No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
In vitro activity of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil against bacterial and Candida spp. isolates from clinical specimens
Abstract
This study investigates the in vitro activity of tea tree oil (TTO) against a range of wild strains of microorganisms isolated from clinical specimens of leg ulcers and pressure sores. The antimicrobial effectiveness of TTO is determined in terms of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) or minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC). The isolates include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), S. aureus, faecal streptococci, beta-haemolytic streptococci, coagulase-negative staphylococci, Pseudomonas spp. and coliform bacilli. Eleven Candida spp. isolates from skin and vaginal swabs also are tested. Using an agar dilution assay, the MICs of TTO in 88 out of 90 isolates was 0.5-1.0% (v/v), whilst with P. aeruginosa it was >2% (v/v). A broth microdilution method was used to determine MIC and minimum cidal concentration (MCC) of 80 isolates. In 64 isolates, TTO produced an inhibitory and cidal effect at 3% and 4% (v/v), respectively. S. aureus and Candida spp. were the most susceptible to TTO, with MICs and MBCs of 0.5% and 1%, respectively. P. aeruginosa and the faecal streptococci isolates, with MICs and MBCs of >8%, were resistant to TTO.
... Antibacterial activity of TTO has been reviewed [1,2] and is reported to be broad-spectrum inhibiting bacteria of more than 20 genera. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of TTO for most of the susceptible bacteria has been reported ranging from 0.003% (v/v) for Prevotella intermedia [7,8] and maximum >8% (v/v) for Enterococcus faecalis strains [9]. A recent study on ATCC reference and clinical strains [10] of different bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, E. faecalis, Salmonella Enteritidis, S. Typhimurium, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae) reported MIC of TTO ≤0.5% (v/v) for all P. aeruginosa strains (4%, v/v). ...
... The MIC of TTO observed in the present study (0.001% to >0.512%, v/v) was apparently similar to earlier observations [7,9,10]. However, some important differences observed might be due to number of strains included in the study, and strain diversity, as Andrade and coworkers [10] reported that for most of the Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcus faecalis strains MIC of TTO was ≤0.5% (v/v) while in the present study it ranged from 0.001% to >0.512%. ...
... Another important observation was MIC of TTO (<0.5%) for E. faecalis strains, in earlier studies it is reported either in similar range (Andrade et al., 2016) or much higher [9], indicating that source of strain might be an important determinant for sensitivity of bacteria to TTO. In total, sensitivity to TTO among strains of human origin and strains of animal origin not differed significantly (p, 0.025), but bacteria isolated from mithun (Bos frontalis) samples were significantly more often sensitive to TTO than in strains isolated from water buffalo (p, 0.01), deer (p, 0.03), dog (p, <0.01), fish (p, 0.04), horse (p, <0.01), human (0, <0.01), pigs (p, 0.02), swamp buffaloes (p, 0.03) and tigers (p, 0.04). ...
Tea Tree Oil (TTO) is a popular herbal antimicrobial for topical application against many microbes. This study was conducted to determine a spectrum of antimicrobial activity of TTO against bacteria often associated with topical infections and wound infection in human and animals. A total of 550 strains of bacteria and one strain of Candida albicans were tested for their sensitivity to TTO and eight antibiotics including polymyxin B sulfate, gentamicin, nitrofurantoin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, co-trimoxazole, ciprofloxacin, and novobiocin. Gentamicin was the most effective antibiotic followed by chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, nitrofurantoin and polymyxin B inhibiting 87.1%, 84.8%, 76.8%, 75% and 72.8% strains, respectively. Tea tree oil (at 1 μL/ mL) could inhibit the growth of 20.5% strains. Except all strains of Streptobacillus, Sphingomonas, Cytophaga and Brahmnella, 71.4% Brucella, 60% Bordetella and 53.1% Aeromonas species (46.9%), only a few strains of other genera were sensitive to TTO. Only 20.5% strains were sensitive to TTO and multiple drug resistance (MDR) was positively correlated to their resistance to TTO, as 50%, 25%, 12%, 6% and 5% of the strains resistant to 0, 1-2, 3-4, 5-6 and 7-8 antimicrobial drugs, respectively were sensitive to TTO. Sensitivity of bacteria to TTO was positively correlated (p, ≤0.05) with their sensitivity to novobiocin (r, 0.24), tetracycline (r, 0.22), gentamicin (r, 0.21), ciprofloxacin (r, 0.17), nitrofurantoin (r, 0.16), and chloramphenicol (r, 0.14) while correlation was insignificant (p, >0.05) with sensitivity to co-trimoxazole (r, 0.10) and polymyxin B (r, 0.12). Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of TTO varied from 0.001% to >0.512% (v/v) for different strains. The study revealed that TTO is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial active on 26 out of 44 genera of bacteria is a less promising antimicrobial than antibiotics on MDR strains. The study concluded that resistance to TTO, antibiotics and other antimicrobials in bacteria of clinical origin go hand in hand.
... Similarly, the MBC 90 value of 4 % was higher than the value of 0?5 % reported in these earlier studies. However, our results were similar to those reported by Banes-Marshall et al. (2001), who reported an MIC range of 2-4 and an MBC of 4 for MRSA isolates. Statistical analysis of the results using the Kruskal-Wallis test revealed significant differences in both the MIC and the MBC results between the groups of isolates. ...
... However, there was no significant difference in TTO susceptibility between MRSA and MSSA isolates. This finding is in contrast to the results of the study by Banes-Marshall et al. (2001), who reported that MSSA were more susceptible to TTO than MRSA. However, in comparison with our study in which the susceptibility of 30 MRSA and 25 MSSA isolates was determined, Banes-Marshall et al. (2001) only compared the susceptibility of six MRSA and ten MSSA isolates and performed no statistical analysis to establish whether the differences highlighted were significant. ...
... This finding is in contrast to the results of the study by Banes-Marshall et al. (2001), who reported that MSSA were more susceptible to TTO than MRSA. However, in comparison with our study in which the susceptibility of 30 MRSA and 25 MSSA isolates was determined, Banes-Marshall et al. (2001) only compared the susceptibility of six MRSA and ten MSSA isolates and performed no statistical analysis to establish whether the differences highlighted were significant. ...
... Banes-Marshall et al. [65] investigated the effect of TTO on diverse isolates from leg ulcers, pressure sores, skin, and vagina. The MIC and MBC values are resumed in Table 1. ...
... According to the results, S. aureus and Candida spp. were particularly sensitive to the action of TTO, and therefore, it may have a positive role in the growth inhibition of the commonly isolated wound pathogens, and in the frequent infection in immunosuppressed and antibiotic-treated patients [65]. ...
Acne vulgaris is an inflammatory dermatological pathology that affects mostly young people. However, it can also appear in adulthood, mainly in women. It has a high psychosocial impact, not only at the time of active lesions but also due to the consequences of lesions such as scarring and hyperpigmentation. Several factors are involved in the physiopathology of acne and the constant search for active ingredients is a reality, namely phytotherapeutic ingredients. Tea tree oil is an essential oil extracted from Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betch) Cheel with known antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, making it a candidate for the treatment of acne. This review aims to describe the various properties of tea tree oil that make it a possible ingredient to use in the treatment of acne and to present several human studies that have evaluated the efficacy and safety of using tea tree oil in the treatment of acne. It can be concluded that tea tree oil has good antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties that result in a decrease in the number of inflammatory lesions, mainly papules, and pustules. However, given the diversity of study designs, it is not possible to draw concrete conclusions on the efficacy and safety of this oil in the treatment of acne.
... Екстракти ефірних олій активні проти Heliсobacter pylori, грам позитивної бактерії, яка заселяє поверхню епітелію слизової оболонки шлунку (Koutsoumanis et al., 1988;Pandly et al., 1988Folin & Wu, 1999Hernandez et al., 2005). Механізм їх дії полягає у зміні проникності клітинних мембран, в наслідок чого порушуються процеси іонного транспорту, таким чином проявляючи дію антибіотиків пеніцилінового типу (Jzeng Ren-vu, 1981;Fukumoto et al., 2000;Bagamboula et al.,2004;Burt, 2004;Hernandez et al., 2005;Bakkali et al., 2005;Banes-Marshall et al., 2005;Giske et al., 2008). ...
... Екстракти ефірних олій активні проти Heliсobacter pylori, грам позитивної бактерії, яка заселяє поверхню епітелію слизової оболонки шлунку (Koutsoumanis et al., 1988;Pandly et al., 1988Folin & Wu, 1999Hernandez et al., 2005). Механізм їх дії полягає у зміні проникності клітинних мембран, в наслідок чого порушуються процеси іонного транспорту, таким чином проявляючи дію антибіотиків пеніцилінового типу (Jzeng Ren-vu, 1981;Fukumoto et al., 2000;Bagamboula et al.,2004;Burt, 2004;Hernandez et al., 2005;Bakkali et al., 2005;Banes-Marshall et al., 2005;Giske et al., 2008). ...
In order to increase the intensity of livestock development and obtain safe products such as meat and milk, it is of great importance to provide cows with qualitative feed and optimal maintenance. An important role is devoted to the animal health because it directly affects productivity. The use of poor quality feeds leads to animal health deteriorating, reduced productivity. Dis-balance of the gastrointestinal microbiota leads to poor food intake and clinical manifestations of disease. In order to increase feed efficiency and productivity indexes, were used extracts of essential oils contained in the feed additive "Activo". This supplement with its properties stimulates feed intake, digestion, has bactericidal and anti-stress properties with positive effect on animal health and productivity. The experiment revealed a positive effect of feed additive "Activo" on cows’ organism after calving and at the beginning of lactating. The influence of essential oils extracts contained in the feed additive "Activo" on the feed intake and digestion, milk production, protein and fat levels has been studied. There is a systematic dependence on feed intake increasing to milk yield. At the same time, indexes of quality such as fat and protein content were almost stable. According to the experimental results, it is possible to recommend milk producers to use "Activo" as part of cow feed with the aim to improve health and productivity.
... Tea tree oil is believed to have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antiviral properties (Hammer et al., 1999). The antimicrobial properties of tea tree oil may be due to the lipophilic nature of (Banes-Marshall et al., 2001). ...
... 0.01 mM the membrane potential decreased, which caused increased permeability of the membrane and disruption of the proton gradient. Tea tree oil also had low average MIC values (Tables 2 and 3). The antimicrobial properties of tea tree oil may be due to the lipophilic nature of some of the components and their ability to penetrate cell membranes (Banes-Marshall et. al, 2001). This cell membrane penetration causes ions to leak across the membrane of the cell, disrupting concentration and electrical gradients (Gustafson et. al, 2001). Tea tree oil has also been shown to inhibit respiration, impair the function of membrane ATPase, and increase membrane fluidity. It is hypothesized that the terpenes in tea tree ...
As the number of drug-resistant strains of microorganisms increases, scientists are in search of new ways to treat resistant infections. Essential oils have been used for centuries in homeopathic medicine and many are claimed to have antibacterial and antiviral properties. Several homeopathic substances were tested first using the disc diffusion method to determine activity against selected bacterial and fungal species. Microorganisms used for the study were Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida kejyr, Rhodotorula rubra and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Substances with the most consistent action against microorganisms were tested further using a broth microdilution method to determine a minimum inhibitory concentration for each substance. Rhodotorula rubra was eliminated from the broth microdilution assay due to the difficulty in culturing the microorganism and its low incidence of infection. Homeopathic substances tested were garlic, honey, tea tree oil, oregano oil, thyme oil, olive leaf extract, wintergreen oil, and lemon oil. The most effective were tea tree oil, oregano oil, thyme oil, wintergreen oil, and lemon oil. Oregano oil was determined to have the greatest antimicrobial activity with a mean minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.56 (%v/v) followed by thyme oil with a mean MIC of 2.47 (%v/v).
