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Evaluation of risk factors for degenerative joint disease associated with hip dysplasia in German Shepherd Dogs, Golden Retrievers, Labrador Retrievers, and Rottweilers
Abstract
To determine whether age, breed, sex, weight, or distraction index (DI) was associated with the risk that dogs of 4 common breeds (German Shepherd Dog, Golden Retriever, Labrador Retriever, Rottweiler) would have radiographic evidence of degenerative joint disease (DJD) associated with hip dysplasia.
Cross-sectional prevalence study.
15,742 dogs.
Hips of dogs were evaluated radiographically by use of the ventrodorsal hip-extended view, the compression v ew, and the distraction view. The ventrodorsal hip-extended view was examined to determine whether dogs had DJD. For each breed, a multiple logistic regression model incorporating age, sex, weight, and DI was created. For each breed, disease-susceptibility curves were produced, using all dogs, regardless of age, and dogs grouped on the basis of age.
Weight and DI were significant risk factors for DJD in all breeds. For German Shepherd Dogs, the risk of having DJD was 4.95 times the risk for dogs of the other 3 breeds combined. In all breeds, the probability of having DJD increased with age.
Results indicated that the probability of having hip DJD increased with hip joint laxity as measured by use of DI. This association was breed-specific, indicating that breed-specific information on disease susceptibility should be incorporated when making breeding decisions and when deciding on possible surgical treatment of hip dysplasia.
... The adult BW of a dog is reached at different ages between breeds and depends on both genetic and environmental factors [2][3][4][5] . High BW in dogs, due to large size or excess amount of body fat, is a risk factor for several developmental and metabolic alterations [6][7][8][9] and degenerative joint diseases, such as hip dysplasia and osteoarthritis, and can negatively affect quality of life and lifespan [10][11][12][13][14][15][16] . High BW due to excess body fat is an escalating problem in dogs as well as in humans 17 , and studies have reported 20-59% of dogs being overweight or obese [18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] . ...
... The change could be due to changes in body fat mass and/or in size. Regarding the health risks associated with high BW, due to excessive body fat or large size, the decrease in BW observed in several breeds, might imply a reduced risk of known health disadvantages, including orthopedic disorders 10,11,[13][14][15][16]35 . The breeds with the most prominent decreases in BW, Lagotto Romagnolo, American Staffordshire Terriers, Staffordshire Bullterriers and Spanish Waterdogs, are primarily companion dogs in Sweden, but also to a great extent attend shows and competitions. ...
... The reported screening prevalence of hip dysplasia in the breed was > 50% during the study years in Sweden 28 . With BW being a risk factor for development of osteoarthritis in large-size breeds with hip dysplasia 14,37 , and the known risk of increased morbidity and mortality in these dogs 15 , the increase in breed BW in the Bullmastiff, might have negative impact on their overall health and lifespan, regardless of the underlying cause. ...
High body weight (BW), due to large size or excess body fat, has been associated with developmental and metabolic alterations, and degenerative diseases in dogs. Study objectives were to determine mean BW in young adult dogs of different breeds, including changes over a 10-year period. Body weight data from the official Swedish hip dysplasia screening program were used, including data from dogs screened at 1–2.5 years of age, in breeds with ≥ 15 individual observations/year during 2007–2016. Mean BW per breed and sex was established from 114 568 dogs representing 72 breeds. Estimates of breed BW showed significant change in 33 (45%) breeds over the 10-year period. Body weight increased in five breeds (2–14% change) and decreased in 26 breeds (1–8% change). In two breeds, BW increased in male and decreased in female dogs. This observational study provides extensive breed BW data on young adult dogs. The change in breed BW, noted in almost half of the breeds, could be due to changes either in size or in body fat mass. In certain breeds, the change in BW over time might have an impact on overall health. Studies with simultaneous evaluation of BW and body condition over time are warranted.
... 15 Environmental factors, age, breed, body weight, frame size, strenuous activity, or poor muscle mass influence hip joint laxity. [5][6][7]11,17,18 Degenerative joint disease occurs when passive hip joint laxity converts to weight-bearing laxity. 7 The OFA provides a subjective hip joint quality scoring method that has been used as a diagnostic tool since 1966 3 and is the most prevalent hip joint measurement tool used in the world. ...
... Distraction index values have been shown to be more accurately predictive of the risk of developing DJD than subjective hip joint scoring methods for dogs < 24 months of age. 7,18 Working dogs in canine detection programs protect against current and emerging threats, and the demand for specialized detection dogs has increased. 21,22 Otherwise successful detection dogs are rejected from service because of poor hip joint quality ratings. ...
... Dogs deemed to have tight (nonlax) hip joints when screened by use of objective measures (ie, DI value < 30) have minimal risk of developing CHD. 7,18 In contrast, following the subjective OFA guidelines by only breeding dogs with hip joint confirmation classified as excellent or good, no significant progress had been made in our population during the course of 13 years. Historically, subjective scoring methods, such as OFA evaluation, have produced measurable effects on breeding populations. ...
Objective:
To examine the effectiveness of applying selective pressure to improve hip joint quality in purpose-bred detection dogs by use of PennHIP distraction index (DI) values along with Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) hip joint scores and to determine whether age, sex, coat color, breed, and body weight were associated with hip joint quality.
Animals:
615 purpose-bred detection dogs assessed for hip joint quality.
Procedures:
Orthopedic records of 615 purpose-bred detection dogs (569 Labrador Retrievers and 46 Labrador Retriever-German Wirehaired Pointer crossbred dogs) from 2000 through 2017 were analyzed. From 2000 to 2014, hip joint quality scores were determined by OFA evaluation only (429 dogs). Beginning in 2015, both PennHIP and OFA evaluations were used to select male and female breeding stock (179 dogs; 7 dogs were removed from analysis because they did not undergo both evaluations). Selection threshold DI value for sires and dams was ≤ 0.30; all had hip joint scores of excellent or good by OFA standards. Standard ventrodorsal hip joint-extended and stress (compression and distraction) pelvic radiographs were submitted for OFA and PennHIP evaluations.
Results:
Hip joint quality scores were unchanged by use of OFA measurements only. When both PennHIP and OFA measurements were used for the selection of breeding stock, hip joint quality scores improved significantly. Sex and age were significant predictors of DI values.
Conclusions and clinical relevance:
PennHIP DI values were an effective measurement of hip joint quality for selecting breeding stock, and the addition of DI values to OFA measurements significantly improved hip joint quality in a population of purpose-bred dogs.
... Research results, culminating 10 years of data collection, were first published in 1993 [6] showing that increased joint laxity as measured by the PennHIP distraction index was a major risk factor for developing OA. These results have been confirmed in multiple studies [11] [27] [28] [29] [30]. The University of Pennsylvania Hip Improvement Program (PennHIP) was established that same year, 1993. ...
... The University of Pennsylvania Hip Improvement Program (PennHIP) was established that same year, 1993. The DI [6] [31] [27] [28], is a major component of PennHIP and it directly measures the relative amount of laxity present in a canine hip joint as a ratio of two lengths [4] [6], thus making it unitless. It is interpretable, however, as the proportion of femoral head radius that the center of the femoral head moved outward, away from the acetabulum when adequate distractive force was applied [6] while the dog was deeply sedated and dorsally recumbent. ...
