development that started in the early 1980 s (Hollnagel, Woods, 1983). They shared two fundamental points that differentiated them within the field of CSE at the time. ...
... Hollnagel for instance took a long-term interest in developing methodologies for human reliability assessment (HRA) and accident investigation based on adequate models of cognition. 2 For this author, 'errors' are not distinguishable from success but are instead retrospective attributions by observers (Hollnagel, 1983). Cognition should be understood as a contextual and control problem, not as a sequential and information processing one (COCOM, Hollnagel, 1993). ...
Over the past two decades, the ‘new view’ has become a popular term in safety theory and practice. It has however also been criticised, provoking division and controversy. The aim of this article is to clarify the current situation. It describes the origins, ambiguities and successes of the ‘new view’ as well as the critiques formulated. The article begins by outlining the origins of this concept, in the 1980 s and 1990 s, from the cognitive (system) engineering (CSE) school initiated by Rasmussen, Hollnagel and Woods. This differed from Reason’s approach to human error in this period. The article explains how Dekker, in the early 2000 s, translates ideas from the CSE school to coin the term ‘new view’, while also developing, shortly after, an argument against Reason’s legacy that was more radical and critical than his predecessors’. Secondly, the article describes the ambiguities associated with the term ‘new view’ because of the different programs that have derived from CSE (Resilience Engineering – RE then Safety II, Safety Differently, Theory of Graceful Extensibility). The text identifies three programs by different thinkers (methodological, formal and critical) and Dekker’s three eclectic versions of the ‘new view’. Thirdly, the article discusses the successes of the CSE and RE school, showing how it has strongly resonated with many practitioners outside the academic world. Fourthly, the critiques raised within the field of human factors and system safety but also from different traditions (e.g., system safety engineering with Leveson, sociology of safety with Hopkins) are introduced, and discussed.
... Gold & Shadlen, 2007;Heekeren et al., 2008;Romo & Salinas, 2003;Sajda et al., 2009;Smith & Nichols, 2018 Application of Cognitive Systems Engineering Application of Cognitive Systems Engineering principles to improve safety management and task allocation in construction, emphasizing a holistic view of worker-system interaction. Hollnagel and D Woods, 1999;Lillrank 1995;Rasmussen, 1990;Rasmussen et al., 1994;Saurin et al., 2005;Vicente, 1999 Gap in Leadership and Management Identification of leadership and management practices gap in integrating cognitive science and neuroimaging findings into construction project management. Glimcher & Fehr, 2013;Jebelli, 2019;Shi et al., 2020;Wallis & Miller, 2003 ...
... Models developed by researchers elucidate the cognitive stages and processes involved in interacting with external stimuli, stressing the importance of cognitive resources like attention, working memory, and long-term memory in ensuring safety within mining and construction settings (Hollnagel & Woods 1999;Nakayasu et al., 2010). These models emphasize the necessity of balancing cognitive demands with worker capabilities, demonstrating how cognitive load can affect safety and performance on construction sites (Kines, 2003;Mohan & Duarte, 2006). ...
While substantial advances have been made in Cognitive Science and Neuroimaging, a notable gap remains in assessing cognitive status within the construction sector. This paper aims to demonstrate the considerable benefits of interdisciplinary approaches in enhancing project management effectiveness and outcomes by examining the complex interplay between cognitive processes, decision-making, and project management. Key findings indicate that cognitive status plays a critical role in the performance of construction workers, underscoring the necessity of prioritizing cognitive well-being in project strategies. Furthermore, the review highlights a deficiency in objective tools for evaluating cognitive status and proposes the adoption of neuroimaging technologies as a solution. By integrating neuroscientific insights with management practices, leaders can enhance training, team dynamics, and risk assessment, ultimately improving decision-making and productivity in construction project management.
... Thus, the ability to maintain control of a situation, despite disrupting influences from the process itself or from the environment, is central. This requires considering the dynamics of the situation (i.e., creating an appropriate situational understanding) and accepting the fact that capabilities and needs depend on the situation and may vary over time [26]. Thus, according to Woods and Hollnagel [10] the focus of the analysis should be on the functioning of the human-technology-work system as a whole. ...
... The joint cognitive systems approach has been utilized in designing automated systems where the ability to maintain control of a situation, despite disrupting influences from the process itself or from the environment, is central. This requires managing the dynamics of the situation by maintaining and sharing situational awareness, and considering how the capabilities and needs depend on the situation and how they may vary over time [26]. Resilience to changes in the system itself and the environment are also central in designing human-machine teams. ...
Smart machine companions such as artificial intelligence (AI) assistants and collaborative robots are rapidly populating the factory floor. Future factory floor workers will work in teams that include both human co-workers and smart machine actors. The visions of Industry 5.0 describe sustainable, resilient, and human-centered future factories that will require smart and resilient capabilities both from next-generation manufacturing systems and human operators. What kinds of approaches can help design these kinds of resilient human–machine teams and collaborations within them? In this paper, we analyze this design challenge, and we propose basing the design on the joint cognitive systems approach. The established joint cognitive systems approach can be complemented with approaches that support human centricity in the early phases of design, as well as in the development of continuously co-evolving human–machine teams. We propose approaches to observing and analyzing the collaboration in human–machine teams, developing the concept of operations with relevant stakeholders, and including ethical aspects in the design and development. We base our work on the joint cognitive systems approach and propose complementary approaches and methods, namely: actor–network theory, the concept of operations and ethically aware design. We identify their possibilities and challenges in designing and developing smooth human–machine teams for Industry 5.0 manufacturing systems.
... In the past, function allocation by substitution has been used to exchange human tasks for automated ones using a rationale concerning who does what best [28]; for example, 'while machines are good at performing according to strict rules, humans are good at improvising'. Digital assistance solutions, such a machine learning system that monitors cleaning processes and alerts operators to anomalies as proposed by Yang [29], often take over the complete process while expecting that operators deal with failures when notified. ...
... However, this approach fails to consider that performance in the remaining tasks might be influenced by the loss of the other tasks [30]. A human-machine system is not simply the sum of its parts; instead, the integration of different functions into a whole often causes unforeseen side-effects [28]. ...
Advances in technology and digitalization offer huge potential for improving the performance of production systems. However, human limitations often function as an obstacle in realizing these improvements. This article argues that the discrepancy between potential and reality is caused by design features of technologies, also called ironies of automation. To this, the psychological mechanisms that cause these ironies are illustrated by the example of operators of a chocolate wrapping machine, and their effect is explained by basic theories of engineering psychology. This article concludes that engineers need to understand these basic theories and interdisciplinary teamwork is necessary to improve the design of digital technologies and enable harmonious, high-performance human–machine cooperation.
... Cognitive Engineering methods allow you to solve natural complex problems in the workspace by giving them simple attributes. The results of the analyses obtained as a result of Cognitive Engineering methods can be put into action and can be designed [3][4][5][6][7]. ...
... In engineering, the term Cognitive Systems finds application and is considered a set above artificial intelligence methods. The increase of cognitive-based applications in industrial and engineering systems makes the performance of the systems determine [6,25]. When the cognitive decision-making mechanism is considered as the supercluster of artificial intelligence, the relationship between the concept of artificial intelligence and the cognitive system can be expressed as in Figure 4. ...
An electric power network can be evolved into smart grids, which are measured by providing energy efficiency and improving the available resources. With the development of software and hardware elements, the decision-making mechanism of existing smart grids is transformed into more robust uninterrupted and economical energy management systems. In this study, a cognitive-based algorithm using dynamic energy management flexibility, storage and energy management algorithm and cloud computing architecture is proposed. Using this approach, an uninterrupted and economical energy management system can be planned. In addition, the proposed approach provides the optimization of supply and demand sides.
... Therefore, understanding the dynamic interactions between the constituent components and processes within an STS and predicting the impact of new technologies on the cognitive process is vital. Hollnagel and Woods (1983) first defined the concept of a cognitive system as "an adaptive system which functions using knowledge about itself and the environment in the planning and modification of actions". However, this definition was later adjusted to that of a system with the ability to "modify its behaviour based on experience to achieve specific anti-entropic ends" (Hollnagel & Woods 2005 as quoted by Hollnagel 2012). ...