... Several phenolic compounds extracted from natural sources have been shown to exert antimicrobial activity against a wide spectrum of microorganisms111213; the antibacterial activity has been associated with phenolic acids present in these extracts [14,15]. Essential oils also represent a very well-known class of natural compounds that contains different phenolic structures particularly active on bacteria [16], even on various antibiotic resistant ones [17]. Their mechanism of action is not yet fully elucidated being highly dependent on the type of microorganism and the specific chemical structures of the oil components. ...
... In this study, laccase was used to graft several aromatic antimicrobial additives bearing different functional groups onto unbleached kraft fibres. In literature the antimicrobial properties of these compounds were reported in several studies111213141516171819, however, in order to develop a laccase based antimicrobial process (LASP) two main issues must be firstly considered: the reactivity towards laccase and the maintenance of antimicrobial properties of the grafted compounds. Moreover, also the assessment conditions should be carefully considered, in our work the adopted testing parameters were chosen to mimic as close as possible the conditions to which fibres products will be exposed during storage (contact between bacteria and wet fibres in the presence of relatively low nutrient concentrations avoiding excess water). ...
Laccase polymerization of caffeic acid and isoeugenol was shown to enhance their antimicrobial activity versus Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in liquid media. Unbleached kraft liner fibres were reacted with laccase in the presence of different phenol compounds possessing antimicrobial activity to increase their efficacy through a covalent binding with the lignin present on the fibres. The handsheet paper obtained by laccase antibacterial surface process (LASP) showed a greater efficacy against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria than handsheet paper treated only with monomeric phenol derivatives. Antimicrobial activity was function of grafted structure, time of the treatment and concentration of phenol derivatives. In this paper several phenol compounds were tested: acids, essential oils components and dopamine. LASP in the presence of caffeic acid or p-hydroxybenzoic acid produced paper handsheets with strong bactericidal effect on S. aureus even at low phenol monomer concentration (4 mM), whereas a higher concentration of the monomer in the reaction mixture was required to kill E. coli. Among the tested essential oils compounds, isoeugenol was the most effective: isoeugenol/LASP, besides killing S. aureus, showed a bacteriostatic effect on the more resistant spore forming Bacillus subtilis. LASP in the presence of dopamine was effective against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. The grafting of laccase polymerized oligomeric phenolic structures onto the fibre surface might be partially responsible of the enhanced antibacterial activity displayed by LASP handsheet paper versus the paper treated only with monomeric phenols.
... According to the literature, it has been reported that bacteria are susceptible to TTO at concentrations of 1.0% (9.0 mg/mL) or less. However, higher MIC values have been disclosed for other Gram-positive isolates, such as Staphylococcus and Micrococcus, and Gram-negative isolates, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa [29,30]. ...
In the context of addressing antimicrobial drug resistance in periocular infections, Tea Tree Oil (TTO) has emerged as a promising therapeutic option. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of TTO against bacterial strains isolated from ocular infections, with a particular focus on its ability to inhibit biofilm formation. Additionally, we designed and analyzed microcapsules containing TTO to overcome certain unfavorable physicochemical properties and enhance its inherent biological attributes. The quality of TTO was confirmed through rigorous analysis using GC-MS and UV-Vis techniques. Our agar diffusion assay demonstrated the effectiveness of Tea Tree Oil (TTO) against ocular bacterial strains, including Corynebacterium spp., coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp., and Staphylococcus aureus, as well as a reference strain of Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923). Notably, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) for all tested microorganisms were found to be 0.2% and 0.4%, respectively, with the exception of Corynebacterium spp., which exhibited resistance to TTO. Furthermore, TTO exhibited a substantial reduction in biofilm biomass, ranging from 30% to 70%, as determined by the MTT method. Through the spray-drying technique, we successfully prepared two TTO-containing formulations with high encapsulation yields (80–85%), microencapsulation efficiency (90–95%), and embedding rates (approximately 40%). These formulations yielded microcapsules with diameters of 6–12 μm, as determined by laser scattering particle size distribution analysis, and exhibited regular, spherical morphologies under scanning electron microscopy. Importantly, UV-Vis analysis post-encapsulation confirmed the presence of TTO within the capsules, with preserved antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. In summary, our findings underscore the substantial therapeutic potential of TTO and its microcapsules for treating ocular infections.
... This oil contains numerous compounds, including terpene hydrocarbons, monoter-penes, sesquiterpenes, and alcohol. Terpinen-4-ol is the main antimicrobial component, but other components, such as a-terpineol, also have antimicrobial activities similar to those of terpinen-4-ol (4)(5)(6). TTO has a relative density of 0.885-0.906, is only sparingly soluble in water, and is miscible with nonpolar solvents (7). Six varieties, or chemotypes, of M. alternifo-lia have been described, each producing oil with a distinct chemical composition. ...
Background: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) stands for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, a type of bacteria that is resistant to several antibiotics. Non-intact skin, such as when there are abrasions or incisions, is often the site of an MRSA infection. MRSA has become endemic in hospitals over the past years. The current recommendation for MRSA decolonization is to use a daily chlorohexidine skin wash for five days. Tea Tree Oil (TTO) can also be considered for the eradication of MRSA on the skin. However, no study has evaluated the TTO potential for MRSA decolonization in hospitalized children. Methods:In this single-center, comparative prospective, open-label clinical trial, the effect of TTO body wash on MRSA decolonization was compared to that of chlorhexidine body wash at Loghman-e-Hakim Hospital (Tehran, Iran). Several samples were taken from the catheter sites of children for MRSA detection. Patients were assigned to receive either TTO or chlorhexidine. After five days of applying the solutions, resampling was conducted to assess the colonization of MRSA. Results: Both TTO and chlorhexidine groups showed favorable results for MRSA decolonization. From 382 patients, 91 were MRSA-positive (about 23.82%), and of these 91 patients, 41 (45%) were female and 59 (55%) were male. The mean ± SD of the growth inhibition zone against MRSA was 19.20 ± 3.73 and 33.41 ± 9.53 for chlorhexidine and TTO, respectively. Conclusion: TTO body wash proved to be more effective than chlorhexidine in MRSA decolonization in hospitalized children. Implementation of such decolonization can improve patients’ outcomes and prevent MRSA transmission.
... The main biologically active compounds of TTO are terpenes and terpenoids such as terpinene-4-ol, terpinolene, α-terpinene, and 1,8-cineole. It was discovered that TTO has antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and antiprotozoal activity [22][23][24][25][26][27]. Numerous studies have shown anti-inflammatory activity of TTO in vitro and in vivo [19,[28][29][30] that can help reduce inflammation of the scalp in the case of SD. ...
Seborrheic dermatitis (SD) is the most prevalent dermatological disease, occurring in up to 50% of newborns, children, and adults around the world. The antibacterial and antifungal resistance contributed to the search for new natural substances and the development of a novel substance based on Melaleuca alternifolia (M. alternifolia) leaf oil (TTO), 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), and α-(-)-bisabolol. Thus, this work aimed to determine the chemical composition of the novel plant-based substance and to evaluate its antimicrobial activity against standard microorganisms involved in the pathogenesis of SD. Moreover, the chemical composition of the substance was analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Micrococcus luteus (M. luteus), and Candida albicans (C. albicans) were used for antimicrobial and antifungal assays by means of the broth microdilution method to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). Finally, the substance’s ability to inhibit Malassezia furfur (M. furfur) was evaluated. Eighteen compounds from different chemical groups were identified by GC/MS. The major biologically active compounds of the substance were terpinen-4-ol (20.88%), 1,8-cineole (22.28%), (-)-α-bisabolol (25.73%), and o-cymene (8.16%). The results showed that the substance has a synergistic antimicrobial and antifungal activity, while S. epidermidis and C. albicans strains were the most susceptible. Furthermore, the substance inhibited M. furfur, which is a main pathogen involved in the pathogenesis of SD and clinical manifestations. It can be concluded that the novel plant-based substance has a promising potential against M. furfur and scalp commensal bacteria and may be helpful for the development of new drugs for treatment of dandruff and SD.
... TTO. 15 In the early 1990s, many papers describe TTO's antibacterial activity; most bacteria are susceptible to TTO at concentrations of 1% or less, although it has been discovered that some organisms, including cutaneous Staphylococci, Enterococcus faecalis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have MICs of more than 2%. [16][17][18][19] Lemongrass essential oil (LEO) derives from the plant Cymbopogon flexuosus. 20,21 The bactericidal effects of LEO are well established. ...
... The main compounds of TTO are terpinene-4-ol, terpinolene, αterpinene, and 1,8-cineole. TTO has been reported to exhibit antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and antiprotozoal activity (Banes-Marshall et al., 2001;Carson et al., 2002;Carson and Riley, 1993;Hammer et al., 1996;Mikus et al., 2000;Nenoff et al., 1996). Numerous studies support the evidence attributing antiinflammatory activity to TTO in vitro and in vivo (Caldefie-Chezet et al., 2004;Hart et al., 2000;Koh et al., 2002;Pearce et al., 2005). ...
Context: Aging is closely related to reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS increases the collagenase enzyme (MMP-1) levels and collagen degradation that causes skin wrinkling. Secang wood (Caesalpinia sappan L.) containing brazilin and brazilein has been shown to have photoprotective and antioxidant properties.
Aims: To evaluate the activity of C. sappan nanoemulgel as antiaging agent against the target protein, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), especially MMP-1, MMP-3, and MMP-9 by in silico assay and using in vivo assay through MMP-1 and collagen expression parameter.
Methods: C. sappan nanoemulgel was made by mixing the gel base with C. sappan nanoemulsion from heartwood extract. The C. sappan nanoemulsion was formulated using the Self Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System method. In vivo testing was conducted with a post-test-only control group design and used male Wistar rats. MMP-1 expression was examined using immunohistochemical techniques, and the amount of dermal collagen was observed with Picro Sirius Red staining. In silico assay using a computational method with Autodock 4.2 program.
Results: C. sappan nanoemulgel concentrations of 0.0625, 0.125, and 0.25% obstruct the expression of MMP-1 and collagen degradation. The bond energy value to MMP-1, MMP-3, and MMP-9 were -8.04, -10.40, and -8.70 kcal/mol (for brazilin); -8.82; -10.99, and -8.51 kcal/mol (for brazilein).
Conclusions: Nanoemulgel containing C. sappan nanoemulsion has a potential activity as an antiaging agent by repressing MMP-1 expression and dermal collagen degradation. C. sappan nanoemulgel 0.25% showed the best result as antiaging. Brazilin and brazilein from C. sappan inhibit the MMP-1, MMP-3, and MMP-9 by in silico assay.
... The main compounds of TTO are terpinene-4-ol, terpinolene, αterpinene, and 1,8-cineole. TTO has been reported to exhibit antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and antiprotozoal activity (Banes-Marshall et al., 2001;Carson et al., 2002;Carson and Riley, 1993;Hammer et al., 1996;Mikus et al., 2000;Nenoff et al., 1996). Numerous studies support the evidence attributing antiinflammatory activity to TTO in vitro and in vivo (Caldefie-Chezet et al., 2004;Hart et al., 2000;Koh et al., 2002;Pearce et al., 2005). ...