... The ideal or target phenotype for a DI assessment is a value at or below 0.30 [6] [27]. Dogs with a DI value at or below this threshold have almost no risk of developing OA at any age. ...
Two hip quality phenotypes—a hip-extended score assigned by a board certified radiologist and the PennHIP distraction index—were analyzed to estimate genetic parameters and to calculate estimated breeding values used for selecting replacement breeders. Radiographs obtained at 12–18 months of age were available on 5,201 German Shepherd Dogs, 4,987 Labrador Retrievers and 2,308 Golden Retrievers. Obtained by fitting a two-trait model using Bayesian techniques, estimates of heritability for the hip-extended score were 0.76, 0.72, and 0.41 in German Shepherd Dogs, Labrador Retrievers, and Golden Retrievers, respectively, while estimated heritabilities for distraction index were 0.60, 0.66 and 0.59, respectively. Genetic correlations between the two hip quality measures were −0.28 in German Shepherd Dogs, −0.21 in Labrador Retrievers, and −0.29 in Golden Retrievers. Genetic selection for improved hip quality based upon the hip extended score phenotype began in 1980. Among first generation puppies, 34% of 273 German Shepherd Dogs, 55% of 323 Labrador Retrievers, and 43% of 51 Golden Retrievers had an Excellent hip extended score. After 8 generations of selection, mostly based on estimated breeding values derived from the hip extended score, over 93% of 695 German Shepherd Dogs, 94% of 528 Labrador Retrievers, and 87% of 116 Golden Retrievers received an Excellent hip extended score. With respect to PennHIP distraction index values among these same dogs, median values were at or above 0.30 for all 3 breeds meaning that half or more of dogs possessing the Excellent hip-extended-score phenotype remained susceptible to developing the osteoarthritis of canine hip dysplasia. Genetic improvement of the hip-extended-view phenotype to its desired biological endpoint left a surprising proportion of dogs expressing sufficient joint laxity to place them in an osteoarthritis at-risk state as they age. Only by directly applying selection pressure to reduce distraction index was marked reduction in joint laxity noted.
... Perhaps the most studied example of a complex disease condition in the dog is hip dysplasia, the most common skeletal disease of large breed dogs (22). Heritability estimates for measures of hip dysplasia across several breeds and countries range from 0.28-0.75 ...
... Several studies have reported multiple quantitative trait loci influencing hip dysplasia (29,30,31,32,33,34,35). Non- genetic factors shown to have an effect on hip dysplasia include exercise conditions during the growth phase, and body weight (22,36). For example, it has been reported that off-leash exercise in a garden or yard and on-leash exercise on asphalt during the growth phase appear to delay the onset of clinical signs of hip dysplasia in models controlling for radiological hip status (37). ...
... Weight was shown to be a significant risk factor for the degenerative joint disease associated with hip dysplasia in German Shepherd Dogs, Golden Retrievers, Labrador Retrievers and Rottweilers over two years of age (22). A study of 48 Labrador Retrievers in which half received 25% less food throughout their entire lifespan than the other half, which were fed ad libitum, found a reduced prevalence and severity of osteoarthritis in several joints in those dogs which had a long-term reduced food intake (38). ...
Skeletal and neurological problems consistently rank among the top health conditions necessitating the withdrawal or retirement of guide dogs and other working dogs from their service roles. Management practices such as weight management and physical conditioning may help to reduce the incidence of such conditions. However, where there is at least partial genetic aetiology, selective breeding strategies are the only way to produce a lasting reduction in their incidence in future generations. The management of single gene disorders is relatively simple through the judicious use of DNA test results. Breeding strategies to tackle complex diseases, into which category many skeletal and neurological diseases fall, are more challenging but can be successful through the use of data collected through screening schemes and, most efficiently, through the use of estimated breeding values.
... Gait abnormality is a critical clinical sign affecting MWDs, which reduces their effective performance of duties and quality of life. Large breeds such as GSD, LR, and BM are predisposed to locomotor disorders such as elbow and hip dysplasia, and spinal cord disease [1,2,4,5,9,30,31]. The major cause of death or euthanasia in MWDs (927 cases) was appendicular DJD in one study [1]. ...
... A previous study found that the prevalence of hip dysplasia in purebred dogs was 19.7%, while the prevalence in mixed breed dogs was 17.7% [32]. The probability of hip DJD increases with hip joint laxity and an increase in age in some large breeds including GSD and LR [2]. For effective performance and quality of life, MWDs with genetic factors of hip dysplasia should be excluded from breeding, and the military should routinely monitor for hip joint disorders through further research. ...
The purpose of this study was to evaluate disease patterns among military working dogs (MWDs) at the Armed Forces Medical Research Institute (AFMRI) to provide basic medical data on Korean MWDs. The medical records of procedures performed at AFMRI between November 2017 and March 2021 were reviewed. Physical examination, diagnostic imaging, and laboratory tests were performed according to the status of each dog. A total of 353 MWDs (215 males and 138 females; mean age, 6 ± 3 years) were analyzed in this study. Among Korean MWDs, gastrointestinal (GI) disorders are the most frequently diagnosed, followed by dental and musculoskeletal disorders. Foreign body (FB) ingestion had the highest prevalence of GI disorders, with the most common FB being a leather collar or leash. General and dental surgeries, including removal of gastric FB and tooth extraction, were routinely performed at the AFMRI. Preventative care focusing on dental disease and FB ingestion may be helpful for effective performance and good quality of life in MWDs, with the regular assessment and prevention of environmental factors that may contribute to behavioral problems such as FB ingestion, coprophagy, and anorexia.
... The DI is calculated by dividing the distance between the centers of the femoral head and acetabulum by the radius of the femoral head during distraction and is a number between zero (healthy hip) and one (severe laxity). The incidence of hip laxity in dogs with DI ≤ 0.3 and DI ≥ 0.6 is reported to be low and high, respectively [34]. The measurement of the DI on the distraction view radiograph is shown in Figure 2. ...
... The DI is calculated by dividing the distance between the centers of the femoral head and acetabulum by the radius of the femoral head during distraction and is a number between zero (healthy hip) and one (severe laxity). The incidence of hip laxity in dogs with DI ≤ 0.3 and DI ≥ 0.6 is reported to be low and high, respectively [34]. The measurement of the DI on the distraction view radiograph is shown in Figure 2. The DARS is the angle between the intersection of the perpendicular line drawn from the center of the femoral head to the mid-sagittal plane of the pelvis/sacrum, and the line drawn tangent to the most lateral point of the dorsal acetabular rim [33]. ...
Canine hip dysplasia is a complex and multifactorial disease. The early diagnosis of dysplastic dogs under one year of age helps veterinarians to plan proper preventive/therapeutic methods. Having an accurate screening method increases the chance of the early detection of dysplasia. The goal of our study was to assess the inter-observer reliability of eight radiographic parameters in four-month-old Rottweilers. Radiographs of the 28 Rottweilers were investigated by five experienced observers. The radiographs were taken in ventrodorsal view with extended legs, frog-leg ventrodorsal view, distraction view, and dorsal acetabular rim view. Four quantitative parameters such as Norberg angle (NA), distraction index (DI), dorsal acetabular rim slope (DARS), and center edge angle (CEA) and four qualitative parameters such as sclerosis of the cranial acetabular rim (SCAR), location of the center of the femoral head (LCFH), grading of the degenerative joint disease (GDJD), and grading of the dorsal acetabular rim (GDAR) were evaluated. High inter-observer agreements were recorded for quantitative values, whereas the inter-observer agreement of the qualitative parameters was low. It can be deduced that the evaluated quantitative parameters are reliable, and a combination of these methods with clinical examinations might increase the accuracy of the examinations.