... This adaptive ability is known as self-organisation and is associated with the emergence in cognitive systems. Thus, an STS invariably performs cognitive work and is a cognitive system (Hollnagel & Woods 1983, Hollnagel 2012, Lintern 2008. ...
Systems engineering (SE) is applied to bring about complex systems, such as sociotech-nical systems (STS), based on stakeholder requirements. The introduction of new technology into an existing STS may result in unexpected emergent behaviour when prevailing processes, procedures and information flows are challenged. Due to the complexity associated with emergence, the resultant system may fail to achieve the desired utility fully, or the work system produced may not be desirable. Cognitive work analysis (CWA) provides a framework for analysing, modelling, and designing STS. This study proposes applying CWA modelling to requirement analysis for new technology introduction as part of a validation workflow in aid of SE. Work domain analysis (WDA), the first step in the CWA framework, is applied to a test case and the resultant abstraction hierarchy (AH) models analysed to evaluate the perceived utility. This article shows how analysts were able to apply the method and uncover possible design emergence. We hope that the methods presented herein will aid more designers in the application of CWA as part of the SE life-cycle toward the successful implementation of complex STS.
... Frameworks for HMT should recognize teaming as a complex sociotechnical phenomenon. This means understanding the human-machine team as a joint cognitive system (JCS), defined by Woods and Hollnagel as "an adaptive system which functions using knowledge about itself and the environment in the planning and modification of actions" (Hollnagel & Woods, 1999). Conceptualizing HMTs as JCS brings a multi-agent interaction centered perspective to HMT evaluation, positing that the configuration and organization of the broader work system is a crucial driver of its performance (Vicente, 1999). ...
... A key insight gained through viewing HMTs as a JCS is a need to understand interdependencies within joint activity. Interdependence between agents is a requisite feature of joint activity, often determining the choreography of work (Hollnagel & Woods, 1999;Johnson, 2014). The incorporation of limited teammates further underscores the need to identify these connections, as brittleness or unexpected edge cases toppling a limited agent may lead to cascading failures across the JCS (Klein et al., 2004). ...
Human-machine teams (HMTs) in complex work domains need to be able to adapt to variable and uncertain work demands. Computational modeling and simulation can provide novel approaches to the evaluation of HMTs performing complex joint activities, affording large-scale, quantitative analysis of team characteristics (such as system architecture and governance protocols) and their effects on resilience. Drawing from literature in resilience engineering, human-automation interaction, and cognitive systems engineering, this paper provides a theoretical exploration of the use of computational modeling and simulation to analyze resilience in HMTs. Findings from literature are summarized in a set of requirements that highlight key aspects of resilience in HMTs that need to be accounted for in future modeling and evaluation efforts. These requirements include a need to model HMTs as joint cognitive systems, the need to account for the interdependent nature of activity, the temporal dynamics of work, and the need to support formative exploration and inquiry. We provide a brief overview of existing modeling and simulation approaches to evaluating HMTs and discuss further steps for operationalizing the identified requirements.
... Furthermore, some studies use the term "erroneous action" or the action of failing to produce the expected result or producing unwanted consequence [11,47]. These definitions bring us closer to the possibility that perhaps, behind the label of human error, there are deeper concepts to be explored, such as the cognitive factors of human performance. ...
Background: This study explores forklift operators’ situational awareness (SA) and human errors in logistic operations using a multiphase approach as an innovative methodology. Methods: Ethnography, eye tracking, error taxonomy, and retrospective think-aloud (RTA) were used to study the diverse cognitive, behavioral, and operational aspects affecting SA. After analyzing 566 events across 18 tasks, this research highlighted eye tracking’s potential by offering real-time insights into operator behavior and RTA’s potential as a method for cross-checking the causal factors underlying errors. Results: Critical tasks, like positioning forklifts and lowering pallets, significantly impact incident occurrence, while high-cognitive demand tasks, such as hoisting and identifying pedestrians/obstacles, reduce SA and increase errors. Driving tasks are particularly vulnerable to errors and are the most affected by operator risk generators (ORGs), representing 42% of incident risk events. This study identifies driving, hoisting, and lowering loads as the tasks most influenced by system factors. Limitations include the task difficulty levels, managing physical risk, and training. Future research is suggested in autonomous industrial vehicles and advanced driver assistance systems (ADASs). Conclusions: This study provides valuable insights into how we may improve safety in logistics operations by proposing a multiphase methodology to uncover the patterns of attention, perception, and cognitive errors and their impact on decision-making.
... Of course, these ideas may not correspond to the perfect reality, but this does not prevent them from having a conversation or a debate and thus deciding what to say or not to say. The same assumption can be made about the interaction between a user and a machine (Hollnagel & Woods, 1983) or even between a user and an information retrieval (IR) system during an interactive IR process (Belkin, 1992). This is the main motivation of our proposal. ...
We propose a logic-based framework to model a system whose aim is to help provide the user with those pieces of information that are useful with respect to his/her current information need, as well as relevant to his/her query. More precisely, we propose three measures of information usefulness which take into account the fact that the user can be represented as a cognitive agent endowed with some beliefs—a partial “picture” about what it already knows—and goals—a certain state of affairs in which the agent would like to be. This paper extends a previous version of the framework by considering a more realistic hypothesis, according to which there are several ways to achieve goals. We present three different approaches: the binary approach , the ordinal approach , and the numerical approach . We take information retrieval (IR) as a particular application domain, and we compare some existing measures with the usefulness measure we introduce here.
... Cognitive systems engineering (CSE) is a field that focuses on human cognitive functions within a human-machine system [205]. It encompasses various disciplines from the fields of human factors engineering, systems engineering, usability engineering, and cognitive work analysis [206]. ...
The overall objective of this work is to develop a comprehensive
and human-centred methodology for the analysis and design of digital
assistance systems. The research strategy is based on design science
research and employs a mixed-methods approach. Three distinct studies,
which contribute to the development of a robust methodology that
enhances the understanding and implementation of digital assistance
systems in assembly processes, validate the concept.
... • Cognitive Systems Engineering, pioneered by Hollnagel in the 1980s, represents a significant paradigm shift in human reliability studies (Hollnagel & Woods, 1983). Models like CREAM mark this generational change, emphasizing a move from a focus on the causes of failures to understanding the causes of successful outcomes. ...
... Moreover, it can be argued that humans and synthetic agents must be 'cognitively coupled' for synthetic teammates to be able to account for the human partner's agency in their decision-making process (Hollnagel, David, and Woods 1999), making fluent and effective HAT more challenging than merely achieving full autonomy (Goodrich and Schultz 2007). For instance, awareness of humans' goals, plans, and activities is crucial for achieving natural interactions (Van-Horenbeke and Peer 2021). ...
... Through the lens of 'work-as-imagined' tasks are often envisaged before they take place. In comparison, through the lens of 'work-as-done' how tasks are envisaged represent how work is actually carried out or what that would look like when it was carried out (Hollnagel, 2017;Hollnagel & Woods, 1983). The work-as-done vs work-as-imagined perspectives (i.e., 'work-as-proxies') have been widely applied in the field of safety science across industries such as healthcare (Ashour et al., 2021), nuclear and aviation (Teperi et al., 2015;2017) The importance of understanding work-as-done: Implications for research and practice in organizational psychology adoption of a new organizational system, whereby the implementation, based on what was originally planned and understood, differed from the actual practices in place. ...
This paper aims to describe how the concept of ‘work-as’ proxies can offer important insights for work and organizational psychologists. We explore how routine work activities can reflect those that are actually carried out when following a work-as-done perspective, rather than through the commonly used perspective of work-as-imagined. In highlighting these different perspectives, we suggest that they allow for a more in-depth understanding of what workers do and the processes they use. The value of this approach is illustrated through three case studies of applied research that have examined work in practice across the different contexts of job interviews, clinical handovers and decision making in teams. The paper challenges some of our existing assumptions of how we view work and highlights the benefits of adopting a work-as-done approach for practitioners and researchers.
... So far the machine point ofview has been dominating (also in cognitive psychology, I might add) but it is gradually becoming clear that this has serious !imitations for real world applications. A proposed solution has been to use a mode of description that treats man and machine on equal terms as functionally equivalent cognitive systems (Hollnagel & Woods, 1983). From that two assumptions can be derived. ...