Context: The current epidemiological situation causes a new surge of interest to perspective antimicrobial formulations for proper skin hygiene.
Aims: To evaluate in vitro and in vivo the antimicrobial activity of a novel active quadrocomplex (QC) for skin hygiene based on Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil, eucalyptol, (-)-α-bisabolol and silver citrate. In addition, to analyze the phytochemical constituents by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and to assess the skin irritant potential after regular washing.
Methods: The phytochemical analysis was performed using GC-MS. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MICs) were assessed using a colony-counting method with resazurin. The type of pharmacological interaction was investigated using a modern checkerboard assay.
Results: The chemical composition exhibited 18 resolved phytochemicals with the highest concentrations for (-)-α-bisabolol (32.2%) and terpinen-4-ol (31.6%) through the GC-MS analysis. QC agents showed antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative strains, with MIC values ranging from 1.25 to 40.00 mg/mL. The checkerboard assay demonstrated reduced MIC values for the combinations of QC agents against all reference strains. QC showed significant inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus growth with an average efficiency of 99.91% and Candida albicans 99.94 %. In vivo, the investigation of QC showed higher immediate and prolonged efficiency compared to base formulation (p
... The MIC values of tea tree oil against S. aureus, S. epidermidis, B. subtilis, B. cereus, Micrococcus luteus, Streptococcus, E. coli, Pseudomonas, and Proteus ranged between 0.2% and 0.5% volume/volume [85]. M. alternifolia oil has bactericidal activity against E. coli, Staphylococcus species, Lactobacillus, and Actinomyces viscosus, as reported [87,94,95]. ...
Melaleuca is one of the genera of the Myrtaceae family enriched in tea tree oil (TTO). Tea tree oils of Melaleuca bracteata and Melaleuca alternifolia are of prime importance and have antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Terpinen-4-ol and 1-8 cineole are major constituents of M. alternifolia oil. The percentages of the compounds in the oils can slightly vary according to the region of plant harvest, the distillation technique, or the part of the plant used for oil extraction. TTO has a bacteri-cidal effect against various bacterial species such as Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, E. coli, Pseudomonas putida, and S. aureus. Several reports proved that this essential oil is also effective against fungal strains of Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Candida species. It also has antioxidant properties such as radical scavenging activity and reducing power. The antioxidant properties of TTO at a concentration of 30 mM were observed to be greater than those of butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), commonly used as a synthetic antioxidant. TTO is also an effective organic fungicide, herbicide, and insecticide for use in the agriculture sector. Postharvest application of the oil has been found efficient on sweet basil, citrus, and strawberry. It is concluded that tea tree oil has the potential to be used in the food, agriculture, and pharmaceutical industries as a natural antimicrobial and preservative agent. This review provides comprehensive information regarding the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of tea tree oil and its potential applications in agriculture.
... The MIC of M. alternifolia oil counted for Bacillus cereus was 0.3% (v/v) by Griffin et al. [42]. Previous literature reported that TTO has a bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus species, Lactobacillus, Actinomyces viscosus, and E. coli [43][44][45][46]. The antimicrobial traits of M. alternifolia have been employed to its terpinen-4-ol compound [47,48]. ...
Tea tree oil (TTO) from the genus Melaleuca L. has antimicrobial, antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant properties and is used by the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and horticultural industries. In Pakistan, Melaleuca bracteata can be exploited for essential oil purposes, as this species is well adapted to Pakistan’s agroclimatic conditions. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the yield of M. bracteata essential oil together with its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties under local prevailing conditions of the subtropics. Essential oil was extracted through the hydrodistillation method. Using this method, six batches of 8 kg samples (fresh leaves and branches) underwent a distillation process for 4–5 h. The average yield obtained was about 0.2%. The GCMS was used to identify the components of extracted essential oil. Eugenol methyl ether is the major component in extracted essential oil, i.e., 96% of the total. A high content of flavonoids and phenolics and a Fe-reducing power ability of M. bracteata were observed. The oil was also found effective against B. subtilis, B. cereus, White rot, and A. flavus. Hence, it is concluded that there is a possibility to use TTO for its biocidal properties, and it must also be inspected and then commercialized in Pakistan by the agriculture and cosmetic industries.
... MICs of 125 mg/L (Carson et al., 2006;Cox et al., 2000) to 2000 mg/L (Banes-Marshall et al., 2001;Carson et al., 2006;Cox et al., 2000). ...
The unceasing emerging of multidrug-resistant bacteria imposes a global foremost human health threat and discovery of new alternative remedies are necessity. The use of plant essential oil in the treatment of many pathogenic bacteria is promising. Acne vulgaris is the most common skin complaint that fears many people about their aesthetic appearance. In this work we investigated the antibacterial activity of some plant oils against acne-inducing bacteria. Three bacterial isolates were identified from Egypt, biochemically and by means of 16s rRNA gene typing, and were designated as Staphylococcus aureus EG-AE1, Staphylococcus epidermidis EG-AE2 and Cutibacterium acnes EG-AE1. Antibiotic susceptibility test showed resistance of the isolates to at least six antibiotics, yet they are still susceptible to the last resort Vancomycin. In vitro investigations of eleven Egyptian plant oils, identified tea tree and rosemary oils to exhibit antibacterial activity against the antibiotic-resistant acne isolates. Inhibition zones of 15 ± 0.5, 21.02 ± 0.73 and 20.85 ± 0.76 mm was detected when tea tree oil applied against the above-mentioned bacteria respectively, while inhibition zones of 12.5 ± 1.5, 15.18 ± 0.38 and 14.77 ± 0.35 mm were detected by rosemary oils. Tea tree and rosemary oils exhibited bacteriostatic and bactericidal activity against all the strains with MICs/MBCs ranging between 39-78 mg/L for tea tree oil and 39–156 mg/L for rosemary oil. All the isolates were killed after 4 and 6 h upon growing with 200 mg/L of tea tree and rosemary oils, respectively. Additionally, gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS) profiling identified and detected a variable number of antimicrobial compounds in both oils.
... In present study we selected three essential oils like tea tree oil, sweet orange oil and ylang ylang oil. Tea Tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil has been studied against several pathogenic antibiotic resistant bacteria and found to be effective in inhibiting them quite efficiently [28][29][30]. Though it is toxic for consumption or injection, it works best as topical formulations (for acne, dandruff or any other skin infection) to impart its antibacterial activity [31,32]. ...
... Clinical studies have demonstrated efficacy of TTO in treating skin and mucosal infections, including acnes, cold sores, oral candidiasis, and decolonization of MRSA carriages, with few apparent side effects [8,9]. In in vitro experiments, TTO has been reported to act as bactericidal agent and most of clinically relevant bacteria are susceptible to TTO at concentrations of 1-1.5% vol/vol or less [2,15]. The antimicrobial activity of the different TTO batches evaluated in this study only partially matched the data described in the literature. ...
Melaleuca alternifolia tea tree oil (TTO) is largely used in cutaneous infections. Clinical observations reported antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities, whereas in vitro experiments ascribed most of biological properties to terpinen-4-ol. Since different plant chemotypes and storage conditions result in variations of chemical composition of commercially available TTO, in this study we investigated the antimicrobial activity and the chemical profile of ten commercially available TTO products. The antimicrobial activity was assessed against Candida glabrata, Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa grown in planktonic mode or biofilms. Only five out of ten TTO batches reported significant antimicrobial activity. The identified TTO products reduced bacterial survival in biofilms, generated oxidative damage in C. glabrata, and diminished HSV-1 infectivity. GC–MS analysis revealed that all the analyzed TTO batches fitted into the terpinen-4-ol chemotype even if we reported great variability in composition of nine major ISO-specified TTO components. Overall, we were not able to ascribe the antimicrobial activity to the content in terpinen-4-ol. We therefore conclude that the antimicrobial activity of TTO results from complex interaction among different components.
... However, most of the published research in this field concerns either reference bacterial strains or non-pathogenic bacteria. Even though there are a few papers concerning clinical isolates [27][28][29][30][31], there is limited information on the essential oils' effect on drug-resistant strains [32][33][34][35]. The goal of the present study was to explore the antibacterial effectiveness against multi-drug resistant Gram-positive bacteria isolated from waste water treatment plants and clinical specimens, of five essential oils, which though being widely used in previously conducted studies, their effectiveness against drug-resistant strains is barely addressed in the relevant bibliography. ...
The potential antibacterial activity of basil (Ocimum basilicum), chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), origanum (Thymus capitatus), tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) essential oils, was investigated against 29 Gram-positive bacterial strains isolated from wastewater treatment plants, clinical samples (n = 25) and American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) reference strains (n = 4). Wild bacterial strains included methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (n = 16) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus spp. (n = 9). The antimicrobial activity of the selected oils was studied using the broth macrodilution method. The Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values for S. aureus ranged from 0.06 to 0.5% (v/v) for origanum oil, 0.06 to 1% (v/v) for thyme oil, 0.12 to 1% (v/v) for tea tree oil, 0.25 to 4% (v/v) for basil oil and 2 to >4% (v/v) for chamomile oil. For enterococci the MIC values were significantly higher ranging from 0.25 to 1% (v/v), 0.5 to 2% (v/v), 1 to 4% (v/v), 4 to >4% (v/v) and >4% (v/v) for the above-mentioned oils, respectively. The main compounds of the tested essential oils were: estragole (Ocimum basilicum), bisabolol and trans-b-farnesene (Matricaria chamomilla), carvacrol and thymol (Thymus capitatus), terpinen-4-ol and p-cymene (Melaleuca alternifolia), thymol, linalool, and p-cymene (Thymus vulgaris). Origanum essential oil yielded the best antimicrobial results followed by thyme, tea tree, and basil oil, while chamomile oil exhibited weak antibacterial properties.
... Moreover, 5% TTO showed fast bactericidal action towards gentamicin resistant K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, Stanotrophomonas maltophilia, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium and E. faecalis [251]. TTO is effective in vitro also against various yeasts, dermatophytes and other filamentous fungi such as C. albicans, Microsporum spp., and Trychophyton spp. with MIC range 36-72,500 µg ml -1 [246,[252][253][254][255][256][257][258][259][260][261]. The probable mechanism of action of TTO is the induction of cell lysis via the induction of autolytic enzymes associated with the cell membrane or via a change in cell osmotic pressure [262,263]. ...
A number of papers reporting antimicrobial properties of extracts, essential oils, resins and various classes of compounds isolated from higher plants has been published in recent years; however, a comprehensive analysis of plant-derived antimicrobial agents currently applied in practice for improvement of human health is still lacking. This review summarizes data on clinical efficacy, antimicrobial effects and the chemistry of commercially available antibacterial and antifungal agents of plant origin currently used in the prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal, oral, respiratory, skin, and urinary infections. As a result of an analysis of the literature, more than 40 plant-derived over-the-counter pharmaceuticals, dietary supplements, cosmetics, herbal medicines, and functional foods containing complex mixtures (e.g. Glycyrrhiza glabra extract, Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil, and Pistacia lentiscus resin), pure compounds (e.g. benzoic acid, berberine, eucalyptol, salicylic acid and thymol) as well as their derivatives and complexes (e.g. bismuth subsalicylate and zinc pyrithione) have been identified. The effectiveness of many of these products is illustrated by results of clinical trials and supported by data on their in vitro antimicrobial activity. A broad spectrum of various commercial products currently available on the market and their well-documented clinical efficacy suggests that plants are prospective sources for the identification of new types of antimicrobial agents in future. Innovative approaches and methodologies for effective proof-of-concept research and the development of new types of plant-derived products effective against recently emerging problems related to human microbial diseases (e.g. antimicrobial resistance) are also proposed in this review.