... 21 22 24 Laxity index was 0.72 on the left and 0.68 on the right side, consistent with moderate hip joint laxity and moderate to high risk of developing future degenerative joint disease. 25 26 These radiographic ...
... The laxity index improved significantly and both hip joints were Ortolani negative at recheck. Based on different studies, we assume the risk of future degenerative joint disease to be significantly reduced in this dog by lowering the laxity index to values of approximately 0.4 (25). ...
A 22-week-old male golden retriever with acute bilateral hind limb lameness was diagnosed with bilateral complete cranial cruciate ligament rupture
and hip joint laxity. Laxity index was 0.72 on the left and 0.68 on the right hip joint preoperatively. The
dog was treated with simultaneous bilateral proximal tibial epiphysiodesis and juvenile pubic symphysiodesis and followed up for one year after surgery. Lameness resolved completely, and the dog showed a very good long-term outcome. Laxity index, measured four months after initial surgery, was corrected to 0.42 on the left side and 0.45 on the right side. The tibial plateau angle was corrected to 0 degree in the left and 4 degree in the right tibia, resulting in stable and pain-free stifle joints. No complications were observed due to the surgical procedures.
... Degenerative joint disease (DJD) is the most common orthopedic disease reported in dogs, especially in large to giant breeds [1]. The cause of DJD is unknown, but several factors, including hip laxity, obesity and genetic factors, have been hypothesized [2][3][4][5]. Moreover, angular limb deformity, septic arthritis, and cranial cruciate ligament rupture have been reported [6]. ...
... It has been reported that 74% of the large breed dog population is affected by CHD [28]. CHD is characterized by abnormal development of the hip joint, which leads to joint laxity and may progress to DJD [2][3][4][5]29]. The cause of CHD remains unclear; however, some reports have described genetic malformation(s) and other multifactorial sources [7,30]. ...
Background:
Degenerative joint disease (DJD) is a common orthopedic lesion in the coxofemoral joint of canine patients. Concurrent with the sign of degeneration, the vacuum phenomenon (VP), or intra-articular gas, has been observed in several locations in both human and canine patients. A cadaveric study described VP in small breed dogs without DJD but with hip laxity. However, none of the canine VP reports mentioned coxofemoral DJD. Therefore, the aim of this retrospective study was to describe the distribution of coxofemoral VP revealed on computed tomography (CT) imaging in canine patients with DJD.
Results:
A total of 282 dogs (564 coxofemoral joints), comprising 142 small, 85 large, and 55 medium breeds, were included in the present study. DJD was found in 31.02% of all dogs. The incidence of DJD was highest in large breed dogs (50%), followed by medium (31.81%) and small (19.36%) breed dogs. In addition, VP was detected with CT using the pulmonary window in 31 joints of 25 dogs that received a diagnosis of hip degenerative disease. VP was found most frequently at the laterodorsal area of the acetabulum. The incidences of VP in large, small, and medium breed dogs were 35.94%, 17.14% and 8.33%, respectively. The presence of coxofemoral VP was significantly and positively correlated with DJD (odds ratio = 17.58, 95% CI 2.32-133.42).
Conclusions:
The presence of coxofemoral joint DJD and VP was more likely to be detected in large breed dogs, especially in those with established DJD. CT is an advanced diagnostic imaging modality that can be used to reveal VP lesions, most of which are reported at the laterodorsal acetabulum. Further studies, including comparisons of different patient positions, may reveal more information regarding coxofemoral VP.
... Hip dysplasia predisposes to joint inflammation and secondary OA, which can cause clinical disability and pain [30,31]. The exact pathogenesis remains unclear, but hip joint laxity is assumed to be key for development of OA [32][33][34]. In addition, age, conformational characteristics and environmental influences, such as diet, have been reported to have a marked impact on the expression of OA in dogs susceptible to hip dysplasia [33,35]. ...
... The exact pathogenesis remains unclear, but hip joint laxity is assumed to be key for development of OA [32][33][34]. In addition, age, conformational characteristics and environmental influences, such as diet, have been reported to have a marked impact on the expression of OA in dogs susceptible to hip dysplasia [33,35]. Although the majority of the evaluated dogs in our study had dysplastic hips, the amount of OA in hip joints was surprisingly low. ...
Background:
English bulldogs are known to be prone to skeletal problems, but knowledge is lacking of the effect of these problems on locomotion and function. This study was undertaken to report the conformational, orthopaedic and radiographic findings in a cohort of English bulldogs in Finland and to evaluate how these findings affect weight bearing and locomotion of the dogs. Twenty-eight English bulldogs were prospectively recruited to this cross-sectional study. An orthopaedic examination, measurements of conformation, static and dynamic weight bearing, and radiographic examinations of elbow, hip, stifle joints and spine were done.
Results:
The English bulldogs carried a mean of 67.3% and 62.1% of their body weight in front limbs while standing and trotting, respectively. Front and hind limb lameness was seen in 20.8% (5/24) and 12.5% (3/24) of dogs, respectively. At orthopaedic examination, abnormal palpation findings (i.e. pain response, crepitation, swelling or subjectively decreased range of motion) were observed in a median of one joint (range 0-5) in each dog. Medial patellar luxation was diagnosed in 33.0% (8/24) of the evaluated dogs. At radiographic examination, elbow dysplasia was diagnosed in 48.2% (27/56) of elbow joints and severe hip dysplasia in 55.4% (31/56) of hip joints. The grade of elbow dysplasia was negatively associated with the ratio of static weight bearing between the front and hind limbs (slope estimate - 1.46, 95% CI - 2.75 to - 0.16, P = 0.03) and in dynamic weight bearing the ratio of total pressure index between the front and hind limbs (slope estimate - 0.088, 95% CI - 0.164 to 0.025, P = 0.03). The severity of hip dysplasia or hip osteoarthritis was not associated with the amount of static or dynamic weight bearing, but all except one dog were diagnosed with Fédération Cynologique Internationale grade C, D or E hips (dysplastic). In the spine, 78.6% (22/28) of the dogs had at least one malformed vertebra.
Conclusions:
Orthopaedic diseases and abnormal radiographic findings were common in the English bulldogs studied. The static weight bearing of the dogs was heavily distributed to the front limbs. With increasing severity of elbow dysplasia, the static and dynamic weight bearing shifted from dysplastic elbows to hind limbs.
... However, studies often do not clearly distinguish between body size and body condition. Larger breeds appear to be at greater risk, as do individuals who are overweight or obese, but the relationship between these different body-size variables is not always clear (6,(13)(14)(15)(16). ...
Objective
The aim of this study is to evaluate age, sex, body weight, breed, neuter status, and age at neutering as risk factors for diagnosis of osteoarthritis in companion dogs.