This paper presents the two conventional approaches to modelling of human decision making. The inductive approach emphasises the anchoring in empirical data. The deductive approach is based on accepted assumtions from formal decision theory. A comparison of the resulting models show that the outcome is very sirnilar. It is argued that this is because modeiling of decision making basically is a hermeneutical exercise, hence neither purely inductive or deductive. An adequate model of decision making in man-machine systems must be based on a description that captures the complexity of both man and machine, such as Cognitive Systems Engineering. This leads to two essential assumptions about decision making systems, that they must be both causa! and intentional. An alternate cybemetic approach to modeiling of decision making, which includes both of theseassumptions, is briefly described.
... Such demands include system goals to be accomplished, tasks to be carried out, and operating conditions to be met (e.g., time pressure, hazards) (Vicente 1999). Second, humans, either individually or in groups, aim to develop and implement 'strategies' to satisfy the goals and conduct the tasks under the operating conditions (Hollnagel and Woods 1983). Third, technical tools provide 'affordances' to bridge the demands from the work domain and the strategies established by humans (Sanderson 2017). ...
Recent disasters occurring as natural events, industrial incidents, and public health crises, impose unprecedented challenges to humans and communities. Increasing uncertainty and complexity of disasters require multidisciplinary research efforts due to various elements involved in a disaster management system (DMS). Despite the growing body of knowledge regarding disasters, an Ergonomics approach toward the DMS is still limited. To address such a research gap, the current paper presents a Disaster Ergonomics framework that incorporates three essential system elements: demands from a disaster, strategies of responders and response organizations to satisfy the demands, and disaster tools and technologies to bridge the demands and the strategies. Especially, the framework is built upon three pillars of the DMS: resource management, command and coordination, and information and communication. As a form of simple validation, an analysis of 2017 Hurricane Harvey was conducted in line with the framework. Recommended future research topics and directions for full validation of the Disaster Ergonomics framework are also discussed.
... According to literature in the domain of cognitive systems engineering, the interaction between a human and a machine can only be understood when both parties are not considered in isolation but as a whole (Hollnagel & Woods, 1983). From this perspective different models have been proposed to provide insight into the performance of the system as a whole, of which the Contextual Control Model (COCOM) and the Extended Control Model (ECOM) (Hollnagel & Woods, 2005) have been especially influential (e.g. ...
... A distinction between the system task description, or WAI, and the cognitive tasks, or WAD was proposed in 1983 by [2]. That played a role in the early discussions about resilience engineering. ...
The Risk and Resilience Assessment Center (RiskAC) of East Macedonia and Thrace Region (REMTH) is a research project aiming at supporting decision-making on the repression and prevention of disasters in the geographical region of REMTH in Greece. The project's objective is to establish a new, properly equipped, and organized research center up to the Technological Readiness Level 5 (TRL5) by August 2023, dedicated to risk and resilience assessment studies of possible hazardous scenarios within REMTH. This paper will present the gaps identified between work as imagined vs. work as done by the RiskAC center, which is currently under development, during a plane crash emergency in REMTH in July 2022. Although RiskAC analyses related to the plane crash emergency validated that the project achieved the goal of creating a center that reached the TRL 5 maturity level, it identified points for further improving its processes. Lastly, the paper highlights the importance of considering safety via creating Concept of Operation Documents, among other things, as early as possible as essential aspects in effective operating such systems.KeywordsRiskACPlane Crash EmergencyAntonov A-12Risk Assessment. Air PollutionALOHAADMS5
... The idea suggested by Hollnagel and Woods (1983) and Hutchins (1991) among others, is that one can look at operational systems as a single-but-distributed cognitive system. This operational system cum cognitive system includes the individual people, the communities of practitioners, the organization both formal and informal, the high technology artifacts (AI, automation, computer-based visualizations, and intelligent tutors), and the low-technology artifacts (displays, alarms, procedures, paper notes, and training systems) intended to support human practitioners (cf., Hutchins, 1990;Hutchins, 1991 for examples of cognitive system analyses of operational systems). ...
original version of BEhind Human Error. Second edition 2010 from Ashgate
... Cognitive systems engineering methods aim to help adapt software, training procedures and decision aids to better support human cognition (Hollnagel & Woods, 1983). To reach this goal, one approach is to elicit information allowing to infer cognitive models of experts. ...
Single-pilot operations are cognitively challenging for pilots and could benefit from decision-support tools to mitigate risk-prone situations. The Cognitive Shadow is a prototype tool that employs policy capturing, a data-driven technique used to model decisions, to learn users’ judgement policies and alert decision discrepancies from one’s decision pattern. This proof-of-concept study investigates the potential of policy capturing to model pilots’ policies facing unstable approaches. Pilots were presented simulated cases and asked whether to continue descent or to go-around while the policy-capturing tool learned their decision pattern and provided feedback. Individual models reached mean predictive accuracy of ~ 89% while the group model reached 100%. These results speak to the potential of extracting pilots’ knowledge using policy capturing to create decision aids.
... Similarly, establishing software safety requirements for systems which automate critical decision-making tasks remains a major challenge for regulators and commercial entities in spaceflight safety and other safetycritical work domains. Cognitive systems engineering (CSE) is an interdisciplinary field created to address the growing complexity of sociotechnical systems as emerging technologies become increasingly integrated in safety-critical operations [1][2][3] . CSE is well suited to evaluate the adoption of automated technologies in complex, risky, and uncertain domains, and has been applied to problems in domains including nuclear power, air traffic control, healthcare, military operations, and space operations [4][5][6][7][8] . ...
Flight safety systems (FSS) act as a method to terminate off-nominal rocket launches which threaten public safety. Traditional FSS delegate decision authority to an experienced Mission Flight Control Officer (MFCO) tasked with flight termination decisions, observing multiple points of telemetry data in real time to ensure nominal flight status. This study examines the engineering trade-offs, complexities, and pitfalls introduced by automating flight termination decision-making through autonomous flight safety systems (AFSS). We approach this problem from a cognitive systems engineering perspective, connecting aspects of AFSS to existing literature in human-machine teaming and resilience engineering. Based on information gathered from a series of semi-structured interviews with various subject matter experts (mission controllers, regulators, engineers, amongst others) and existing literature, we outline a list of four assumptions underlying AFSS operations: (1) The system is fully autonomous, (2) An exhaustive flight safety analysis has been performed, (3) The system will be able to respond appropriately to the world, and (4) MFCO expertise can be captured in (or translated to) software. Our findings highlight that, while the benefits of AFSS hold great promise for increasing the viability of commercial space operations, the automation of an irreversible, instantaneous, and complex decision-making task introduces significant challenges and risks. We propose directions for further research to minimize the likelihood of errant, expensive, and dangerous automated flight terminations.
... With Systems Engineering integrating both technical and human-centered approaches, this theoretical approach enables us to understand the functioning and performance of joint cognitive systems such as driving (Salmon et al. 2008) and can be used in the design of adaptive automation (Hollnagel & Woods, 1983). An interdisciplinary approach such as this is extremely complex because the 'behavior' or interaction that occurs between system Human Aspects of Transportation II (2021) https://openaccess.cms-conferences.org/#/publications/book/978-1-4951-2098-5 ...
“Almost-driverless” cars are coming with an aim to improve the safety of our roads. Full automation of longitudinal and lateral control will enable the driver to become “hands and feet free” but without active control, one question remains. What is the driver actually doing? This paper looks at how multi-system automation that enables the driver to become “hands and feet free” may affect the driving system and the role of the driver within it. Using Operator Sequence Diagrams to explore Distributed Cognition in the driving system, the authors explore the interaction that may occur between the driver and vehicle subsystems in a “hands and feet free” driving system and how this may change the drivers position within the control-feedback driving loops. Acknowledging the role of the driver in this way highlights the need for ongoing Human Factors research into the implications of highly automated vehicles on driver behavior.
... Moreover, recent studies suggest interaction methods that depend less on HMIs (e.g., haptic shared control; Abbink et al., 2012). To avoid putting new wine in old bottles (Hollnagel & Woods, 1999), advanced strategies need to be developed to support efficient driver-ADS teaming. This will require expanding the research scope from one-way communication using the traditional vehicle HMI to two-way cooperation design with enhanced observability, key for designing driver-ADS teams. ...