... These essential oils showed particular efficacy against Candida, with oregano being able to inhibit both C. albicans germination and filamentous form development in vitro (Cosentino et al. 1999;Manohar et al. 2001;Giordani et al. 2004). Essential oils extracted from Satureja montana (winter savory) and Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree oil) were also effective in Candida inhibition (Banes-Marshall et al. 2001;Oliva et al. 2003;Farag et al. 2004;Giordani et al. 2004;Hammer et al. 2004;Tampieri et al. 2005), with tea tree oil exhibiting minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) lower than 0Á1% v/v (Carson et al. 2006). Some studies also pointed out the anti-Candida effects of mint essential oils extracted from Mentha piperita, Mentha spicata and Mentha cervina (Hammer et al. 1998(Hammer et al. , 1999Tampieri et al. 2005;Agarwal et al. 2008). ...
i> Candida glabrata is an opportunistic pathogen, associated with endocarditis, meningitis and disseminated disease and also with complicated vaginitis. Essential oils derived from aromatic plants are known in traditional medicine as antimicrobial agents and have antifungal properties. The aim of this work was to evaluate whether the twelve tested essential oils (tea tree, laurel, anise, basil, bergamot, lavender, mint, oregano, grapefruit, rosemary, winter savory and ginger) could have a transverse effect on C. glabrata sensitive strains but, above all, on strains resistant to the three main used azole antifungals (clotrimazole, fluconazole, itraconazole). For this reason, different strains of C. glabrata , vaginal isolated, were characterized (disk diffusion assay, MIC) with respect to their response to such antifungals. Electron microscopy analyses were performed to examine in depth cellular damages. Subsequently, we wanted to evaluate the effect of the oils also on human cells in order to estimate their potential cytotoxicity. Oregano and winter savory were the two most effective essential oils inducing: growth inhibition, cell damage of C. glabrata strains (both sensitive and resistant to azole antifungal drugs) and medium-high level of toxicity against human keratinocytes. The results of this work support the research for new alternatives or complementary therapies against vaginal candidiasis.
... In vitro studies have determined that the MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) and MBC (minimum bactericidal concentration) of TTO range is from 0.003 to 2.0% (v/v). While most of the bacteria are sensitive to the TTO in concentrations of 1.0% or less, MIC above 2% have been reported for organisms such as staphylococci and micrococci diners, Enterococcus faecalis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (19,20). The studies indicate that various oral bacteria are sensitive, suggesting that the TTO and/or components can be used in products for oral hygiene and in maintaining oral hygiene (16). ...
Materials and methods:
A pilot study, randomized 4 × 4, controlled, cross-over, double-blind. 16 subjects with gingivitis (7 males and 9 females) aged 21-37 years, were randomly divided into four groups based on mouthwash that had to be used for domiciliary oral hygiene: mouthwash with essential oils, mouthwash with chlorhexidine 0,12 %, mouthwash containig tea tree oil and mouthwash placebo. Clinical evaluation was performed by: Full Mouth Plaque Score (FMPS), Full Mouth Bleeding Score (FMBS), Gingival Index (GI), discolorations, language examination and alteration of taste. The data were recorded before and 2 weeks after treatment.
Results:
Statistical analysis shows that treatments with tea tree oil, essential oils and chlorhexidine are effective. Comparing treatments should be noted that the tea tree oil gives a greater improvement in the GI and FMBS, while it is the least effective in the control of bacterial plaque.
Conclusion:
Although further studies are needed, the anti-inflammatory properties of the mouthwash made from TTO would seem to be a valuable non-toxic adjunct in the management of gingivitis.
... These essential oils showed particular efficacy against Candida, with oregano being able to inhibit both C. albicans germination and filamentous form development in vitro (Cosentino et al. 1999;Manohar et al. 2001;Giordani et al. 2004). Essential oils extracted from Satureja montana (winter savory) and Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree oil) were also effective in Candida inhibition (Banes-Marshall et al. 2001;Oliva et al. 2003;Farag et al. 2004;Giordani et al. 2004;Hammer et al. 2004;Tampieri et al. 2005), with tea tree oil exhibiting minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) lower than 0Á1% v/v (Carson et al. 2006). Some studies also pointed out the anti-Candida effects of mint essential oils extracted from Mentha piperita, Mentha spicata and Mentha cervina (Hammer et al. 1998(Hammer et al. , 1999Tampieri et al. 2005;Agarwal et al. 2008). ...
Aims:
Candida albicans is an important opportunistic pathogen, responsible for the majority of yeast infections in humans. Essential oils, extracted from aromatic plants, are well-known antimicrobial agents, characterized by a broad spectrum of activities, including antifungal properties. The aim of this work was to assess the sensitivity of 30 different vaginal isolated strains of C. albicans to twelve essential oils, compared to the three main used drugs (clotrimazole, fluconazole, itraconazole).
Methods and results:
Thirty strains of C. albicans were isolated from vaginal swab on CHROMagar(™) Candida. The agar disk diffusion method was employed to determine the sensitivity to the essential oils. The antifungal activity of the essential oils and antifungal drugs (clotrimazole, itraconazole and fluconazole) were investigated using a microdilution method. Transmission and scanning electron microscopy analyses were performed to get a deep inside on cellular damages. Mint, basil, lavender, tea tree oil, winter savory and oregano essential oils inhibited both the growth and the activity of C. albicans more efficiently than clotrimazole. Damages induced by essential oils at the cellular level were stronger than those caused by clotrimazole.
Conclusions:
C. albicans is more sensitive to different essential oils compared to the main used drugs. Moreover, the essential oil affected mainly the cell wall and the membranes of the yeast.
Significance and impact of study:
The results of this work support the research for new alternatives or complementary therapies against vaginal candidiasis. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel, belonging to the family Myrtaceae, is a tree of 6 m height, and its origin is mainly in Australia. The leaves and twigs of M. alternifolia can be distilled for extraction of an essential oil called ''tea tree oil'', which possesses anti-fungal and anti-bacterial properties (Buck et al. 1994;Banes-Marshall et al. 2001;Hammer et al. 2003;Bagg et al. 2006;Caldefie-Chézet et al. 2006;Carson et al. 2006;D'Arrigo et al. 2010;Tsao et al. 2010), anti-viral properties (Garozzo et al. 2009) and activity against cancer cells (Greay et al. 2010). For these reasons, tea tree oil is widely used in medicines, food preservatives, cosmetics and health care products. ...
Tea tree oil is extracted from the leaves and twigs of Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel, and it is widely used in medicines, food preservatives, cosmetics and health care products. Traditional propagation of M. alternifolia from seeds does not necessarily transfer the desired characteristics from their mother trees, the seedlings are not uniform, and the multiplication rate from cuttings is relatively low. For these reasons, it is necessary to develop tissue culture techniques for this species. This study showed that an efficient explant initiation medium for M. alternifolia was MS 1/2 + BA 0.6 mg L⁻¹ + NAA 0.1 mg L⁻¹ + sucrose 30 g L⁻¹, which yielded a 75.9 % initiation rate. An efficient multiplication medium was MS + BA 0.3 mg L⁻¹ + NAA 0.15 mg L⁻¹ + sucrose 30 g L⁻¹, which yielded a 4.3 multiplication rate and 3.2 cm shoot length. The rooting medium was MS 1/2 + IBA 0.1–0.25 mg L⁻¹ + sucrose 15 g L⁻¹, which yielded a 100 % rooting rate, 2.94–3.32 roots per individual and 1.36–1.44 cm root length. Local red-core soil was suitable as a transplant medium, and yielded 98 % survival. This study improved the tissue culture technique for mass-propagation of M. alternifolia, enabling the production of high quality plants for market.
... These findings suggest that TTO may be a putative therapeutic agent in the treatment of acute and recurrent forms of vulvovaginitis 42,79 . Banes-Marshall et al. (2001) 80 explored the antibacterial antifungal action of tea tree oil against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), S. aureus, faecal streptococci, beta-haemolytic ...
The folk ethno-medicine describes some useful herbal remedies for vaginal hygiene, whose knowledge goes back to previous centuries; unfortunately, only few of them have been submitted to clinical trials and fulfilled the evidence-based medicine rules thus being successfully introduced into the routine use; as a matter of fact actually the consumer is quite sensitive to the message that historical natural active principles revisited by positive recent investigations can have a role in the disease prevention and treatment.
Salvia, Melaleuca and Calendula have been selected by us among a certain number of natural compounds to be introduced in the formula of our vaginal gel, because their complementary properties synergize each other, achieving, altogether the best clinical results. The mechanism of actionof the 3 herbs extracts in combination, takes control of the vaginal surface integrity and mucosa restoration after mechanical, chemical or microbiological damage, especially through the well-known Calendula contributes to body defenses against external agents, has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and healing properties; Salvia expresses altogether a wide and selective control, supports the natural mechanism for body´s purification and promotes the toxin elimination; Melaleuca expresses altogether a wide and selective control of pathogenic microflora enclosing the often relapsing Candida albicans super-infections.
... Para la mayor parte de ellas, la concentración mínima inhibitoria (MIC) es inferior o igual al 1% (v/v) (TABLA 2); MCs superiores al 2% se han descrito solamente para organismos como estafilococos y micrococos simbiontes (comensales) dérmicos, Enterococcus faecalis, y Pseudomonas aeruginosa. El AAT actúa mayoritariamente como bactericida, aunque puede actuar como bacteriostático a concentraciones bajas (9,11,12) . ...
The tea tree oil is the essential oil obtained from the leaves and twinglets of Melaleuca alternifolia. Its major constituent is terpinen-4-ol. This compound is considered the main responsible, together with other constituents, such as α-terpinene, γ-terpinene and α-terpineol, of the antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoary against trichomonas, antiinflammatory and antioxidant activities of the oil. It has well established traditional and folk uses in Australia, especially as antiseptic, and the preclinical results and several clinical studies and observations, endorse the clinical external use of tea tree oil for the treatment of vulvovaginitis, mainly candidiasic ones, in addition to several infectious skin pathologies, such as acne, tinea pedis, furunculosis and onychomycosis.
... Plants have been a valuable source of natural products for maintaining human health (Ben Hsouna, Hamdi, Miladi, & Abdelkafi, 2014). TTO, an essential oil distilled from Melaleuca alternifolia, is composed of terpene hydrocarbons, mainly monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and their associated alcohols (Raman, Weir, & Bloomfield, 1995;Banes-Marshall, Cawley, & Phillips, 2001). This compound has gained the attention of scientists, physicians and consumers due to its broad-spectrum antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities against a variety of bacteria, including S. aureus (Brady, Loughlin, Gilpin, Kearney, & Tunney, 2006;Kwieci nski, Eick, & W ojcik, 2009). ...