Animals
Dogs seen as patients at Banfield Pet Hospital in the United States from 1998 to 2019 with a date of death in 2019. The final cohort consisted of 131,140 dogs.
Methods
In this retrospective cohort study, Cox proportional hazard models were used to test for associations between osteoarthritis incidence and age at baseline, sex, maximum body weight, maximum body condition score, neuter status, and age at neutering. The same model was used to test these associations in 12 representative breeds, chosen based on breed weight and sample size.
Results
Older age, higher adult body weight, gonadectomy, and younger age at gonadectomy were significantly associated with higher risks of osteoarthritis in the total cohort and in all 12 breeds evaluated. Higher body condition scores and sex were also significantly associated with osteoarthritis but with minimal effect sizes in the overall cohort, and these risk factors were not consistently significant in all breeds tested.
Clinical relevance
These results will assist veterinarians in identifying dogs at higher risk for osteoarthritis and applying appropriate diagnostic, preventative, and treatment interventions. An understanding of potentially modifiable risk factors, such as body condition and neutering, will support evidence-based discussions with dog owners about risk management in individual patients.
... Currently, phenotypic screenings focus on an alternative methodology for joint laxity [11]. Among them, the PennHip, developed at the University of Pennsylvania, stands out as an accepted and validated approach [12] for immature animals aged 16 weeks or more that evaluates the index of joint distraction [13,14]. ...
Background
Canine hip dysplasia is a common orthopedic disease in veterinary practice. The diagnosis is made by radiographic examinations that evaluate bone alterations associated with hip dysplasia. Although radiographic examination is the gold standard for diagnosis, it does not allow a detailed evaluation of soft tissues such as the joint capsule and periarticular muscles. This study aimed to evaluate the accuracy of B-mode ultrasonography and acoustic radiation force impulse (ARFI) elastography in assessing the joint capsule and periarticular muscles of dogs using the Orthopedic Foundation of Animals (OFA) classification and the distraction index (DI) in the early and late diagnosis of hip dysplasia. This study sought to propose a protocol for the ultrasonographic evaluation of the structures involved in canine hip dysplasia.
Methods
Radiographic and ultrasonographic evaluations were performed on 108 hip joints of 54 dogs. Thirty dogs were older than 2 years and 24 were aged between 4 and 10 months.
Results
It was verified that an increase in pectineus muscle stiffness (cutoff value > 2.77 m/s) by elastography in some dysplastic dogs and an increase in the thickness of the joint capsule (cutoff value > 0.9 mm) in B-mode ultrasonography, were associated with a distraction index > 0.5, with both having a positive correlation. In B-mode ultrasonographic evaluation, the presence of signs of degenerative joint disease, such as irregularities of the cranial edge of the acetabulum and femoral head, were associated with a distraction index > 0.5 in canines, with a specificity of 94%. In adult dogs, the findings of degenerative joint disease on ultrasound were associated with a diseased OFA classification (P < 0.05). Measurement of the joint capsule > 1.10 mm was diagnostic for dysplasia in unhealthy dogs by OFA.
Conclusions
ARFI elastography has shown that the pectineus muscle may experience changes in stiffness in dysplastic animals. Additionally, changes in joint capsule thickness can be identified in B-mode in young and adult dogs with dysplastic joints, which contributes to the diagnosis of hip dysplasia.
... Studies comparing human and canine patients found that affected individuals were 80% female in humans, while in dogs, no sex predilection was proven [20,21]. Sex was also not a significant risk factor for DJD associated with CHD [22]. ...
The subject of hip dysplasia in dogs is still current and preoccupies both animal owners and veterinarians. Major factors affecting the development of the disorder are hip laxity and incongruent joints. Many studies on etiology, pathogenesis, and early diagnosis have been performed to reduce prevalence and select healthy dogs for breeding. The purpose of the present study was to investigate a possible relationship between dysplasia and femoral head area (FHA), femoral coverage by the acetabulum (CFH) and cranio-caudal distance of the dorsal acetabular rim (CrCdAR). Radiographs of a total of 264 skeletally mature dogs with similar physical characteristics (German wirehaired pointers (GWP), German shepherd dogs (GSD) and Labrador retrievers (LAB)) presented for routine hip dysplasia screening were recruited for the study. FHA, CFH and CrCdAR were measured and related to dysplasia status. Evaluations of FHA (p = 0.011), CFH (p < 0.001) and CrCdAR length (p = 0.003) measurements revealed significant interactions between breed, sex and FCI scores, so they had to be assessed separately. The results revealed that FHA tends to decrease as the hip dysplasia score worsens. There was no significant relationship between FHA and dysplasia assessment. FHA is breed-specific and is larger in normal and near-normal male (p = 0.001, p = 0.020) and female (p = 0.001, p = 0.013) GWP compared to GSD, respectively. FHA is greater in normal male GWP (p = 0.011) and GSD (p = 0.040) compared to females. There was a significant and strong positive correlation between FHA and CrCdAR in all breeds and sexes. Additionally, FCI scoring had a medium (GWP, GSD) to strong (LAB) negative correlation with CFH.
... The DI is a number between 0 (sound hip) and 1 (severe laxity). The possibility of the CHD incidence in dogs with a DI ≤ 0.3 is low, whereas dogs with a DI ≥ 0.6 are at an increased risk of hip dysplasia [17]. ...
Hip laxity is one of the predisposing factors of canine hip dysplasia. The early diagnosis of hip laxity allows veterinarians to prevent the participation of dysplastic dogs in breeding programs, which could lower the disease’s prevalence due to its genetic background. Furthermore, it allows them to plan preventive/therapeutic procedures for mild/near-normal hips to reduce the symptoms of the disease at older ages. A reliable screening program must be repeatable and reproducible, and intra- and inter-observer studies can help us to determine the best methods. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the radiographic parameters used for the early diagnosis of hip dysplasia in Rottweilers at 8 and 12 months of age with five observers to assess the interobserver agreements. According to our findings, there were high interobserver agreements at both ages for the quantitative values, such as the center edge angle (CEA), dorsal acetabular rim slope (DARS), distraction index (DI), and Norberg angle (NA), whereas we recorded from poor to moderate agreements for the qualitative values, such as the grading of the dorsal acetabular rim (GDAR), grading of the degenerative joint disease (GDJD), location of the center of the femoral head (LCFH), and sclerosis of the cranial acetabular rim (SCAR).
... Currently, phenotypic screenings focus on an alternative methodology for joint laxity [11]. Among them, the PennHip, developed at the University of Pennsylvania, stands out as an accepted and validated approach [12] for immature animals aged 16 weeks or more that evaluates the index of joint distraction [13,14]. ...
Background: Canine hip dysplasia is common orthopedic disease in veterinary, characterized by hip instability in puppies and secondary degenerative joint disease in adult. Radiographic examination has been the main diagnostic method of hip dysplasia. Different radiographic studies, in addition to diagnosing joint laxity and degenerative joint disease, facilitate patient screening and selection of optimal treatment. However, radiographs do not allow for the assessment of capsular characteristics and adjacent muscles, which can be thoroughly evaluated using various ultrasound techniques. Radiographic examinations require anesthetic management, often causing discomfort in the patients and an inconvenience to owners. This study aimed to evaluate the accuracy of B-mode ultrasonography and acoustic radiation force impulse elastography in the evaluation of the joint capsule and periarticular musculature of dogs using the classification of the Orthopedic Foundation of Animals (OFA) and the distraction index (DI) in the early and late diagnosis of hip dysplasia. This study sought to propose a protocol for the ultrasonographic evaluation of the structures involved in canine hip movement.