Advances in automated driving systems (ADSs) have shifted the primary responsibility of controlling a vehicle from human drivers to automation. Framing driving a highly automated vehicle as teamwork can reveal practical requirements and design considerations to support the dynamic driver-ADS relationship. However , human-automation teaming is a relatively new concept in ADS research and requires further exploration. We conducted two literature reviews to identify concepts related to teaming and to define the driver-ADS relationship, requirements, and design considerations. The first literature review identified coordination , cooperation, and collaboration (3Cs) as core concepts to define driver-ADS teaming. Based on these findings, we propose the panarchy framework of 3Cs to understand drivers' roles and relationships with automation in driver-ADS teaming. The second literature review identified main challenges for designing driver-ADS teams. The challenges include supporting mutual communication, enhancing observability and direct-ability, developing a responsive ADS, and identifying and supporting the interdependent relationship between the driver and ADS. This study suggests that the teaming concept can promote a better understanding of the driver-ADS team where the driver and automation require interplay. Eventually, the driver-ADS teaming frame will lead to adequate expectations and mental models of partially automated vehicles.
... investigated before in the field of organizational science. Hollnagel & Woods [31] framed the issue as one of an abstract distance between "work-as-imagined" (development of operational work) and "work-as-done" (how that operational work is carried out). According to this explanation, only through better understanding of operator work can this distance be bridged, leading to improved organizational safety. ...
Teaming with Artificial Intelligence (AI) is changing the way seafarers work. We show that a new kind of seafaring is emerging, characterized by cooperation with AI systems. In this format of seafaring, navigation tasks are controlled automatically while human operators manage the automation, always “in the loop” and ready to take over control if necessary. Ideally, this arrangement sees improvements in overall system performance and safety. However, little is known today about how this format of work will unfold in real-world operations. We investigate this topic by interviewing operators (n = 5) on ferries recently outfitted with state-of-the-art automated navigation technology. We used a mixed-methods approach to analyze the case study interviews, combining quantitative text analysis with Grounded Theory qualitative analysis techniques. The results show that operators perceived a shift towards a backup role coincident with increasing agency of machine autonomy. This role shift was characterized by “button-pressing” to start the machine autonomy and subsequently intervening to stop it when things go wrong. We observed that this shift led to boredom, deskilling, stretched resources, and compromised organizational harmony – effects running counter to the intention of improved system performance and safety. Synthesizing the findings, we present (1) effects across three operational dimensions: (i) tasks, (ii) human-computer interaction, (iii) organization; and (2) a definition of collaborative (human-AI) seafaring. By identifying issues in the early implementation of highly automated ship navigation, we hope to guide designers of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASSs) away from potential pitfalls and towards development more in tune with real-world demands of collaborative work.
... There are enormous versions of personality tests starting from interpretation of complex patterns, choosing favored ones from multiple choices to transform random lines into a picture. However, for cognitive engineering (CE), one of the primary requirements is to understand the mysteries of brain functions [6,7] only then the techniques from cognitive psychology could be used to the design of human-machine systems [8]. ...
... There are enormous versions of personality tests starting from interpretation of complex patterns, choosing favored ones from multiple choices to transform random lines into a picture. However, for cognitive engineering (CE), one of the primary requirements is to understand the mysteries of brain functions [6,7] only then the techniques from cognitive psychology could be used to the design of human-machine systems [8]. ...
Since the 1920s, drawing tests have been used to measure intelligence, maturity, and personality: in the later parts of the twentieth century, drawing tests were extended to estimate depression, schizophrenia, and the degree of Alzheimer's. However, despite extensive literature on cognitive engineering, there is no grammar as generic rules for explaining drawing tests. Most inferences are drawn based on experiences, intuitions, and medical test confirmations. Here, we propose a set of eight tests to correlate fundamental rules of subconscious minds of a human subject follows based on which it constructs logical constructs for solving a problem. Based on the studies carried out on human subjects, we have proposed invariants or conservations across human subjects to interpret the drawing results and build technologies. Thus far, cognitive technologies of subconscious minds were limited to explore criminal minds. Our test protocol reveals generic rules of subconscious minds for engineering cognitive AI machines.KeywordsCognitive technologySubconscious mindArtificial intelligenceTime crystalSociology
... Another serious objection to the LOA framework is that replacing certain human functions with automation through substitution will change the joint system-exploiting an automation capability will create new human strengths and weaknesses [32]. Given that no models of human cognition can perfectly predict behaviour, this means that a priori function allocation is intractable, and when used, resulting systems should be considered only as hypotheses for further inquiry [52]. ...
Recent accidents such as the B737-MAX8 crashes highlight the need to address and improve the current aircraft certification process. This includes understanding how design characteristics of automated systems influence flightcrew behavior and how to evaluate the design of these systems to support robust and resilient outcomes. We propose a process which could be used to evaluate the compliance of automated systems looking through the lens of the 3Rs: Reliability, Robustness, and Resilience. This process helps determine where additional evidence is needed in a certification package to support the flightcrew in interacting with automated systems. Two diagrams, the Design Characteristic Diagram (DCD) and the What’s Next diagram, are used to uncover scenarios which complicate flightcrew response. The DCD is used to look at the relationship between characteristics in design and potential vulnerabilities which commonly occur when design does not support the flightcrew. The What’s Next diagram looks at the ability of the design to support the flightcrew in anticipating what will happen next. In our process, claims surrounding the 3Rs that are present in a certification package are systematically evaluated using these two diagrams to uncover additional areas of support for the flightcrew. Questions about when these claims may break down which are identified using the DCD can be tested using scenarios developed on the What’s Next diagram. Further vignettes looking at different versions of a scenario can be assessed to increase the robustness in the design. The FAA has sponsored this research through the Center of Excellence for Technical Training and Human Performance. However, the FAA neither endorses nor rejects the findings of this research. The dissemination of this research is in the interest of invoking academic or technical community comments on the results and conclusions of the research.
Purpose
Virtual reality (VR) has been explored as a training and testing environment in a range of work contexts, and increasingly so in transport. There is, however, a lack of research exploring the role of VR in the training of tram drivers, and in providing an environment in which advances in tram technology can be tested safely. This study aimed to test a novel haptic tram master controller within a tram-based Virtual environment (VE).
Design/methodology/approach
The master controller is the primary mechanism for operating a tram, and its effective manipulation can significantly influence the comfort and well-being of passengers, as well as the overall safety of the tram system. Here, the authors tested a haptically enhanced master controller that provides additional sensory information with 16 tram drivers. The feasibility and user acceptance of the novel technology were determined through surveys.
Findings
The results indicate that the haptic master controller is seen as beneficial to the drivers suggesting that it could enhance their driving and demonstrate good acceptance. The VE has provided a potential training environment that was accepted by the drivers and did not cause adverse effects (e.g. sickness).
Research limitations/implications
Although this study involved actual tram drivers from a local tram company, the authors acknowledge that the sample size was small, and additional research is needed to broaden perspectives and gather more user feedback. Furthermore, while this study focused on subjective feedback to gauge user acceptance of the new haptic technology, the authors agree that future evaluations should incorporate additional objective measures.
Practical implications
The insights gained from this VE-based research can contribute to future training scenarios and inform the development of technology used in real-world tram operations.
Originality/value
Through this investigation, the authors showed the broader possibilities of haptics in enhancing the functionality and user experience of various technological devices, while also contributing to the advancement of tram systems for safer and more efficient urban mobility.
The increase machine intelligence has led to a shift from a plain interactive to a much more multifaceted cooperative human-machine relation. It requires a multidisciplinary development approach. In this paper, a common multidisciplinary Cognitive Engineering method CE+ is presented. The method is specially designed for the integration of human aspects and artificial intelligence, so that it leads to the development of human-machine cooperation. Two case studies are presented in this paper in which a description of the developed human-machine cooperation and the adjusted CE+ method are given. For each case study, the method supported research and development activities in such a way that sound knowledge bases, methodologies, and user interfaces for human-machine cooperation could be established. However, the method always needed to be tailored to the specific goals and circumstances, such as the available time, novelty and required integration.
The text highlights the role of artificial intelligence in driving innovation, productivity, and efficiency. It further covers applications of artificial intelligence for digital marketing in Industry 5.0 and discusses data security and privacy issues in artificial intelligence, risk assessments, and identification strategies.