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), a major food-borne pathogen, causes disease in mammalian hosts by producing a wide variety of exoproteins, such as α-hemolysin and staphylococcal enterotoxins. Tea tree oil (TTO), an essential oil, has broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the inhibitory effects of TTO on S. aureus growth and on α-hemolysin, enterotoxins A and B production. In this study, the effect of TTO on S. aureus growth in laboratory medium and pasteurized milk was determined by time-kill assays. Treatment with half of minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of TTO demonstrated very little or no reduction in numbers of viable ATCC 29213 cells; however, 1 × MIC of TTO reduced the viable cell count more noticeably, and 2 × MIC of TTO demonstrated an even greater reduction in the viable cell count, both in TSB and milk. The influence of TTO on enterotoxins was determined by real-time reverse transcriptase-PCR (real-time RT-PCR), a hemolysis assay, Western blot and a tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) assay. The real-time RT-PCR results revealed that the transcription of genes encoding α-hemolysin, staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) and staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) were down regulated after S. aureus was exposed to TTO (0.0625 mg/mL-0.5 mg/mL). The hemolytic assay showed that S. aureus hemolytic activity was inhibited by subinhibitory concentrations of TTO (0.0625 mg/mL-0.5 mg/mL). The Western blot assay identified that the production of the three virulence factors was inhibited by TTO (0.0625 mg/mL-0.5 mg/mL). Moreover, the enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) demonstrated that TNF-α production was suppressed by TTO treatment in RAW264.7 cells stimulated by S. aureus supernatant containing staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs).
... MICs for the Bergamot oil were established using an Advances in Animal and Veterinary Sciences January 2015 | Volume 3 | Issue 1 | Page 36 agar dilution method (Banes-Marshall et al., 2001). Before the addition of the oils, 0, 5% (v/v) of Tween 20 was first added to the agar. ...
Ringworm is a fungal and zoonotic infectious disease, caused by different species of der - matophytes. In this study, skin scrapings and hair samples were collected from beef calves recently introduced into a beef farm they have clinical signs of dermatophytosis. The collected samples were directly examined for fungal elements by direct microscopy and fungal culture. Fungal culture re- vealed Trichophyton verrucosum. The antifungal activity of Bergamot oil (Citrus Bergamia) alone or in combination with salicylic acid using different concentrations was evaluated in vitro and revealed that Bergamot oil with different dilutions (1.25%, 2.5% and 5%) has a very effective antifungal effect against Trichophyton verrucosum.
... Depending on the extract and the nature of the material, these properties can include antibiotic activities such as anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and/or antimicrobial effects [43][44][45][46]. Many natural antimicrobial products have been discovered, including extracts from Ratibida latipalearis, Teloxys graveolens, Dodonaea viscosa, Hyptis albida, Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree oil), and Sophora flavescens [47][48][49][50]. In addition, various chemical compounds contained in natural products have been shown to control bacterial metabolism. ...
Controlling bioaerosols has become more important with increasing participation in indoor activities. Treatments using natural-product nanomaterials are a promising technique because of their relatively low toxicity compared to inorganic nanomaterials such as silver nanoparticles or carbon nanotubes. In this study, antimicrobial filters were fabricated from natural Euscaphis japonica nanoparticles, which were produced by nebulizing E. japonica extract. The coated filters were assessed in terms of pressure drop, antimicrobial activity, filtration efficiency, major chemical components, and cytotoxicity. Pressure drop and antimicrobial activity increased as a function of nanoparticle deposition time (590, 855, and 1150 µg/cm2filter at 3-, 6-, and 9-min depositions, respectively). In filter tests, the antimicrobial efficacy was greater against Staphylococcus epidermidis than Micrococcus luteus; ~61, ~73, and ~82% of M. luteus cells were inactivated on filters that had been coated for 3, 6, and 9 min, respectively, while the corresponding values were ~78, ~88, and ~94% with S. epidermidis. Although statistically significant differences in filtration performance were not observed between samples as a function of deposition time, the average filtration efficacy was slightly higher for S. epidermidis aerosols (~97%) than for M. luteus aerosols (~95%). High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (ESI/MS) analyses confirmed that the major chemical compounds in the E. japonica extract were 1(ß)-O-galloyl pedunculagin, quercetin-3-O-glucuronide, and kaempferol-3-O-glucoside. In vitro cytotoxicity and disk diffusion tests showed that E. japonica nanoparticles were less toxic and exhibited stronger antimicrobial activity toward some bacterial strains than a reference soluble nickel compound, which is classified as a human carcinogen. This study provides valuable information for the development of a bioaerosol control system that is environmental friendly and suitable for use in indoor environments.
... This bacterium is widely acknowledged as being highly resistant to many antimicrobial agents and its inclusion unfairly skews data in favour of the greater susceptibility of Gram-positive bacteria. Studies testing a larger number of essential oils against a wider variety of bacteria tend to identify no such pattern Broth microdilution 1% [154] [57, 130,155]. While the phenomenon may occur, there are only sufficient, convincing data in very few cases, such as manuka oil from the New Zealand native Leptospermum scoparium (Myrtaceae), which has activity against Gram-negative bacteria that is 32-to 64-fold lower than that against Gram-positive bacteria [156]. ...
... Complementam a pesquisa o óleo de andiroba, com ação antiinfl amatória (Bloise, 2003); óleo de copaíba, com vários constituintes químicos voláteis e resinosos com ação germicida (Bloise, 2003;Biavatti et al., 2006) e antiinfl amatória (Falcão et al., 2005); óleo de alecrim, com ação antimicrobiana, antifúngica e antisséptica (Angioni et al., 2004;Lima et al., 2006); óleo de melaleuca, com ação bacteriostática frente à Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus (Carson et al., 1995;Faoagali et al., 1998;Hada et al., 2003) e Candida albicans (Hammer et al., 2000(Hammer et al., e 2003Banes-Marshall et al., 2001) entre outras importantes atividades levou sua inclusão na Farmacopéia Brasileira (Brandão et al., 2006); óleo de alho, com ação antifúngica (Pai;Platt,1995;Sovova;Sova, 2002) e antihelmíntica (Amaral et al., 2006); e como exemplo de produtos industrializados com origem derivada natural tem-se um ingrediente multifuncional extraído das folhas de oliva e o farnesol, cuja ação baseia-se no poder bacteriostático frente ao Staphylococcus aureus (Akiyama et al., 2002) e Candida albicans (Ramage et al., 2002;Sato et al., 2004). ...
The consumer market requirement induces the cosmetic industry to generate safer and less aggressive products including the natural products. Within the natural products formulation process, the most demanding challenge is the final product conservation. In order to cope with the conservation factor, some natural oils (copaiba, rosemary, melaleuca, garlic, andiroba), propolis and two natural ingredients (one multifunctional ingredient extracted from olive leaves and farnesol) which are available and usually supplied to the cosmetic industry, were considered in this analysis. The chosen method was the agar in plaque with modificed hole. The chosen microorganisms were: Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538), Escherichia coli (ATCC 8739), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 9027) and Candida albicans (ATCC 10231). The best results were achieved by melaleuca and rosemary oils, which showed bacteriostatic and fungistatic activity against the four microorganisms.
... Some of these aromatic species have been used historically by the Australian aborigines as well as by the early European settlers for a variety of infectious-related conditions including urinary tract conditions, intestinal complaints, coughs, colds, skin conditions, burns, scalds, mouth washes, gargles and gum disease (Maddocks-Jennings et al., 2005;Carson et al., 2006). The most popular, commercialised and well-studied tea tree species is undoubtedly M. alternifolia (Carson et al., , 1996(Carson et al., , 2002(Carson et al., , 2006Mann et al., 2000;Hart et al., 2000;Homer et al., 2000;Lis-Balchin et al., 2000;Banes-Marshall et al., 2001;Cox et al., 2001;Christoph et al., 2001;Russel and Southwell, 2003;Hammer et al., 2004). In comparison, research on other tea tree species such as L. petersonii, L. scoparium and K. ericoides have been somewhat neglected. ...
The essential oil composition of three Myrtaceous species (Leptospermum petersonii, Leptospermum scoparium and Kunzea ericoides) belonging to the tea tree group were analysed using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The major compounds determined from the mean ± SD of the monthly samples collected for one calendar year in L. petersonii are citronellal (11.4 ± 4.3%), citronellol (17.5 ± 7.1%), neral (19.7 ± 1.6%) and geranial (34.7 ± 3.3%). The major compounds in L. scoparium are eudesma-4(14)-11-diene (11.6 ± 2.4%), α-selinene (10.4 ± 2.3%) and (E)-methyl cinnamate (12.6 ± 3.8%). The major compounds in K. ericoides are α-pinene (37.6 ± 6.3%) and p-cymene (13.5 ± 4.1%). The essential oils show some promising antimicrobial activity against selected micro-organisms when investigated using the minimum inhibitory concentration assay. Highest sensitivities were noted for the Brevibacteria (lowest MIC value of 0.06 mg/ml), a genus associated with foot odour. When the different essential oils were combined in various ratios and tested against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans, a predominantly additive effect was noted.
... The oil showed potent anti-fungal and anti-bacterial activities against various pathogens, including Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Prevotella intermedia, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus and Trichophyton equinum. Data suggest that the antibacterial and antifungal activities of TTO are mainly attributed to the content of terpinen-4-ol and α-terpineol Christoph et al., 2000;Banes-Marshall et al., 2001;Cox et al., 2001;Hammer et al., 2003). Other biological properties of TTO include anti-inflammatory (Golab et al., 2005), antiprotozoal (Mikus et al., 2000) and antitumour activities (Calcabrini et al., 2004). ...
Tea tree oil (TTO) is an important commercial oil which has found application in the flavour, fragrance and cosmetic industries. The quality is determined by the relative concentration of its major constituents: 1,8-cineole, terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol, α-terpinene, terpinolene, γ-terpinene and limonene. Gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is traditionally used for qualitative and quantitative analyses but is expensive and time consuming.
To evaluate the use of vibrational spectroscopy in tandem with chemometric data analysis as a fast and low-cost alternative method for the quality control of TTO.
Spectral data were acquired in both the mid-infrared (MIR) and near infrared (NIR) wavelength regions and reference data obtained using GC-MS with flame ionisation detection (FID). Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to investigate the data by observing clustering and identifying outliers. Partial least squares (PLS) multivariate calibration models were constructed for the quantification of the seven major constituents.
High correlation coefficients (R(2) ) of ≥ 0.75 were obtained for the seven major compounds and 1,8-cineole showed the best correlation coefficients for both MIR and NIR data (R(2) = 0.97 and 0.95, respectively). Low values were obtained for the root mean square error of estimation (RMSEE) and root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) values thereby confirming accuracy.
The accurate prediction of the external dataset after introduction into the models confirmed that both MIR and NIR spectroscopy are valuable methods for quantification of the major compounds of TTO when compared with the reference data obtained using GC-MS. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... More recently, promising results on the inhibitory capacity of tea tree on various fluconazole-resistant Candida strains has been reported (Ergin and Arikan, 2002). Although other Candida species like C. glabrata can be implicated in the etiology of vaginal candidosis (Xu et al., 1999;Holland et al., 2003), reports on their susceptibility to essential oils has only be reported for tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) (Banes-Marshall et al., 2001;Ergin and Arikan, 2002;Mondello et al., 2003). Within this investigation it could be demonstrated that this Candida species is also affected by essential oils. ...