Results: Radiographic and ultrasonographic evaluations were performed on 108 hip joints of 54 dogs. Thirty dogs were older than 2 years and 24 were aged between 4 and 10 months. It was verified that an increase in pectineus muscle stiffness (cutoff value >2.77 m/s) by elastography and an increase in the thickness of the joint capsule (cutoff value >0.9 mm) in B-mode ultrasonography, were associated with a distraction index >0.5, with both having a positive correlation. In B-mode ultrasonographic evaluation, the presence of signs of degenerative joint disease, such as irregularities of the cranial edge of the acetabulum and femoral head, were associated with a distraction index >0.5 in canines, with a specificity of 94%. In adult dogs, the findings of degenerative joint disease on ultrasound were associated with a diseased OFA classification (P<0.05). Measurement of the joint capsule >1.10 mm was diagnostic for dysplasia in unhealthy dogs by OFA.
Conclusions: Ultrasound can be used as an adjuvant diagnostic modality in the diagnosis of hip dysplasia in association with radiographic evaluation in young and adult animals.
... Most of the animals in the region are either left with those condition for prolonged period resulting in pseudo arthrosis and stiffening of the joint or euthanized according to the will of the owner. Weight is a significant risk factors for affections of the joints [8] . For the marked relief of pain in long run, ultimately surgery is the key to the answer [1] . ...
The present study was undertaken to analyse blood biochemical parameters after diagnose, treat and manage the affections of coxofemoral joints in dogs. A total of 2214 cases of dogs were presented in the Department of Veterinary Surgery and Radiology and Veterinary Clinical Complex (Surgery Unit), College of Veterinary Science, A.A.U., Khanapara during the period from 1st August 2019 to 31st July, 2020. Total number of dogs with coxofemoral joint affections was 24 (1.08%). Age of the dogs affected with coxofemoral joint affections varied from 1 month old to 11 years of age. Hip joint affections were recorded in 16 males and 8 females. Sixteen out of twenty-four cases turned up for clinical examination and treatment. Clinical assessment included physical, orthopedic and neurological examinations before and after treatment. Biochemical estimation of serum ALP, serum calcium and serum phosphorus were recorded before and after rendering the treatment. The haemato-biochemical parameters had no significant alterations before and after the treatment.
Keywords: alkaline phosphatase, calcium, phosphorus, coxo-femoral joint affections
... Under a certain threshold, dogs are at a very low risk of CHD and greater than a certain threshold, dogs are at very high risk of developing CHD. 4 Hip laxity leads to subluxation during growth, which can result in the abnormal development of the acetabulum and femoral head. Laxity results in lateralization of the femoral head during the swing phase of the gait and a rapid relocation ("reduction") of the femoral head into the acetabulum during foot strike. ...
Hip dysplasia is one of the most common orthopedic conditions affecting dogs. Initially, laxity of the femur leads to subluxation, and subluxation can lead to an abnormal development or to progressive degeneration of the femoral head and dorsal acetabular rim. Osteoarthritis and its clinical impact progress over time. Changes to the femoral head and neck and the acetabulum and the impact on joint motion and pain vary widely among dogs. The rehabilitation of dogs with hip dysplasia includes rehabilitation therapy in dogs managed conservatively and the rehabilitation of dogs managed with surgery.
... The indications for DPO were those described previously 14 : dogs 5 to 8 months of age that had coxofemoral joint subluxation and laxity, which were indicative of susceptibility to future development of severe hip dysplasia, with positive Ortolani's sign and absence of joint crepitus and osteoarthritis; intact or slightly rounded but not truncated dorsal acetabular rim view; angle of reduction (AR) of 20 to 40 degrees; angle of subluxation (AS) between 5 to 20 degrees; difference between AR and AS more than or equal to 15 degrees with no acetabular filling 14 ; and a distraction index (DI) indicative of excessive joint laxity, usually more than or equal to 0.7, depending on the breed. 32 Dogs with comorbidities were excluded. ...
Objective The aim of this clinical retrospective study was to describe the postoperative complications and associated factors of double pelvic osteotomy (DPO) using DPO plates.
Materials and Methods Medical records were searched for dogs that underwent unilateral or bilateral DPO using DPO plates from February 2009 to October 2018 and were re-evaluated for a minimum of 1 to 2 months postoperatively. A variety of commercially available, specific DPO plates were used. Complications were determined during the immediate postoperative period and at the time of the clinical and radiographic re-evaluations done 1 and/or 2 months postoperatively.
Results A total of 458 DPO (226 right, 232 left) performed in 305 dogs satisfied the inclusion criteria. Double pelvic osteotomy plates from eight different manufacturers were used: Fixin (n = 160), Kyon (n = 154), New Generation Device (n = 63), Hofmann (n = 61), Veterinary Instrumentation (n = 12), DePuy Synthes (n = 4), Porte (n = 3) and Koenigsee (n = 1). Mean age of the dogs was 6.2 months (range: 5–8 months), and the body weight ranged from 10 to 47 kg. Overall, a total of 42 complications occurred in 38 DPO (8.2%). Complications included greenstick fracture of the ischium in 14 DPO (3%), isolated screw loosening in 13 DPO involving 16 of a total of 2,947 screws (0.5%), isolated screw breakage in 4 DPO involving 5 of 2,947 screws (0.1%), incomplete ilium fracture in 3 DPO (0.6%), partial caudal plate avulsion in 3 DPO (0.6%), iatrogenic sciatic neuropraxia in two DPO (0.4%), suspected surgical site infection (SSI) in 1 DPO (0.2%) and persistent pain and lameness caused by the implant in 2 DPO (0.4%). The case of suspected SSI and the two cases of persistent pain were classified as major complications (3 DPO, 0.6%), requiring medical and surgical intervention, respectively, whereas other 39 complications in 35 DPO were classified as minor, not requiring treatment (7.6%).
Conclusion Double pelvic osteotomy using DPO plates appears to be a safe surgical option for the treatment of hip dysplasia in growing dogs; no catastrophic complications were reported and the incidence of complications (0.6% major complications and 7.6% minor complications) was low. This study showed that DPO using DPO plates and proper technique was safe in 92% of cases. The only two factors found to be significantly associated with the development of complications after DPO were the laterality (left-sided or right-sided) and body weight.
... This also confirms earlier studies. 16,23 Altogether, this raises further questions that should be tackled in future studies. First, as it is clear that breedspecific differences exist, breed-specific reference intervals should be investigated and reported in literature, to allow a more population-specific approach when it comes to breeding recommendations. ...
Objective This study aimed to analyse the distribution of the laxity indices (LI) in a dog population, to compare the LI with the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) grades and to search for differences of LI between breeds.