This book:
Discusses the role of artificial intelligence applications for digital manufacturing in Industry 5.0.
Presents blockchain methods and data-driven decision-making with autonomous transportation.
Covers reinforcement learning algorithm and highly predicted models for accurate data analysis in industry automation.
Highlights the importance of robust authentication mechanisms and access control policies to protect sensitive information, prevent unauthorized access, and enable secure interactions between humans and machines.
Explains attack pattern detection and prediction which play a crucial role in ensuring the security of business systems and networks.
En este trabajo se aborda el tema de la contemplación estética de una obra de arte en términos de la abstracción cibernética (i.e. como un sistema en el que ocurre una transmisión de información) mediante una construcción conceptual especulativa basada en un marco teórico derivado de la inteligencia artificial general, en particular, sobre las nociones de sistema inteligente y agente inteligente. Esta construcción especulativa propone reflexionar sobre las consecuencias e implicaciones de diversas
posibilidades y escenarios (algunos ya en desarrollo hoy en día y otros meramente especulativos) en los cuales la obra de arte está implementada mediante sistemas de inteligencia artificial (IA) que van desde la inteligencia artificial débil hasta los sistemas artificiales autoconscientes. Se propone entender este fenómeno (el de la contemplación estética) en términos de intercambio/flujo de información entre el espectador y la obra; en este sentido, se hace uso de herramientas conceptuales, definiciones y abordajes propios de la cibernética y la teoría general de sistemas. Se plantea además una diferenciación del fenómeno de acuerdo con el tipo de
información que se observa (sensorial, cognitivo-semántica y emocional) y se propone que como consecuencia de estas perspectivas surgen “espacios” correspondientes que integran al espectador, a la obra y al flujo/transmisión de información de manera convergente.
Gândirea sistemică este o modalitate de a înțelege complexitatea lumii, privind-o în ansamblu și în relații, în loc să o descompunem în componente separate. A fost folosită ca metodă de explorare și dezvoltare a acțiunilor eficiente în contexte complexe, facilitând schimbarea sistemelor.
Într-o epocă dominată de complexitate și schimbare rapidă, cercetătorii din domeniul științelor sociale au căutat în mod constant abordări inovatoare pentru a face față provocărilor contemporane. Printre aceste abordări deosebit de relevante și captivante se află paradigma sistemică, ce reprezintă o perspectivă remarcabilă de a face față complexității lumii și de a explora conexiunile și relațiile care guvernează sistemele sociale.
Această carte propune o explorare profundă și cuprinzătoare a gândirii sistemice în contextul științelor sociale. Cu un fundament solid în filosofia postcognitivistă, autorii aduc în prim-plan o perspectivă revoluționară asupra modului în care putem înțelege, analiza și acționa în cadrul sistemelor sociale complexe.
Cartea propusă, intitulată „O abordare postcognitivistă în științele sociale – Paradigma sistemică”, își propune să exploreze în profunzime această influență reciprocă dintre inginerie și comportament uman. Ea pune accent pe modul în care ingineria sistemelor îmbogățește înțelegerea fenomenelor comportamentale și sociale și
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contribuie la dezvoltarea unor metode inovatoare de analiză și intervenție.
Prin abordarea interdisciplinară și sinergia între inginerie, psihologie și științe sociale, cartea se adresează atât cercetătorilor din domeniul comportamental, cât și din sfera psihologiei și a științelor sociale, oferind o perspectivă cuprinzătoare asupra interacțiunii dintre aceste domenii distincte, dar complementare. În timp ce ingineria sistemelor oferă tehnici și abordări inovatoare pentru analiză și modelare, psihologia și științele sociale aduc în discuție complexitatea umană și particularitățile individuale și de grup.
Unul dintre aspectele fundamentale ale acestei convergențe este explorarea și adaptarea conceptelor și modelelor matematice din ingineria sistemelor pentru a aborda probleme și întrebări din domeniile comportamentale și sociale. De exemplu, tehnici de analiză a datelor și algoritmi de învățare automată, utilizate în ingineria sistemelor, sunt aplicate în psihologie, sociologie și asistență socială pentru a explora modele comportamentale și tendințe în interacțiunile sociale. Aceste abordări permit cercetătorilor să identifice conexiuni complexe și ascunse între variabile comportamen--tale și să dezvăluie aspecte ale comportamentului uman care altfel ar fi rămas nedescoperite.
De asemenea, cartea aduce în discuție implicarea ingineriei sistemelor în dezvoltarea și implementarea intervențiilor și tehnologiilor pentru ameliorarea calității vieții și pentru soluționarea unor probleme sociale și comportamentale. Utilizarea inteligenței artificiale și a tehnologiei în abordarea unor provocări precum sănătatea mentală, luarea deciziilor în contexte complexe sau îmbunătățirea interacțiunilor sociale deschide noi oportunități de intervenție și susținere a individului și comunității.
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Cartea se concentrează, de asemenea, asupra aspectelor etice ale acestei convergențe, subliniind importanța responsabilității în utilizarea tehnologiilor de inginerie sistemelor în cercetarea și intervențiile în domeniile comportamentale și sociale. Înțelegerea și gestionarea potențialelor riscuri și impactului asupra indivizilor și societății sunt cruciale pentru a asigura o dezvoltare responsabilă și etică a acestor tehnologii.
Cartea Gândirea sistemică - O abordare postcogniti--vistă în științele comportamentale explorează cu profunzime și în originalitate această relație complexă și promițătoare dintre inginerie și comportament uman. Prin analiza fundamentelor teoretice, a aplicațiilor practice și a potențialelor viitoare direcții de cercetare, această lucrare aduce o contribuție semnificativă în domeniul interdisciplinar al cercetării comportamentale și sociale, oferind o perspectivă integrală și actuală asupra influenței ingineriei sistemelor în domeniile care vizează înțelegerea și îmbunătățirea vieții umane și a societății în ansamblul ei..
Conf. univ. dr. Dana Rad
The set of traditional characteristic features of large-scale complex systems (LSS) included the large number of variables, structure of interconnected subsystems, and other features that complicate the control models, such as nonlinearities, time delays, and uncertainties. The advances in information and communication technologies (ICT) and the modern business models have led to important evolution in the concepts and the corresponding management and control infrastructures of large-scale complex systems. The last three decades have highlighted several new characteristic features, such as networked structure, enhanced geographical distribution associated with the increased cooperation of subsystems, evolutionary development, higher risk sensitivity, presence of more, possibly conflicting, objectives, and security and environment concerns. This chapter aims to present a balanced review of several traditional well-established methods (such as multilevel and decentralized control) and modern control solutions (such as cooperative and networked control) for LSS together with the technology development and new application domains, such as smart city with heating and water distribution systems, and environmental monitoring and protection. A particular attention is paid to automation infrastructures and associated enabling technologies together with security aspects.KeywordsComplex systemsCloud ComputingDecision supportEnvironment protectionICTInterconnected systemsInternet of ThingsNetworked controlSmart City
Human-computer interaction as a rationalistic, engineering discipline has been taught successfully for more than 25 years. The established narrative is one of designing usable systems for users, some of whom have been described as “naïve”, safely installed behind their desktop personal computers. But the world is changed. All aspects of society use interactive technology, it is frequently carried about with us, we talk to it, gesture at it, caress it and check it compulsively. The original emphasis on designing for usability has given way to creating an optimal “user experience”. So we are faced with two distinct but related issues: firstly, how do we characterise this new technology and our relationship with it and secondly, how do we teach to design for it. We have developed an approach, which might formally be described as being based on a “convergent-divergent dialectic” but is, at its heart, recognisably playful.
We propose a new research framework by which the nascent discipline of human-AI teaming can be explored within experimental environments in preparation for transferal to real-world contexts. We examine the existing literature and unanswered research questions through the lens of an Agile approach to construct our proposed framework. Our framework aims to provide a structure for understanding the macro features of this research landscape, supporting holistic research into the acceptability of human-AI teaming to human team members and the affordances of AI team members. The framework has the potential to enhance decision-making and performance of hybrid human-AI teams. Further, our framework proposes the application of Agile methodology for research management and knowledge discovery. We propose a transferability pathway for hybrid teaming to be initially tested in a safe environment, such as a real-time strategy video game, with elements of lessons learned that can be transferred to real-world situations.