The antibacterial and antifungal activity of ten essential oils was tested against a range of vaginal bacterial and fungal strains isolated from existing vaginal infections including Atopobium vaginae, Gardnerella vaginalis, Bacteroides vulgatus, Streptococcus agalactiae, H2O2-producing lactobacilli and non H2O2-producing lactobacilli, Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Candida parapsilosis and Candida tropicalis. Investigation of the in vitro susceptibility of the essential oils against bacteria revealed that lemongrass, tea tree and lavender exhibited the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) at 1-2.5 μl/ml, thus being the most potent essential oils against the tested bacteria. Interestingly, the MIC and MBC values of palmarosa, neroli, manuka, rose-scented geranium, rosemary, common thyme and clary sage were at ≥7.5 μl/ml for protective H2O2-lactobacilli but lower for pathogentic bacteria. The MIC and minimal fungicidal concentration (MFC) for lemongrass, palmarosa, lavender and rose scented geranium were at 1-2.5 μl/ml. All other essential oils were less potent. Overall, lemongrass, palmarosa, lavender and rose scented geranium were the most potent oils in the inhibition of pathogenic bacteria and fungi. However, further investigations in the form of clinical studies are necessary to ascertain the therapeutic use of these essential oils in the combat of vaginal infections.
... Em associação com outras plantas, serve para o tratamento de afecções do trato respiratório (Soares et al., 2006; Tavares et al., 2006). Complementam a pesquisa o óleo de andiroba, com ação antiinfl amatória (Bloise, 2003); óleo de copaíba, com vários constituintes químicos voláteis e resinosos com ação germicida (Bloise, 2003; Biavatti et al., 2006) e antiinfl amatória (Falcão et al., 2005); óleo de alecrim, com ação antimicrobiana, antifúngica e antisséptica (Angioni et al., 2004; Lima et al., 2006); óleo de melaleuca, com ação bacteriostática frente à Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus (Carson et al., 1995; Faoagali et al., 1998; Hada et al., 2003) e Candida albicans (Hammer et al., 2000Hammer et al., e 2003 Banes-Marshall et al., 2001) entre outras importantes atividades levou sua inclusão na Farmacopéia Brasileira (Brandão et al., 2006); óleo de alho, com ação antifúngica (Pai; Platt,1995; Sovova; Sova, 2002) e antihelmíntica (Amaral et al., 2006); e como exemplo de produtos industrializados com origem derivada natural tem-se um ingrediente multifuncional extraído das folhas de oliva e o farnesol, cuja ação baseia-se no poder bacteriostático frente ao Staphylococcus aureus (Akiyama et al., 2002) e Candida albicans (Ramage et al., 2002; Sato et al., 2004). Este trabalho teve por fi nalidade avaliar produtos de origem natural (óleos: de copaíba, alecrim, melaleuca, alho, andiroba; própolis, e dois ingredientes de origem natural: um ingrediente multifuncional extraído de folhas de oliva e o farnesol) quanto à sua ação frente a microrganismos (Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa e Candida albicans) utilizando a metodologia de ágar com orifício modifi cado.Bloise, 2003) e, portanto, deveria provocar resultado positivo (produção de halo de inibição). ...
As exigências do mercado consumidor induzem a indústria cosmética a formular produtos seguros cada vez menos agressivos e naturais. Durante a formulação para tais apelos a dificuldade maior encontra-se em conservar o produto final. Com este objetivo avaliamos os óleos: de copaíba, alecrim, melaleuca, alho, andiroba; própolis, e dois ingredientes de origem natural: um ingrediente multifuncional extraído de folhas de oliva e o farnesol que estão disponíveis e são fornecidos à indústria cosmética, com a finalidade de comprovar a ação dos mesmos. O método de escolha foi o de ágar em placa com orifício modificado. As cepas selecionadas foram Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538), Escherichia coli (ATCC 8739), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 9027) e Candida albicans (ATCC 10231). Dentre as amostras analisadas os melhores resultados foram obtidos com os óleos de melaleuca e alecrim que apresentaram atividade bacteriostática e fungistática para as quatro cepas em questão.
... Complementam a pesquisa o óleo de andiroba, com ação antiinflamatória (Bloise, 2003); óleo de copaíba, com vários constituintes químicos voláteis e resinosos com ação germicida (Bloise, 2003; Biavatti et al., 2006) e antiinflamatória (Falcão et al., 2005); óleo de alecrim, com ação antimicrobiana, antifúngica e antisséptica (Angioni et al., 2004; Lima et al., 2006); óleo de melaleuca, com ação bacteriostática frente à Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus (Carson et al., 1995; Faoagali et al., 1998; Hada et al., 2003) e Candida albicans (Hammer et al., 2000 e 2003; Banes-Marshall et al., 2001) entre outras importantes atividades levou sua inclusão na Farmacopéia Brasileira (Brandão et al., 2006); óleo de alho, com ação antifúngica (Pai; Platt,1995; Sovova; Sova, 2002) e antihelmíntica (Amaral et al., 2006); e como exemplo de produtos industrializados com origem derivada natural tem-se um ingrediente multifuncional extraído das folhas de oliva e o farnesol, cuja ação baseia-se no poder bacteriostático frente ao Staphylococcus aureus (Akiyama et al., 2002) e Candida albicans (Ramage et al., 2002; Sato et al., 2004). ...
The consumer market requirement induces the cosmetic industry to generate safer and less aggressive products including the natural products. Within the natural products formulation process, the most demanding challenge is the final product conservation. In order to cope with the conservation factor, some natural oils (copaiba, rosemary, melaleuca, garlic, andiroba), propolis and two natural ingredients (one multifunctional ingredient extracted from olive leaves and farnesol) which are available and usually supplied to the cosmetic industry, were considered in this analysis. The chosen method was the agar in plaque with modificed hole. The chosen microorganisms were: Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538), Escherichia coli (ATCC 8739), Pseudomonas
... As fungal pathogens are important causes for topical infections it is important to evaluate the antifungal activity of the essential oil of M. alternifolia. So far, the antimycotic properties of this oil have only been investigated on a limited number of fungal species (Banes-Marshall et al. 2001). This paper presents the first detailed investigation of the antimycotic properties of this oil using a large collection of strains, belonging to different genera and species including numerous ATCC strains and clinical isolates. ...
Aims: The aim of this study was to analyse the antimycotic properties of Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil (tea tree oil, TTO) and its principal components and to compare them with the activity of 5-fluorocytosine and amphotericin B.
Methods and Results: The screening for the antimycotic activity was performed by serial twofold dilutions in Roswell Park Memorial Institute medium with the inclusion of Tween-80 (0·5%). TTO and terpinen-4-olo were the most active compounds.
Conclusions: The majority of the organisms were sensitive to the essential oil, with TTO and terpinen-4-olo being the most active oils showing antifungal activity at minimum inhibitory concentration values lower than other drugs.
Significance and Impact of the study: This study provides a sample large enough to determine the antifungal properties of TTO and terpinen-4-olo and suggests further studies for a possible therapeutic use.
This reference book is based on the history, cultivation, processing, breeding, protection, phytochemistry, and pharmacological importance of cardamom. Cardamom is scientifically known as Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton and is a member of the Zingiberaceae family. It's a shade-loving plant that grows well at an altitude between 600 and 1400 metres above sea level, with annual rainfall ranging from 1300–4000 mm and temperatures ranging from 10 to 35°C. Cardamom is highly cross-pollinated and depends on honeybees for pollination. Cardamom is classified into three types based on the nature of the panicles, namely, Malabar (prostrate panicle), Mysore (erect panicle) and Vazhukka (semi-erect panicle), a natural hybrid between Mysore and Malabar varieties. In India, currently, six research institutions, namely, Cardamom Research Station (CRS), Pampadumpara (Kerala Agricultural University, Kerala), ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), Kozhikode, Kerala; Cardamom Research Centre, Appangala, Karnataka; Indian Cardamom Research Institute (ICRI), Myladumpara, Kerala and its Regional Research Station, Sakleshpur, Karnataka and Regional Research Station, Mudigere (University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences) are engaged in research for the improvement of cardamom farming. These research institutions have begun doing routine surveys to exploit desirable genes using a variety of traditional and modern crop improvement techniques. Also, these research centres/institutes are holding enormous genetic wealth of different accessions. Recently, many researchers have used various biotechnological approaches to conduct studies on micropropagation, assess the diversity in germplasm collections, and elucidate the biotic and abiotic stress tolerance mechanisms in cardamom.
Fungal, bacterial and viral diseases pose severe threats to the successful cultivation of this crop. Major pests of cardamom include thrips, shoot and capsule borer, root grub, and whiteflies. Injudicious pesticide applications to manage pests and diseases rises the residue levels in the cured product, limiting its export value. Bio-pesticides control pest in an eco-friendly manner and are considered as the best alternatives to synthetic pesticides. It includes the effective utilization of microbials (bacteria, fungi, virus, and nematodes), macrobials (predators, parasitoids, and parasites), botanicals, organic amendments, semiochemicals, endophytes, and reduced risk pesticides in managing pest and diseases.
Cardamom is grown in the throughout tropical mountains mainly for its capsules and its essential oil. Cardamom capsules/seeds accumulate essential oil and other bioactive metabolites, which contribute to their distinctive aroma and are used in the functional food, pharmaceutical, and nutraceutical industries. More than 100 secondary metabolites have been identified from cardamom essential oil. The essential oil of cardamom capsules possesses predominantly monoterpene constituents, such as 1,8-cineole, α-pinene, α-terpineol, linalool, linalyl acetate and nerolidol and the ester constituent α-terpinyl acetate all of which have therapeutic benefits including antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antiviral and gastroprotective activities. Cardamom capsules contain substantial concentration of flavonoids like catechin, myricetin, kaempferol and quercetin. Lutein is said to be the most abundant carotenoid in small cardamom. According to recent investigations, cardamom phenolic constituents’ flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, and anthocyanins are being used to treat cardiovascular, pulmonary, kidney, and lung disorders. Cardamom capsules are a nutraceutical and functional food that can protect humans from several chronic diseases when taken daily. Cardamom oil is a new potential natural source for food, aroma, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals.
Since the 4th century BC, Indian Ayurvedic physicians, as well as Greek and Roman doctors, have used small cardamom capsules to treat bronchitis, asthma, and constipation, as well as colds, coughs, diuretics, carminatives, teeth and gum infections, urinary and kidney disorders, congestion of the lungs, pulmonary tuberculosis, irritation of the eyelids, cataract, nausea, and diarrhoea. Cardamom was used to treat constipation, stomach aches, bladder infections, and dysentery in children in traditional Chinese medicine. Cardamom is also used in Ayurvedic medicine to cure food sickness. Cardamom oils are being employed in the production of plant-based hand lotions and soaps. Digestive problems can be treated with powdered cardamom capsules mixed with pulverised cloves, ginger, and caraway. In addition, using cardamom capsules helps to relieve inflammation and headaches.
This reference book entitled “Cardamom [Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton]: Production, Breeding, Management, Phytochemistry and Health Benefits” is comprises of twelve chapters contributed by different authors and provide complete information about this wonderful herb. Its occurrence, history, cultivation, post-harvest processing, botany, crop improvement, biotechnology, protection, ethnopharmacological uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological activities are well described with supporting references.
The book contains latest information pertaining to cardamom and its cultivation. The information provided in this book will be very useful for students, academicians, researchers, and scientists, as well as others interested/involved nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industries.