Study Design The database was composed of all dogs presented to the University Hospital of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Ghent for obligatory hip screening between January 2016 and February 2019, and all patients presented to orthopaedic consultation between January 2017 and January 2019 for a complaint of hindlimb lameness, which underwent both a standard extended ventrodorsal radiograph of the hips and a stress radiograph revealing hip joint laxity. The latter was obtained by means of the Vezzoni-modified Badertscher distension device and the LI was calculated. For each dog of the population, the LI was then compared with the FCI grade.
Results The LI values ranged between 0.15 and 1.04, with a mean of 0.46. The LI and the FCI grade increased together, and showed a moderate-to-good correlation. There was a highly significant overall difference in the mean value of LI per FCI grade group (p < 0.001). The mean LI of the Labrador Retrievers was slightly but significantly lower than the mean LI of the Golden Retrievers (p < 0.01).
Conclusion The LI calculated on a stress radiograph taken with the Vezzoni-modified Badertscher distension device shows a good correlation with the FCI grade assigned on a standard extended ventrodorsal projection. A wide range of passive hip joint laxity exists in dogs considered to be phenotypically normal based on the FCI grading method.
... It is possible that this reflects an unintended selection in these dogs toward increased extensibility of all tendons and ligaments while selecting for extreme pelvic limb angulation. It is therefore perhaps not surprising that German Shepherd Dogs have a very high prevalence of hip dysplasia as compared to other large breeds with more moderate pelvic limb angulation such as Golden Retrievers, Labrador Retrievers, and Rottweilers (26). This might be one reason why many organizations are moving away from using German Shepherd Dogs as Working Dogs, or cross-breeding them with Belgian Malinois. ...
Working dogs help to keep society and individuals safe, secure, and healthy. To perform their varied functions, it is critical to select dogs that are structurally sound and capable of demonstrating power, coordination and agility. Characteristics such as size and substance, head and axial skeletal structure, chest size and conformation, and thoracic and pelvic limb angulation should be evaluated to select the optimal combination of characteristics to suit the tasks to which each dog will be assigned. This review provides guidance on how to evaluate each of these structural components and discusses the contributions of those body parts to a working dog's function.
... Secondary osteoarthritis, where underlying disease processes or injuries play a role in the development of osteoarthritis, is believed to be the most common form in dogs (14). The pathogenesis of secondary osteoarthritis is considered to have a genetic component exacerbated through aspects of lifestyle that impact body condition, such as diet and exercise (15). Disease processes and pre-existing arthropathies often influence the pathogenesis, for example cranial cruciate ligament disease is a common cause of pelvic limb lameness and can result in osteoarthritis development in breeds of all sizes (16). ...
Osteoarthritis is a common clinical and pathological end-point from a range of joint disorders, that ultimately lead to structural and functional decline of the joint with associated lameness and pain. Increasing understanding of the risk factors associated with osteoarthritis will assist in addressing the significant threat it poses to the welfare of the dog population and implementing preventive measures. Presented here, is the first comprehensive systematic review and evaluation of the literature reporting risk factors for canine osteoarthritis. This paper aimed to systematically collate, review and critically evaluate the published literature on risk factors for canine osteoarthritis and its predisposing conditions such as developmental joint dysplasias, cruciate ligament degeneration, and patellar luxation. Peer-reviewed publications were systematically searched for both osteoarthritis and predisposing arthropathies on Web of Science and PubMed following PRISMA (2009) guidelines, using pre-specified combinations of keywords. Sixty-two papers met the inclusion criteria and were evaluated and graded on reporting quality. Identified risk factors included both modifiable factors (neuter status and body weight) for which intervention can potentially affect the risk of occurrence of osteoarthritis, and unmodifiable factors (sex, breed, and age) which can be used to identify individuals most “at risk.” Osteoarthritis in dogs frequently develops from predisposing arthropathies, and therefore risk factors for these are also important to consider. Papers evaluated in this study were rated as medium to high-quality; gap analysis of the literature suggests there would be significant benefit from additional research into the interactions between and relative weighting of risk factors. There are a number of examples where research outcomes are conflicting such as age and sex; and further investigation into these factors would be beneficial to attain greater understanding of the nature of these risks. Comprehensively collating the published risk factors for osteoarthritis and its predisposing conditions offers opportunities to identify possible means for control and reduction within the population through preventative methods and control strategies. These factors are highlighted here, as well as current literature gaps where further research is warranted, to aid future research direction.
... Unfortunately, the pathology of neither hip nor elbow dysplasia can be reversed and so, for an affected individual, the best outcome is management of the disease through pain medication or replacement surgery, with the latter having additional consequences of cost and an extensive recovery period (5). The underlying etiology of dysplastic disease is complex with a long understood knowledge of a genetic influence (6)(7)(8) and multiple environmental factors, such as obesity or over-exercise during growth (9)(10)(11). Given genetic influences contribute to an individual's risk of development of both hip and elbow dysplasia, the importance of selecting breeding stock with the aim of reducing genetic risk in future generations is seen as the most useful means to elicit a widespread and permanent reduction in disease (2,12). ...
Hip and elbow dysplasia are common disorders in larger dog breeds and crosses, and a known contributory factor to osteoarthritis, lameness and reduced mobility. Screening schemes evaluating the severity of hip and elbow dysplasia in the UK are administered by the British Veterinary Association (BVA) and the Kennel Club (KC). The BVA/KC Hip Dysplasia scoring scheme is over 50 years old, having originated in 1965, and has operated in its current form since 1983. The BVA/KC Elbow Dysplasia grading scheme commenced more recently in 1998 and is based on the International Elbow Working Group guidelines. Hip score and elbow grade data on a considerable number of dogs in the UK have been generated from these two screening schemes. This study analyses data from dogs of six breeds scored from 1990 to present, to establish any determinable trends in hip score and elbow grade parameters, and to examine whether the implementation of such schemes has had a positive influence on hip and elbow health. A range of criteria, including the rate of participation in the screening schemes, hip score and elbow grade parameters (e.g., median, mean, standard deviation), and estimated breeding values (EBVs) were analyzed, both in the overall population and also among breeding animals. The results show a general decline in hip score parameters (median, mean, standard deviation, and 75th percentile), revealing a reduction in the prevalence and severity of hip dysplasia. There was a more modest decline in mean elbow grade within breeds. The proportion of sires and dams (of dogs born per year) with no hip score or elbow grade fell substantially over time, demonstrating good participation in the screening schemes. In most breeds, the scores of sires and dams are demonstrably improving. There is a declining genetic trend as ascertained by EBVs for both hip scores and elbow grades in most breeds, implying that the improvement observed is due in part to selection for improvement in hip and elbow health as described by the respective screening schemes.
... Some breeds are more susceptible to the disorder than others. Labrador Retrievers [7,10,17], Bernese Mountain dogs [9], Golden Retrievers [18], and German Shepherds [4,14,16] have been under special interest in studies of CHD, and several genetic associations with different hip phenotypes have been reported in these breeds. Different breeding strategies have been proposed to improve hip health; estimated breeding values are generally considered the most efficient approach [4,[19][20][21][22]. ...