This paper provided a method of cognitive engineering based on ecological interface design (EID) to optimize the current alarm display. The design process included three stages. In the first stage, several investigations on the automatic train supervision) (ATS) alarm units of Beijing Metro were conducted, and design requirements were obtained. In the second stage, a work domain analysis was built, and the new alarm interface was proposed, which had six components. In the last stage, the usability of new alarm interface was tested, and the skill-rule-knowledge was analyzed. The new alarm interface had superiorities in preventing alarm floods and reducing dispatcher workload.
Information researchers can further social justice and social equity to meet the needs of minority and underserved populations experiencing intersecting modes of cultural marginalization. Scholars of information and communication technologies for development (ICT4D) can find overlooked intersections with social justice in “community networking” research since the 1980s to overcome the digital divides between the haves and have‐nots. To frame social justice initiatives within a consolidated vision of ICT4D in the field of information, this article proposes an impact‐driven framework, expounded through five interrelated elements: why (motivations), with who (engaged constituencies), how (at external and internal levels to change traditional practices), and toward what (goal). It is explicated through select historical instances of “community networking” and digital divides, ICT4D, and social justice intersections. Significance of the elements is also demonstrated via this author's select information‐related social justice research conducted in the United States. The urgency for critical and reflective conversations is important owing to historically abstracted human information behavior theory development within information research outdated in multiple contextualized needs of contemporary times. Historically situating impact‐driven social justice research is important to further the relevance, existence, and growth of the information field as it strengthens its ties with ICT4D.
Smart environment in a smart city is the changes of a city and shape the pure environment with the element to achieve a human settlement. This change is achieved by extensive and persuasive infrastructure and building which give a big impact on the environment. However, the lack of a smart environment regulatory framework was increasing the level of difficulties for the implementation of smart environmental practices. The objectives of the study were to identify the smart envi- ronment concept for a smart city and examine the elements of the smart environment in Pengerang. The study was conducted by using a mixed method. The data was collected by using questionnaires, document reviews and observations. The results showed that the quality of life, facilities and automated system element recorded mean score at a high level. Besides that, the element of quality of life recorded the highest average mean score with 4.48 rather than the other four elements, facilities, awareness, safety and automated system. The implications of this study show that the implementation needs deep planning by local authorities and government to realize the changes toward a smart environment.
Smart people are very important to our future because only humans can utilize technology and improve economic and political efficiency, and play a role in social, cultural and urban progress. However, low moral intelligence, low skilled manpower and conflicts between multi-ethnic are major problems that often lead to social issues. The objectives of the study were to identify smart people concept for a smart city and examine the elements of smart people in Pengerang. The study was conducted using a mixed-method. The data were collected using question- naires, document reviews and observations. The results showed that the agreeable- ness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion and experience to openness elements recorded mean score at a high level. Besides that, the element of agree- ableness recorded as the highest average mean score with 3.78 rather than the other four elements, conscientiousness, extraversion, emotional stability and experience to openness. The implications of this study show that the local authorities and govern- ment need to draw the strategies and policies for build-up smart people in order to develop and promote a smart city in Malaysia.
In this paper, a drop-shaped fractal patch antenna is designed and simulated using Polyamide substrate. The designed antenna is simulated for 4.35–4.42 THz. The designed antenna resonates at 4.4 THz frequency. The maximum gain of 9.34 dBi is achieved. The designed antenna has applications in THz for communication, sensing, and 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4 THz frequency is used for quantum cascade laser. The proposed antenna is designed using CST software.KeywordsDrop shapedFractalPatchTHzQuantum cascade laser
A Virtual Private Network (VPN) creates a private communication path over the public network to ensure the security of the transmitted data. A plethora of VPN tunneling protocols has been developed for the site-to-site and remote access of the applications. A critical challenge for an organization is to select an appropriate VPN protocol considering the application requirements. In this paper, Internet Protocol Security (IPSec), Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP), and Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) protocols have been exploited to determine the application suitability of the VPN tunneling mechanism selected for remote access. End-to-end Throughput, Round Trip Time, and Jitter along heterogeneous hardware environments have been investigated to determine the performance of the VPN tunneling techniques. Experimental results depict that MPLS is suitable for real-time audio-video, web, e-mail, and file-sharing applications. IPSec and L2TP are more applicable to the web, e-mail, and file-sharing applications and not suitable for streaming applications due to high jitter and latency.KeywordsVirtual private networkMPLSL2TPIPSec
Smart economy has emerged as part of the smart city framework to encourage urban growth which the urban population currently lives in a digital society. The smart economy has emerged as part of the smart city framework to encourage urban growth. However, with technological and economic shifts brought about by globalization, cities are now facing the challenges of simultaneously sustaining productivity and sustainable urban development. The objectives of the study were to identify the smart economy concept for a smart city and examine the elements of smart economy in Pengerang. The study has conducted by using a mixed method. The data have collected by using questionnaires, document reviews and observations. The results showed that respondents fully understood the concept of smart economy that enables, encourages and stimulates economic activity in Pengerang. Besides, there will be future strategies and initiatives in order to encourage people to implement the smart economy. The implications of this study show that people need to pay attention to the issues and strategies that have been proposed by the government to implement and promote the smart economy toward a smart city.
Discussion Panel Abstract: The recent Boeing 737MAX accidents crystalized for the public the complexity of anticipating system and operator performance and developing a system design that prevents catastrophic outcomes. The operational situations, progression of flightcrew actions, and system behaviors that led to the two accidents had not been anticipated by the manufacturer or the regulator. These accidents were only the most recent examples of our failure to anticipate and manage operational complexities and operator performance. The art and science of human factors has yet to perfect risk assessment (or safety assessment) for complex systems.
In the not-so-distant past, system risk assessment made estimates of human error probabilities (HEPs) for specific operational tasks, which were combined with estimated equipment failure rates to produce an overall risk estimate. Indeed, these Human Reliability Analysis (HRA) techniques have evolved over decades and are still being developed (e.g., IDHEAS-ECA, Xing et al., 2020), partly because they satisfy the need for a simple quantitative threshold that can be used by industry and regulators: if risk probability is too high, change the design or some other aspect of operations.
Through the years, there have been critiques of the HRA approach (e.g., Hollnagel, 1998) that led to revisions, such as focusing on cognitive functions instead of operator tasks, but not to the basic quantitative risk-estimation approach. Other approaches to assessing risk/safety have wandered down other paths: attempting to capture system complexity from an operator’s perspective (Roth, Mumaw, Lewis, 1994; Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2000), or better documenting the many ways in which system operators manage complexity daily to find ways to improve their capacity (Hollnagel, Woods, & Leveson, 2006). These approaches have used different measures than HEPs; e.g., measures of operator performance, measures of interface usability/design, measures of task complexity, and the analysis of system constraints.
In this panel, we offer different perspectives on risk/safety assessment as it relates to operator performance in complex systems. Foundational to assessment is deciding the nature of safety and the role of operator performance. Another important question is, as you move away from simple quantitative measures, how do you establish safety thresholds? That is, what guidance can we give to industry and regulators regarding how to measure safety and how to decide that action is required on the basis of safety.
Little or no direct experimental work exists on the role of attention in error detection and diagnosis. Therefore, this paper draws on well established approaches to the understanding of human information processing to suggest the direction in which may lie a model of the way the need to pay attention to many sources of information, and to the information received from those sources, gives rise to difficulties for the human operator in monitoring large automatic and semiautomatic systems.
Outlines a theory of action in which an action sequence is represented by a parent schema and numerous child schemas, in which several action schemas can be active at any one time, and in which each schema has a set of triggering conditions and an activation value. The path from intention to action consists of the activation of the parent schema that corresponds to the intention, the activation of child schemas for the component parts of the action sequence, and then the appropriate triggering of schemas when the conditions match those required for their operations. This action system allows slips to be organized into 3 major categories and a number of subcategories. The 3 major categories of slips are (a) errors in the formation of the intention (e.g., mode and description errors); (b) faulty activation of schemas (e.g., loss of intention and misordering of action components); and (c) faulty triggering (e.g., spoonerisms, blends, and intrusions of thoughts).