Medicinal plants have long been used as an alternative in the treatment of diseases, whether using extracts, essential oils and / or bioactive components. Thus, the use of medicinal plants, with popularly known effects for the treatment of infections, has gained prominence, in research related to extracts and essential oils of medicinal plants, in an attempt to discover and future application of new molecules with antimicrobial and / or effect coadjuvant molecules to antimicrobials on the market. Studies with species of Melaleuca spp., Demonstrate wide application of its essential oil, without treating skin infections, microbial infections, herpes, diseases associated with pathogenic microorganisms of the oral cavity. The emerging microbial resistance to the drugs currently available on the market, has been affected by both researchers and the general population, so that the research experimented with was conducted revealing a high synergistic potential between drugs and natural drugs, present in drugs. In view of the above, this study aimed to present, through a bibliographic survey, a use of medicinal plants in the face of microbial resistance, as well as medicinal therapy based on the use of essential oils from alternative tea tree, leucadendron tea tree and quinquenervia tea tree, already inclusion in the literature.
Microbial food-borne illness are widespread around the world. Campylobacter jejuni considering one of the most common contaminant of chicken meat products. This study aimed to; evaluate the uses of (coriander and thyme) extracts (EOs) in different methods when added to the popular chicken meat products; chicken burgers and chicken shawerma and storage at 4±1 °C for 14 days against C. jejuni pathogenicity such as; (Iam) and (virB11)virulence genes.100 grams of dried leaves and seeds of coriander and thyme water extracted. C. jejuni, (Iam) and (virB11) were collected, enrichment to determine antimicrobial activity by sensitivity test of thyme and coriander EOs compared with ciprofloxacin. 7 kilograms of chicken (burger and shawerma) mixed with 1%,2%,3% concentrations of coriander or/and thyme and control samples. Results revealed that negative effect of EO against C. jejuni, with 2cm inhibition zone around the disc immersed by 3% thyme EO and 4 cm inhibition zone around mixture of coriander and thyme Eos disc. The higher level of C. jejuni were observed on control (untreated) different chicken samples then C. jejuni and(Iam & VirB11) genes level decreased gradually from 1% conc. Until reach the highest inhibition effect on 3% thyme EO treated. The mixture between both types of EOs 3% concentration. The effect was nearly similar on both types of chicken products (chicken burger & chicken shawerma). In conclusion, this survey revealed that thyme and coriander EOs mixture can be used to stop the growth of campylobacter jejuni and some C. jejuni (Iam & VirB11)virulence genes as Gram –ve bacteria especially in high concentration in vitro conditions and may be suitable for preventing the foodborne disease especially in highly perishable food. Further research needed for study and enhancement the application of other herbs essential oils.
Introduction:
The prevention and control of caries necessitates the elimination of cariogenic bacteria and cavity disinfectants have proved to play a major role in achieving the goal. The use of phytotherapy is trending and many natural products have shown anti-microbial properties which can be used as cavity disinfectant in the field of dentistry.
Aim:
The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of herbal antibacterial agents (Tea Tree Oil (TTO) and Aloe vera) with commercially available 2% chlorhexidine (CHX) as cavity disinfectant for use in minimally invasive dentistry.
Materials and methods:
The study included three test groups, Group I (2% chlorhexidine), Group II (tea tree oil), Group III (Aloe vera gel) with a control group (distilled water). Ten patients with atleast one tooth with an occlusal or occluso-proximal lesion suitable for Atraumatic Restorative Treatment (ART) were selected for each group, dentinal samples were collected using sterile spoon excavators at three stages from each tooth viz., pre-excavation, post-excavation and post-disinfection of the cavities. These dentinal samples were subjected to microbiological analysis for Total Viable Count (TVC). The data collected were statistically analysed using ANOVA and Bonferroni post-hoc test.
Results:
The results of present study showed that there was a statistically significant reduction in TVC when compared between pre and post excavation in all the groups (p<0.05) and post- excavation and post-disinfection in all the test groups (p<0.05) (except control group). Post-disinfection, 2% chlorhexidine showed highest reduction in TVC followed by 1% tea tree oil and aloe vera gel.
Conclusion:
Natural antibacterial agents like tea tree oil and aloe vera could be effectively used as cavity disinfectants which will help in minimizing secondary caries and rendering a long term restorative success.
The increase in opportunistic mycosis as well as the emergence of antifungal resistance and the development of novel antifungal drugs necessitated the development of standard phenotypic drug resistance assays for fungi. Microdilution methods for testing yeasts (CLSI M27-A3 and EUCAST E.Def 7.2 assay) and filamentous fungi (CLSI M38-A2 and EUCAST E.Def 9.2 assay) are available. Disk diffusion assays for testing Candida (CLSI M44-A2) and nondermatophytic molds (CLSI M51-A) have also been standardized. Despite their availability and increasing knowledge of epidemiological cutoff values, these assays still have limitations. Most notably, clinical MIC breakpoints are as yet undetermined for some important drug–genus combinations. In an effort to standardize methodologies that might solve these problems as well as approaches that would support assay automation, techniques based on gradient strip method, colorimetric microdilution, agar dilution, flow cytometry, sterol quantitation, and isothermal microcalorimetry are also being studied. MALDI-TOF MS and genotypic assays are other approaches currently explored for detection of antifungal resistance.
Essential oils are substances of plant origin used to produce cosmetics, to preserve and aromatize food. Recently, they have become more popular among scientists and doctors due to their germicidal, antifungal, antiviral and anti-parasitic properties. As a consequence, essential oils are regarded as the source of new therapeutic substances. Numerous publications have been written regarding their effect on microorganisms in vitro. There have also been reports regarding their use in therapy as an additive to the traditional medical treatment. Essential oils may have other properties with positive effect on health because they may have an influence on the central nervous system and human mental state. It should be, however, kept in mind that compounds of essential oils might also have side effects and lead, like antibiotics, to the selection of resistant pathogens. It is necessary to develop quality standards of obtaining and using these plant preparations, so that they may provide safe and effective assistance in the fight against human pathogens.
The search for pioneering phytotherapeutic approaches based on the use of new herbal compounds is gaining immense attention in modern therapy because of the lack of toxic adverse effects. Previous in vitro studies have demonstrated tea tree essential oil (TEO) as a valuable phytotherapeutic agent for a variety of purposes, covering the composition, medicinal properties, formulation development and toxicology. This review will give an overview of the historical and modern uses, ethnobotanical consideration, quality control, chemical composition and medicinal values, bioactivity reports and toxicity concerns of tea tree essential oil. Furthermore, the review attempts to discuss all literature to date pertaining to the biological properties of TEO with special emphasis on those that have phytotherapeutic potential for health. Future research needs to include more comprehensive chemical characterisation of extracts, quality control and identification of bio-markers of clinical exposure with regards to composition and bioactivity.
Rhodococcus equi é o agente etiológico da rodococose equina, importante doença respiratória de potros. Especialmente na última década, a emergência de cepas resistentes aos antimicrobianos empregados no tratamento da rodococose tem sido relatada. Nesse sentido, há a necessidade de estudos envolvendo terapias alternativas e novas tecnologias, incluindo o uso de plantas medicinais e nanotecnologia. Neste trabalho utilizou-se Melaleuca alternifolia nas seguintes formulações: óleo livre, nanocápsula, nanoemulsão e a combinação de óleo livre com nanocápsula e com nanoemulsão, além do seu composto majoritário, terpinen-4-ol, a fim de verificar a atividade antimicrobiana frente a isolados de R. equi de diferentes origens. Utilizou-se o método de microdiluição em caldo na determinação das concentrações inibitória mínima (CIM) e bactericida mínima (CBM) das diferentes formulações frente aos isolados (n=24). Verificou-se baixo potencial para atividade antibacteriana de M. alternifolia na formulação de óleo livre. Todavia, essa atividade foi potencializada quando se incorporou o óleo essencial às nanoformulações. O composto terpinen-4-ol demonstrou potencial atividade antibacteriana quando incorporado ao óleo essencial e quando utilizado isoladamente. Verificou-se que tanto M. alternifolia quanto terpinen-4-ol testados possuem atividade antimicrobiana contra isolados de R. equi, sugerindo seu emprego em estudos avaliando seu potencial para o tratamento da rodococose.
Infectious microbial diseases are known to cause catastrophe since long. These diseases have been brought under control since the advent and advancement of antibiotics. Recent years have witnessed several ill-causing attributes of antibiotics which apply a question mark on their future effectiveness and make them unsuitable for long term use. These should be supplemented with other possible drugs. Plants have enormous potential and can provide natural products and novel bioactive phytomolecules. The medicinal capabilities of these products are embedded in secondary metabolites of plants. Plant volatile oils are known to combat a wide variety of microbial and bacterial infections. This review assembles the literature on efficacy of essential oils against human pathogenic bacteria. It is evident from the review that hundreds of oils exhibit higher antibacterial potency. This also affirms the contention that traditional medicine systems remain a valuable resource for the potential discovery of novel drugs. Thus, it may be expected that essential oils evolve as eco-friendly, biodegradable, safe, cost-effective and indigenous drugs in near future.
Complementary and alternative medicines occupy a privileged marketing position in many countries, including Australia, being able to carry low-level health claims while being relatively unfettered by regulatory requirements. Consequently, many enjoy widespread use for therapeutic purposes in the absence of definitive efficacy or safety data. Occasionally, the therapeutic properties of complementary and alternative medicines are scrutinised more closely and more thoroughly than their conventional counterparts, leading to the confirmation or discrediting of their properties.
Antibiotic resistance is documented to be a serious problem that affects the choice of appropriate antibiotic therapy and increases the probability of unfavorable infection outcome. One of the proposed methods to cope with multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria is the use of alternative antibacterial treatments, which include natural antimicrobial substances such as plant essential oils (EOs). The aim of the present article is to review published studies on the activity of EOs and their constituents against MDR bacteria and to formulate perspectives for the future. In general, published studies indicate that EOs can be used as effective antiseptics against many species, including MDR bacteria, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant enterococci, resistant isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae and others; certain EOs may potentiate the effectiveness of antibiotics against MDR bacteria; EOs can be synergistic with bacteriophages; and polymeric nanoparticles can be used for delivery of EOs and enhancement of their activity at the site of infection.
Essential oils are composed largely of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and their related alcohols. The number of components varies from approximately 10-100, although frequently the major portion of the oil is composed of only a few components. The composition and physico-chemical properties of oils are greatly influenced by extraction, packaging and storage processes which can in turn affect the biological properties of the oils. The medical and scientific literature is awash with reports of the antimicrobial activity of individual essential oils and the inherent in vitro activity of many essential oils is indisputable. However, the widespread exploitation of this antimicrobial activity in products is at a nascent stage. Other than over-the-counter preparations, a limited number of commercially available products rely largely on essential oils or their components for pharmaceutical antimicrobial properties. Similarly, essential oils or their components are rarely used as the sole or primary preservative system in foods. In addition to antimicrobial activity, essential oils also possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, analgesic properties and although less well-characterised, anti-cancer activity. Essential oils have a long history of apparently safe use and are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U. S. FDA. The challenge remains to further explore the range of their biological effects and their potential applications.
Zusammenfassung
Hintergrund und Fragestellung: Teebaumöl, ein Destillationsprodukt der Blätter des australischen Teebaumes Melaleuca alternifolia , erfreut sich zunehmender Beliebtheit als Alternativheilmittel für die Behandlung diverser Hauterkrankungen. Das Öl ist ein Gemisch aus zahlreichen allergologisch relevanten Substanzen wie Monoterpenen und Sesquiterpenen. In dieser multizentrischen Studie sollte evaluiert werden, ob die Zunahme des Verbrauches von Teebaumöl zu einer Sensibilisierungshäufigkeit in Deutschland und Österreich geführt hat, die die Aufnahme in die Standardreihe rechtfertigen würden.