Background:
Hip dysplasia and osteoarthritis continue to be prevalent problems in veterinary and human medicine. Canine hip dysplasia is particularly problematic as it massively affects several large-sized breeds and can cause a severe impairment of the quality of life. In Finland, the complex condition is categorized to five classes from normal to severe dysplasia, but the categorization includes several sub-traits: congruity of the joint, Norberg angle, subluxation degree of the joint, shape and depth of the acetabulum, and osteoarthritis. Hip dysplasia and osteoarthritis have been proposed to have separate genetic etiologies.
Results:
Using Fédération Cynologique Internationale -standardized ventrodorsal radiographs, German shepherds were rigorously phenotyped for osteoarthritis, and for joint incongruity by Norberg angle and femoral head center position in relation to dorsal acetabular edge. The affected dogs were categorized into mild, moderate and severe dysplastic phenotypes using official hip scores. Three different genome-wide significant loci were uncovered. The strongest candidate genes for hip joint incongruity were noggin (NOG), a bone and joint developmental gene on chromosome 9, and nanos C2HC-type zinc finger 1 (NANOS1), a regulator of matrix metalloproteinase 14 (MMP14) on chromosome 28. Osteoarthritis mapped to a long intergenic region on chromosome 1, between genes encoding for NADPH oxidase 3 (NOX3), an intriguing candidate for articular cartilage degradation, and AT-rich interactive domain 1B (ARID1B) that has been previously linked to joint laxity.
Conclusions:
Our findings highlight the complexity of canine hip dysplasia phenotypes. In particular, the results of this study point to the potential involvement of specific and partially distinct loci and genes or pathways in the development of incongruity, mild dysplasia, moderate-to-severe dysplasia and osteoarthritis of canine hip joints. Further studies should unravel the unique and common mechanisms for the various sub-traits.
... OA had been induced by applying standardized grooves on the lateral and medial femoral condyles with a 1.5-mm diameter Kirschner-wire 30,31 (n = 19 Beagles; n = 12 Labrador Retrievers). 29 While Labrador Retrievers are predisposed to the development of secondary OA to elbow and hip dysplasia, 32 the femorotibial joint employed in the present study has not been reported to relate to hereditary dysplasia. Cartilage was collected 10 weeks after OA induction, as described previously. ...
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease associated with chronic pain and disability in humans and companion animals. The canine species can be subdivided into non‐chondrodystrophic (NCD) and chondrodystrophic (CD) dogs, the latter having disproportionally short limbs due to disturbance in endochondral ossification of long bones. This phenotype is associated with retrogene insertions of the FGF4 gene, resulting in enhanced FGFR3 signalling. The effect on cartilage is unknown and in experimental studies with dogs, breeds are seemingly employed randomly. The aim of this study was to determine whether CD‐ and NCD‐derived cartilage differs on a structural and biochemical level, and to explore the relationship between FGF4 associated chondrodystrophy and OA. Cartilage explants from CD and NCD dogs were cultured for 21 days. Activation of canonical Wnt signalling was assessed in primary canine chondrocytes. Osteoarthritis and synovitis severity from an experimental OA model were compared between healthy and OA samples from CD and NCD dogs. Release of glycosaminoglycans, DNA content and COX‐2 expression were higher in NCD cartilage explants. Healthy cartilage from NCD dogs displayed higher cartilage degeneration and synovitis scores, which was aggravated by the induction of OA. Dikkopf‐3 gene expression was higher in NCD cartilage. No differences in other Wnt pathway read outs were found. To conclude, chondrodystrophy associated to the FGF4 retrogene seems to render CD dogs less susceptible to the development of OA when compared to NCD dogs. These differences should be considered when choosing a canine model to study pathobiology and new treatment strategies of OA. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Obesity is a major risk factor for orthopedic diseases in companion animals, especially dogs. An increased incidence of both traumatic and degenerative orthopedic disorders was reported [18]. One study reported body weight to be a predisposing factor in humeral condylar fractures, cranial cruciate ligament rupture, and intervertebral disc disease in cocker spaniels [19]. ...
... Obesity is widely considered one of the most common nutritional disorders of dogs and cats that are kept as companion animals (German 2006;Zoran 2010) and is of significant concern in clinical practice because it can lead to serious secondary health complications such as osteoarthritis (Smith et al. 2001), diabetes mellitus (Prahl et al. 2007), hypertension (Montoya et al. 2006), airway dysfunction (Bach et al. 2007), and early mortality (Kealy et al. 2000). Previous research studies have shown that obesity is a multifactorial condition associated with genetic predispositions (McGreevy et al. 2005), diet and exercise (Robertson 2003), hormonal status (Le Roux 1983;Jeusette et al. 2004;, housing conditions (Colliard et al. 2009), age-related metabolic changes (Armstrong 1996), and concurrent metabolic diseases such as hypothyroidism (Daminet et al. 2003). ...
AIMS: To assess the prevalence of obesity in adult dogs and cats presented to first-opinion veterinary clinics in the North Island of New Zealand for routine vaccination appointments, using electronic medical records.
METHODS: Ten first-opinion veterinary clinics across the North Island of New Zealand provided electronic medical records for all routine vaccination appointments for adult (>1 year old) dogs and cats between 01 January 2011 and 30 June 2016. Animals with a body condition score (BCS) of 6 or 7 on a 9-point scale and 4 on a 5-point scale were classified as overweight; those with a BCS of 8 or 9 on a 9-point scale and 5 on a 5-point scale were classified as obese. A total of 106,144 records were available over the study period, of which 48,041 (45.2%) had both a recorded weight and BCS.
RESULTS: Of the 24,247 records for dogs with both BCS and weight, 6,324 (26.1%) were classified as overweight, and 551 (2.3%) as obese. The prevalence of dogs classified as overweight or obese was highest in dogs aged between 5–13 years. The odds of desexed dogs being classified as overweight or obese was greater than the odds for intact dogs (OR = 1.42 (95% CI = 1.29–1.57), p < 0.001) adjusting for the effects of age. Of the 23,794 records for cats with a recorded weight and BCS, 5,222 (21.9%) were classified as overweight, and 622 (2.6%) as obese. The prevalence of cats classified as overweight or obese was highest in cats aged between 5–11 years. The odds of desexed cats being classified as overweight or obese tended to be greater than the odds for intact cats (OR = 1.14 (95% CI = 0.98–1.31); p = 0.075), adjusting for the effects of age.
CONCLUSIONS: Although there are limitations with using electronic medical records to estimate the prevalence of obesity in companion animal populations, the results highlight that a significant number of animals presenting for routine vaccination appointments are classified as overweight or obese.
CLINICAL RELEVANCE: It is important for veterinarians to record both patient body condition and weight during routine preventative care appointments to allow accurate ongoing monitoring of trends in obesity at both the patient and population levels.
... In these diseases, developmental joint incongruity leading to abnormal transmission of weight bearing forces and/or failure of endochondral ossification are believed to lead to progressive cartilage damage, and subsequent DJD [58]. Similarly, degenerative joint disease develops progressively in canine hip dysplasia due to the transmission of weight-bearing forces though abnormally loose and increasingly dysplastic hip joints [59], and humeral head osteochondrosis results from failure of endochondral ossification. While several of these conditions have sex predispositions reported in the literature in some studies [53,54,57,60], cases of DJD were not significantly different by sex in this study. ...