This literature review of decision making (how people make choices among desirable alternatives), culled from the disciplines of psychology, economics, and mathematics, covers the theory of riskless choices, the application of the theory of riskless choices to welfare economics, the theory of risky choices, transitivity of choices, and the theory of games and statistical decision functions. The theories surveyed assume rational behavior: individuals have transitive preferences ("… if A is preferred to B, and B is preferred to C, then A is preferred to C."), choosing from among alternatives in order to "… maximize utility or expected utility." 209-item bibliography. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The classical formula for training is simple enough. To train someone to do anything requires only: (1) opportunities to practise; (2) tests to check performance after practice; and, if practice and testing do not of themselves suffice, (3) hints, explanations or other information not intrinsic to performing the task. Industrial fault diagnosis training can present serious difficulties on all three counts.
The rapid technological advancements of the past decade, and the availability of higher levels of automation which resulted, have aroused interest in the role of man in complex systems. Should the human be an active element in the control loop, operating manual manipulators in response to signals presented by various instruments and displays? Or should the signals be coupled directly into an automatic controller, delegating the human to the monitoring role of a supervisor of the system’s operation?
Eighty-six maintenance trainees in an FAA certificate program participated in two experimental studies of context-free and context-specific problem solving skills. The context-free training method included two previously reported tasks that involve the troubleshooting of graphically displayed networks. The context-specific task involved automobile and aircraft powerplants simulated on a new computer-based system called FAULT (Framework for Aiding the Understanding of Logical Troubleshooting). Results of the study indicated that it is possible to develop context-free diagnostic skills to be used in context-specific problems and that suboptimal diagnostic performance is largely due to not fully utilizing the information present in the structure of the problem.
Many human operator studies have used successfully the concept that the human operator performs his task on the basis of certain knowledge about the system to be controlled, called the internal model. In this paper, the literature on manual control will be reviewed briefly with attention focused on the use of the internal model concept. To illustrate the applicability of the internal model concept in the field of man-machine systems, an application is given in the human control of large ships. A model to describe the helmsman's behavior in steering a supertanker, and the influence on his behavior of additional displays such as a rate of turn indicator will be described.
Among recent developments in the anthropological sciences, hardly any have found so much attention and led to so much controversy as have the views advanced by the late Benjamin Whorf.
The hypothesis offered by Whorf is,
“that the commonly held belief that the cognitive processes of all human beings possess a common logical structure which operates prior to and independently of communication through language, is erroneous. It is Whorf's view that the linguistic patterns themselves determine what the individual perceives in this world and how he thinks about it. Since these patterns vary widely, the modes of thinking and perceiving in groups utilizing different linguistic systems will result in basically different world views” (Fearing, 1954).
“We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar. … We cut up and organize the spread and flow of events as we do largely because, through our mother tongue, we are parties to an agreement to do so, not because nature itself is segmented in exactly that way for all to see” (Whorf, 1952, p. 21)
Modelling the performance of human operators as an integral part of a system is becoming a vital problem to process plant designers. Reviews of major system failures and accidents repeatedly find that the human element plays a major role in 50–70% of the cases (Cornell, 1968. Rasmussen, 1969. Scott, 1971). The increasing reliability and safety requirements caused by the rapid growth in production unit size force the designer to include consideration of abnormal plant conditions due to failures of extremely low probability. For such tasks the operator will not be able to compensate design deficiencies by his great adaptability, and the interface design cannot evolve through trial and error. This situation is further accentuated by the rapid development of data processing and display equipment with potential for very complex man-machine interaction.
It has long been recognised that operators’ misidentification of abnormal system states plays a significant role in major system break-downs (see e.g. Cornell, 1968, Rasmussen 1968) and the problem has been subject to much discussion since the Three Mile Island incident. Consequently, there has been a rapid increase in efforts to design computer-controlled man-system interfaces which are effective in supporting operators’ identification of the actual operating state of the system.
Two rather different human factor approaches may be distinguished in efforts to optimize the performance of man-machine systems. One seeks, through the training of the operator, to adjust the human component to the requirements of the system. The other attempts to enhance system performance by adjusting the mechanical elements to fit the manAlthough much has been accomplished through training programmes, this approach is limited. In the first place, no amount of effort devoted to training operators can make the performance of some man—machine systems adequate to their tasks. A second limitation of the training approach is just beginning to be appreciated. In many instances it is possible, through operator training, to eliminate performance differences among man—machine systems of different intrinsic merit. This might lead one to choose an inferior design in the place of a better one since, under normal operation, they would all appear to be equivalent. However, if the operators were stressed, the fundamental inferiority of the chosen system might reassert itself. The study reported here has, in fact, shown that two different tracking systems, made equivalent through training, revert to their original order of merit when the operators are subjected to any one of a wide variety of ‘ task-induced ’ stress situations.
. Conversational theory is an attempt to investigate the learning of realistically complex subject matter under controlled conditions. To do this it is necessary to insist on restricted definitions of common terms such as understanding and to demand more stringent conditions before accepting that it has been demonstrated. These conditions can be achieved if the subject matter is structured and the student follows certain rules in demonstrating understanding. Computer linked systems have been developed which control and record student learning. The systems provide the experimenter with detailed records of the learning strategies used by students and the student with learning experiences which normally ensure understanding.
Strategies of democratization in societal and organizational contexts that are aimed at reducing the influence gap merely through increased opportunities for communi cation are critized. As an alternative to the power-through-communication para digm, which such strategies seem to be based upon, a power-through-model paradigm is suggested: Models are required in order to utilize information offers and exert and withstand influence. This is illustrated by contrasting the operations of two systems, one of which lacks model resources and thus is completely dependent upon external feedback. The other system may carry out internal trials through simulation, and strengthen its model power through comparisons between real and simulated outcomes. If a model-strong actor and model-weak actor are coupled in an open information exchange system, the former may be expected to gradually increase his control of the other actor. Offers of information are useful only to the extent that there is model capacity for processing the information offered. Thus a successful transition in the name of democratization to a more open communi cation structure may freeze - or even increase - the influence gap. Independent development of system model resources among the less influentials is required.
The design of a complex regulator often includes the making of a model of the system to be regulated. The making of such a model has hitherto been regarded as optional, as merely one of many possible ways.In this paper a theorem is presented which shows, under very broad conditions, that any regulator that is maximally both successful and simple must be isomorphic with the system being regulated. (The exact assumptions are given.) Making a model is thus necessary.The theorem has the interesting corollary that the living brain, so far as it is to be successful and efficient as a regulator for survival, must proceed, in learning, by the formation of a model (or models) of its environment.
Every Man-computer interaction involves some kind of dialogue; however it is not yet fully clear what kind of activity can be called a dialogue and how to calculate its simpler parameters. This paper surveys some aspects of the seemingly simple problem and presents a formulation of the dialogue and of the basic human factor influencing its course the specific fatigue associated with the information processing work of the human nervous system. © 1971, Academic Press Inc.(London) Limited. All rights reserved.
Human components in manned systems often compensate for hardware error by utilizing other information and past experience in addition to the normal hardware output. However, errors in human information processing and utilization, cognitive reliability, often lowers the overall system reliability. Cognitive reliability in manned systems is discussed in terms of the types of human errors which may occur and in terms of factors which affect the occurrence of these errors. It is a complex function of attitudinal and structural factors and their interaction. Cognitive reliability is useful for examining man's role in complex systems where cognitive as well as perceptual-motor skills are required.
An information-processing model is presented that describes how a person uses an interactive computer text-editing system to make modifications to a manuscript. It is demonstrated that the behavior of an expert user can be modeled by giving his goals, operators, methods, and selection rules for choosing among method alternatives. The paper assesses the predictions of such a model with respect to (1) predicting user behavior sequences, (2) predicting the time required to do particular modifications, and (3) determining the effect on accuracy of the detail with which the modeling is done (the model's “grain size”). Chronometric task protocols from several users are examined in some detail. Users' choices between alternative methods are predicted about 80% of the time by a few simple rules. Accuracy of the model is little affected by the detail of modeling. The manuscript-editing task is discussed as an example from the larger class of tasks called “routine cognitive skills.”