Patienten und Methode: Für die Epikutantestung wurde ein standardisiertes Teebaumöl, 5 % in Diethylphthalat (DEP), verwendet. Getestet wurden konsekutive Ekzem‐Patienten von 11 Hautkliniken in Deutschland und Österreich. Die Ablesung erfolgte nach zwei und drei Tagen gemäß den Empfehlungen der Deutschen Kontaktallergiegruppe (DKG).
Ergebnisse: Von insgesamt 3 375 getesteten Patienten reagierten 36 (1,1 %) positiv auf Teebaumöl. Die Sensibilisierungshäufigkeit zeigte große geographische Unterschiede von 2,3 % (Dortmund), 1,7 % (Buxtehude), 1,1 % (Essen), 0,7 % (Graz) bis 0 % (Berlin, Wien). 14/36 Patienten (38,9 %) zeigten auch eine positive Reaktion auf Terpentin.
Schlußfolgerung: Für einzelne Testzentren ist Teebaumöl ein wichtiges Allergengemisch. Bei anamnestischen Hinweisen über die Anwendung teebaumölhaltiger Produkte sollte es getestet werden. Angesichts der großen regionalen Unterschiede in der Sensibilisierungshäufigkeit ist die Aufnahme in die Standardreihe noch nicht zu empfehlen.
Detailed GC and GC-MS analyses of oil of Melaleuca have identified several constituents not previously reported from Melaleuca alternifolia and clarified some earlier assignments. The range, mean, and coefficient of variation for the principle constituents in 800 typical samples are presented along with the compositions of several substandard oils. Isolation and storage procedures affecting the chemical composition of the oil are reported. Ethanolic extraction of mature leaves gave solutions suitable for direct injection into a gas chromatograph for the qualitative determination of tea tree oil. Comparison with conventional steam distillation showed that this technique was suitable for preliminary analysis of tea tree oil yield and quality.
All 66 isolates of Staphylococcus aureus tested were susceptible to the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia, or tea tree oil, in disc diffusion and modified broth microdilution methods. Of the isolates tested, 64 were methicillin-resistant
S. aureus (MRSA) and 33 were mupirocin-resistant. The MIC and MBC for 60 Australian isolates were 0·25% and 0·50%, respectively. Comparable results were obtained by co-workers in Britain
using similar methods. These in-vitro results suggest tea tree oil may be useful in the treatment of MRSA carriage.
FULL TEXT available free from http://jac.oxfordjournals.org/content/37/6/1177.full.pdf+html?sid=5b799c70-db6b-4dc6-a74f-f245709bdcf0
The susceptibility of 64 Malassezia furfur isolates to Melaleuca alternifolia oil was determined. The minimum inhibitory concentration for 90% of isolates was 0·25% by agar dilution and 0·12% by broth
dilution. These data indicate that tea tree oil may be useful in the treatment of skin conditions involving M. furfur.
A new microdilution method has been developed for determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of oil-based compounds. The redox dye resazurin was used to determine the MIC of a sample of the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) for a range of Gram-positive and -negative bacteria. Use of 0.15% (w/v) agar as a stabilizer overcame the problem of adequate contact between the oil and the test bacteria and obviated the need to employ a chemical emulsifier. A rapid version of the assay was also developed for use as a screening method. A comparison of visual and photometric reading of the microtitre plates showed that results could be assessed without instrumentation; moreover, if the rapid assay format was used, rigorous asepsis was not necessary. Accuracy of the resazurin method was confirmed by plate counting from microwells and MIC values were compared with results obtained using an agar dilution assay. The MIC results obtained by the resazurin method were slightly lower than those obtained by agar dilution.
FULL TEXT available free from http://jac.oxfordjournals.org/content/42/5/591.full.pdf+html?sid=5f5df59a-cbba-49f7-b228-04f90be4f537
The in-vitro activity of a range of essential oils, including tea tree oil, against the yeast candida was examined. Of the 24 essential oils tested by the agar dilution method against Candida albicans ATCC 10231, three did not inhibit C. albicans at the highest concentration tested, which was 2.0% (v/v) oil. Sandalwood oil had the lowest MIC, inhibiting C. albicans at 0.06%. Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil was investigated for activity against 81 C. albicans isolates and 33 non-albicans Candida isolates. By the broth microdilution method, the minimum concentration of oil inhibiting 90% of isolates for both C. albicans and non-albicans Candida species was 0.25% (v/v). The minimum concentration of oil killing 90% of isolates was 0.25% for C. albicans and 0.5% for non-albicans Candida species. Fifty-seven Candida isolates were tested for sensitivity to tea tree oil by the agar dilution method; the minimum concentration of oil inhibiting 90% of isolates was 0.5%. Tests on three intra-vaginal tea tree oil products showed these products to have MICs and minimum fungicidal concentrations comparable to those of non-formulated tea tree oil, indicating that the tea tree oil contained in these products has retained its anticandidal activity. These data indicate that some essential oils are active against Candida spp., suggesting that they may be useful in the topical treatment of superficial candida infections.
The essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) exhibits broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. Its mode of action against the Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli AG100, the Gram-positive bacterium Staphylococcus aureus NCTC 8325, and the yeast Candida albicans has been investigated using a range of methods. We report that exposing these organisms to minimum inhibitory and minimum bactericidal/fungicidal concentrations of tea tree oil inhibited respiration and increased the permeability of bacterial cytoplasmic and yeast plasma membranes as indicated by uptake of propidium iodide. In the case of E. coli and Staph. aureus, tea tree oil also caused potassium ion leakage. Differences in the susceptibility of the test organisms to tea tree oil were also observed and these are interpreted in terms of variations in the rate of monoterpene penetration through cell wall and cell membrane structures. The ability of tea tree oil to disrupt the permeability barrier of cell membrane structures and the accompanying loss of chemiosmotic control is the most likely source of its lethal action at minimum inhibitory levels.
The essential tea tree oil has been widely used in modern medicine and cosmetics in recent years. Although there are clinical data to show the benefical effects (e.g. antiseptic, antimicrobial, antioxidative) of this oil, dose-response studies are lacking. This paper reviews the clinical use of this essential oil, especially as a topical application.
Melaleuca alternifolia has been used for medical purposes since Australia was colonized in 1788. Melaleuca alternifolia is commonly called tea tree, although this vernacular name is also given to many other species in the Leptospermum and Melaleuca genera. A small tree, it grows up to 5 m in height, has papery bark and narrow, tapered leaves up to 20 mm in length and flowers in summer. Melaleuca alternifolia is unique to Australia and its natural habitat is a relatively small area around the Clarence and Richmond rivers in the north-east coastal area of New South Wales where the terrain is generally low lying and swampy. The essential oil of M. alternifolia, or tea tree oil. has enjoyed increased medicinal use in recent years. It is a pale yellow viscous liquid with a distinctive pungent odour and is composed of a complex mixture of monoterpenes, 1-terpinen-4-ol, cineole and other hydrocarbons (Peña 1962).
The purpose of this study was to determine the susceptibility of a range of transient and commensal skin flora to the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia, or tea tree.
A modified broth microdilution method was used. Polyoxyethylene sorbitan mono-oleate detergent was added to the test medium to enhance solubility of the tea tree oil.
Serratia marcescens had the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC90) of 0.25%. The highest MIC90 was 3% for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The lowest minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC90) was 0.25% for S. marcescens and Klebsiella pneumoniae, whereas the highest was 8% for Staphylococcus capitis.
S. aureus and most of the gram-negative bacteria tested were more susceptible to tea tree oil than the coagulase-negative staphylococci and micrococci. These results suggest that tea tree oil may be useful in removing transient skin flora while suppressing but maintaining resident flora.
Burnaid is a sorbalene-based cream containing 40 mg/g of tea tree oil and 1 mg/g of triclosan. This investigation was carried out to determine the effect of Burnaid, a commercial tea tree oil preparation, against Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC29212), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC29213), Escherichia coli (ATCC25922), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC27853), with the activity of the base product in the commercial preparation. The organisms were suspended in sterile saline (0.5 McFarland Standard) and inoculated onto horse blood agar (E. faecalis and S. aureus) or Mueller-Hinton agar (E. coli and P. aeruginosa). One hundred microliters of Burnaid unsterilized, Burnaid sterilized and the base product (Tinasolve) were placed in duplicate in wells cut into the agar plates. Sterility and inactivation cultures were also performed on the samples. None of the samples were found to be contaminated with bacteria prior to testing. Only S. aureus and E. coli showed zones of growth inhibition around the Burnaid and Tinasolve. Zones of growth inhibition (22 mm) were similar for the active product (Burnaid) and the base (Tinasolve). There was no activity against E. faecalis or P. aeruginosa. In view of our findings and literature indicating the cytotoxicity of tea tree oil against human fibroblasts and epithelial cells, it is recommended that this product should not be used on burn wounds.
A clinical description of how patient care can be improved by education and communication between the primary health-care team and the microbiologist
FULL TEXT available free from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00684.x/pdf
The effect of some potentially interfering substances and conditions on the antimicrobial activity of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil was investigated. Agar and broth dilution methods were used to determine minimum inhibitory and cidal concentrations of tea tree oil in the presence and absence of each potentially interfering substance. Activity was determined against Gram-positive and -negative bacteria, and Candida albicans. Minimum inhibitory or cidal concentrations differed from controls by two or more dilutions, for one or more organisms, where Tween-20, Tween-80, skim-milk powder and bovine serum albumin were assessed. These differences were not seen when assays were performed in anaerobic conditions, or in the presence of calcium and magnesium ions. The effect of organic matter on the antimicrobial activity of tea tree oil was also investigated by an organic soil neutralization test. Organisms were exposed to lethal concentrations of tea tree oil ranging from 1-10% (v/v), in the presence of 1-30% (w/v) dry bakers' yeast. After 10 min contact time, viability was determined. At > or = 1%, organic matter compromised the activity of each concentration of tea tree oil against Staphylococcus aureus and C. albicans. At 10% or more, organic matter compromised the activity of each tea tree oil concentration against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Organic matter affected 1 and 2% tea tree oil, but not 4 and 8%, against Escherichia coli. In conclusion, organic matter and surfactants compromise the antimicrobial activity of tea tree oil, although these effects vary between organisms.
FULL TEXT available free from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00780.x/pdf
The antimicrobial activity of plant oils and extracts has been recognized for many years. However, few investigations have compared large numbers of oils and extracts using methods that are directly comparable. In the present study, 52 plant oils and extracts were investigated for activity against Acinetobacter baumanii, Aeromonas veronii biogroup sobria, Candida albicans, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia col, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotype typhimurium, Serratia marcescens and Staphylococcus aureus, using an agar dilution method. Lemongrass, oregano and bay inhibited all organisms at concentrations of < or = 2.0% (v/v). Six oils did not inhibit any organisms at the highest concentration, which was 2.0% (v/v) oil for apricot kernel, evening primrose, macadamia, pumpkin, sage and sweet almond. Variable activity was recorded for the remaining oils. Twenty of the plant oils and extracts were investigated, using a broth microdilution method, for activity against C. albicans, Staph. aureus and E. coli. The lowest minimum inhibitory concentrations were 0.03% (v/v) thyme oil against C. albicans and E. coli and 0.008% (v/v) vetiver oil against Staph. aureus. These results support the notion that plant essential oils and extracts may have a role as pharmaceuticals and preservatives.