While only in the past ten years have large numbers of people been engaged in computer programming, a small body of studies on this activity have already been accumulated. These studies are, however, largely atheoretical. The work described here has as its goal the creation of an information processing theory sufficient to describe the findings of these studies. The theory postulates understanding, method finding, and coding processes in writing programs, and presents an explicit model for the coding process.
ZOG is a rapid response, large network, menu selection system used for man-machine communication. The philosophy behind this style of communication was first developed by the PROMIS (Problem Oriented Medical Information System) Laboratory of the University of Vermont. ZOG has been used in a number of task domains to help explore the limits and potential benefits of the communication philosophy. This paper discusses the basic ideas in ZOG, describes the architecture of a system implemented to carry out that exploration, and discusses our initial experience.
CASTE (Course Assembly System and Tutorial Environment) is a facility for observing and controlling human learning. This paper describes the system and presents data on its use as a conversational system for teaching elementary concepts of probability theory to Technical College Students. A summary is given of the work on adaptive teaching systems that led to the development of CASTE for subject matters where students can and do adapt a variety of learning strategies. For such cases adaptive teaching is not sufficient; a system is called for which learns about a student's preferred learning strategy by engaging him in a dialogue about his learning; CASTE is such a system.
This paper addresses the problems that must be considered if computers are going to treat their users as individuals with distinct personalities, goals, and so forth. It first outlines the issues, and then proposes stereotypes as a useful mechanism for building models of individual users on the basis of a small amount of information about them. In order to build user models quickly, a large amount of uncertain knowledge must be incorporated into the models. The issue of how to resolve the conflicts that will arise among such inferences is discussed. A system, Grundy, is described that builds models of its users, with the aid of stereotypes, and then exploits those models to guide it in its task, suggesting novels that people may find interesting. If stereotypes are to be useful to Grundy, they must accurately characterize the users of the system. Some techniques to modify stereotypes on the basis of experience are discussed. An analysis of Grundy's performance shows that its user models are effective in guiding its performance.
The knowledge engineer practices the art of bringing the principles and tools of AI research to bear on difficult applications problems requiring experts' knowledge for their solution. The technical issues of acquiring this knowledge, representing it, and using it appropriately to construct and explain lines-of-reasoning, are important problems in the design of knowledge-based systems. Various systems that have achieved expert level performance in scientific and medical inference illuminate the art of knowledge engineering and its parent science, Artificial Intelligence.
A description is given of the human interface for two versions of an interactive graphics system intended for use by nonprogrammers. It presents the ″action languages″ for the two versions, then shows how these user languages can be described in terms of a production rule notation. Particular emphasis is given, in the notation, to actions the user has to learn and remember (i. e. , to ″cognitive″ factors). The study then presents predictions about human performance based on the formal description, and exploratory results of testing some of the predictions. Since the predictions are based on general properties of the formal description, the technique should also be applicable to other ″action languages.″
.— A basic feature of some modem theories of perception is the notion of complex or higher order variables which are considered basic for perception. A distinction between “rote” and “smart” mechanisms is introduced and it is suggested that perception consists of smart mechanisms which directly register complex variables. A model of a perceiver, based on the smart polar planimeter, is constructed and used to illustrate the possible consequences of smart perceptual mechanisms for research in areas such as psychophysics, cognition, attention, and perceptual development and learning.
The mental procedures used by skilled electronics repair men in their normal working environment have been studied by analysis of verbal protocols. The procedures found are organized as a search through a system which is viewed as a hierarchy of subunits. The general structure of the search can be broken down into a sequence of recurrent search routines. Basically different types of such routines are found with great differences in respect to the number of observations needed and the complexity of the mental data processing involved. They also differ greatly with respect to the depth of knowledge of the internal functioning of the system used by the repair men.The records demonstrate a great ability by the men to conduct the search by general routines mostly depending upon their general professional background, and a preference for rapidstreams of simple decisions giving good or bad judgements regardless of whether observations are informationally redundant or not. Seen from the viewpoint of information economy, the procedures are inefficient, but if the men are supposed to minimize the time spent in the task and the mental load involved, the procedures are very rational. The records indicate that the men have great confidence in the experience that the general routines will ultimately lead them to the fault. In cases where they are unsuccessful, there seems to be a fixation, resulting in a tendency to rely on repetitions, rather than to generate specific procedures based upon reasoning related to the functioning of the specific system.
Computer technology has made a conversationally interactive system concept feasible, but the user-oriented disciplines have not yet abandoned the man v machine task allocation orientation in favour of man-with-a-computer concept of performing complex cognitive work. Guidelines for application of interactive computer systems depend on (1) a knowledge of the kinds of subtasks experienced decision makers perform when they do their jobs, and (2) the characteristics of their performance in each subtask.Empirical research with experienced, professional decision makers is reviewed to define subtasks and to document performance characteristics. Implications of man's known performance characteristics are traced out to general recommendations for design of interactive systems.
A questionnaire survey dealing with working conditions, job stress factors, health complaints, and psychological mood state was filled out by approximately 250 video display terminal (VDT) operators and 150 nonoperator control subjects at five participating work sites. Clerical VDT operators reported higher levels of job stress and health complaints but little difference in psychological mood state than did professional VDT operators and the control subjects. The job stressors showing the greatest impact on the clerical operators dealt with workload, workpace, lack of control over job activities, boredom, and concerns about career development. The health complaints that showed the greatest differences between the groups dealt with visual, musculoskeletal, and emotional health problems. The results indicate that job content factors and VDT use interact to contribute to VDT operator problems.
This paper is concerned with behaviour possible in an information-flow system intended explicitly as a hypothetical model for comparison with human information-handling system. A statistically self-organizing system is described in which not only normal homeostatic behaviour but also such activities as invention of fruitful hypotheses, imagination of fictitious situations, and like would find a natural place. Discussion is confined mainly to manner of concept-formation and concept-handling in such a system. It has been suggested that correlate of perception (as distinct from reception) is activity which organizes an outwardly directed internal matching response to signals from receptors. This organizing activity amounts logically to an internal representation of feature in incoming signals to which it is adaptive, i.e. feature which is thus ‘perceived’.
A hierarchic structure is postulated wherein much of organizing activity is concerned with modifying probabilities of other activity. Abstract concepts and hypotheses are represented by ‘sub-routines’ of such organizing activity. These can in principle be evolved as a result of experience in a manner analogous to-or at least fruitfully comparable with-process of learning and discovery; and it is not necessary for designer to predetermine, nor possible for him to foresee, all conceptual categories in terms of which information received by system may be structured. Particular attention is directed to conditions under which such a process of concept-formation could take place with sufficient rapidity.
Some of symptoms of psychopathology find apparent correlates in possible modes of malfunction of such a system. But in this, as in other respects, it is not intended to press resemblances; intention is rather to stimulate critical comparisons, in order that differences between information-flow model and real thing may continually lead to progressive refinement and enlarged understanding.
: This report provides a critical overview to work, its applicability and directions for further research. As might be expected with a burgeoning, multi-disciplinary field, it is difficult to keep track of all that is done and to draw the implications of research done in one discipline for research done in another. This report surveys the entire field asking, (1) what is known. (2) what good is it. and (3) what else must we learn. Particular attention is given to work integrating research describing how people do make decisions with normative work that prescribes how people should make decisions.
Human-computer interaction in multitask decisionmaking situations is considered, and it is proposed that humans and computers have overlapping responsibilities. Queueing theory is employed to model this dynamic approach to the allocation of responsibility between human and computer. Results of simulation experiments are used to illustrate the effects of several system variables including number of tasks, mean time between arrivals of action-evoking events, human-computer speed mismatch, probability of computer error, probability of human error, and the level of feedback between human and computer. Current experimental efforts are discussed and the practical issues involved in designing human-computer systems for multitask situations are considered.
On man–machine dialogue
- AMBROZY
A pattern-analyzing basis of recognition
- P A Kolers
- L S Cermak
- F I Craik
How did I come to do that?
- T J Reason
Skill and error in everyday life
- REASON
Computer models and decision making
- SIME
Report from the third NKA/KRU experiment: The performance of control engineers in the surveillance of a complex process
- E Hollnagel
Mindlike behavior in artefacts
- MACKAY
What can be learned from human error reports
- RASMUSSEN
Actions not as planned
- REASON
Description and models of a simulation of communication model
- BRÅTEN
Programming as a cognitive activity
- GREEN