Background
Labrador retrievers are reportedly predisposed to many disorders but accurate prevalence information relating to the general population are lacking. This study aimed to describe demography, mortality and commonly recorded diseases in Labrador retrievers under UK veterinary care.
Methods
The VetCompass™ programme collects electronic patient record data on dogs attending UK primary-care veterinary practices. Demographic analysis covered all33,320 Labrador retrievers in the VetCompass™ database under veterinary care during 2013 while disorder and mortality data were extracted from a random sample of 2074 (6.2%) of these dogs.
Results
Of the Labrador retrievers with information available, 15,427 (46.4%) were female and 15,252 (53.6%) were male. Females were more likely to be neutered than males (59.7% versus 54.8%, P < 0.001). The overall mean adult bodyweight was 33.0 kg (SD 6.1). Adult males were heavier (35.2 kg, SD 5.9 kg) than adult females (30.4 kg, SD 5.2 kg) (P < 0.001). The median longevity of Labrador retrievers overall was 12.0 years (IQR 9.9–13.8, range 0.0–16.0). The most common recorded colours were black (44.6%), yellow (27.8%) and liver/chocolate (reported from hereon as chocolate) (23.8%). The median longevity of non-chocolate coloured dogs (n = 139, 12.1 years, IQR 10.2–13.9, range 0.0–16.0) was longer than for chocolate coloured animals (n = 34, 10.7 years, IQR 9.0–12.4, range 3.8–15.5) (P = 0.028).
Of a random sample of 2074 (6.2%) Labrador retrievers under care in 2013 that had full disorder data extracted, 1277 (61.6%) had at least one disorder recorded. The total number of dogs who died at any date during the study was 176. The most prevalent disorders recorded were otitis externa (n = 215, prevalence 10.4%, 95% CI: 9.1–11.8), overweight/obesity (183, 8.8%, 95% CI: 7.6–10.1) and degenerative joint disease (115, 5.5%, 95% CI: 4.6–6.6). Overweight/obesity was not statistically significantly associated with neutering in females (8.3% of entire versus 12.5% of neutered, P = 0.065) but was associated with neutering in males (4.1% of entire versus 11.4% of neutered, P < 0.001). The prevalence of otitis externa in black dogs was 12.8%, in yellow dogs it was 17.0% but, in chocolate dogs, it rose to 23.4% (P < 0.001). Similarly, the prevalence of pyo-traumatic dermatitis in black dogs was 1.1%, in yellow dogs it was 1.6% but in chocolate dogs it rose to 4.0% (P = 0.011).
Conclusions
The current study assists prioritisation of health issues within Labrador retrievers. The most common disorders were overweight/obesity, otitis externa and degenerative joint disease. Males were significantly heavier females. These results can alert prospective owners to potential health issues and inform breed-specific wellness checks.
... 12,13 On the other hand, several studies have shown that early DI measurement on a distraction radiograph with the limbs in a neutral position is a good indicator of passive hip laxity and thus a good predictor of canine hip dysplasia in terms of osteoarthritis development after 2 years of age or later in the dog's life. 17,26,27 Among the hips which had a FCI score of A, only 6.2% had a DI 0.3 and 3.1% had DI > 0.7. This underlines the fact presented above whereby FCI scoring based on hip-extended radiographs is not accurately related to passive laxity. ...
Objectives The main purpose of this article is to evaluate the correlation between the distraction index (DI) and Norberg angle values in distracted hips (distraction Norberg angle, DNA) at 4 months of age and the official hip score based on the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) grid at 12 months of age.
Methods For dogs (n = 215) from two guide dog training organizations, the DI and DNA were measured by a single expert on distraction radiographs performed at 4 months of age. The FCI score was determined by the same expert at 12 months of age on a standard hip-extended view.
Statistical analysis included receiver operating characteristic curve analysis and concordance correlation coefficient calculation.
Results The mean DI was 0.48, the mean DNA was 86.5° and 59.5% of hips had an A FCI score. The concordance correlation coefficient of DI and DNA was 0.78. The DI threshold for D- and E-scored hips that was associated with the least misclassification was 0.58 (sensitivity [Se] = 0.6, specificity [Sp] = 0.82). The DNA threshold that was associated with the least misclassification was 85° (Se = 0.83, Sp = 0.68).
Clinical Significance DNA has a fair correlation with DI at 4 months and reflects hip passive laxity. D and E FCI scores at 12 months cannot be reliably predicted from the 4 months value of DI or DNA but 96% of hips with DI < 0.58 at 4 months had an A, B or C FCI score at 12 months of age. Similarly, 98% of hips with DNA > 85° at 4 months had an A, B or C FCI score at 12 months of age.
... Canine hip dysplasia is a developmental orthopaedic disease of the coxofemoral joints, leading to potentially crippling arthritis that has a multifactorial mode of inheritance (7). Recently, laxity of the hip joint during development has been identified as a major determinant of adult joint conformation and the development of arthritis (8,9). Elbow dysplasia is an umbrella term for three distinct developmental conditions of the canine elbow that all lead to elbow arthritis. ...
Domesticated dogs are widely used for farm work, law enforcement, military service and in assistance roles. Farm dogs assist farmers by guarding or moving stock, reducing the requirement for human workers and enabling steep terrain to be productive. Working and service dogs are subject to illness and injury, depending on their breed characteristics, activities and the environment in which they work. There are limited data in the veterinary literature on the causes of loss and early retirement of working dogs, and targeted research is required to better determine factors that affect their incidence. Many breeds of working dog suffer from inherited forms of musculoskeletal disease; most importantly, elbow and hip dysplasia. The effectiveness of traditional radiographic (phenotypic) scoring schemes at reducing the prevalence of hip and elbow dysplasia has been variable. The selection of breeding stock should preferably be based on estimated breeding values, rather than on an individual phenotypic score/grade. Nutrition can affect physical and mental performance, disease risk and susceptibility, and recovery from injury, age-associated decline and longevity. The dietary proportions of fat, protein and carbohydrate influence fuel selection during exercise. A common concern among farmers is the difficulty of maintaining body condition in their dogs during periods of heavy work with current feeding practices. Additionally, maintaining a positive calcium balance is necessary for adaptive remodelling in response to exercise. Research strategies should include improved treatment options, the development of more specific means of genetic selection for inherited diseases, investigation into specific nutritional requirements and the dissemination of this knowledge.
Mobility impairments associated with musculoskeletal diseases, such as osteoarthritis and degenerative joint disease, affect approximately 200,000 dogs annually and pose a notable challenge to canine health and welfare. Osteoarthritis causes the remodelling of synovial joints, alongside inflammation and impaired mechanical function which can be extremely debilitating. Secondary osteoarthritis commonly affects dogs and can be exacerbated by previous joint abnormalities, such as patellar luxation or cranial cruciate ligament rupture. Although musculoskeletal diseases can affect dogs of any age, the early subtle signs of gait abnormalities are perhaps missed by owners, thus, dogs may be in the latter stages of osteoarthritis progression when they are presented to veterinarians. Dogs showing subtle signs of gait abnormalities must be presented to veterinary practices for acute diagnosis to prevent long-term deterioration. Musculoskeletal diseases, such as osteoarthritis and degenerative joint disease, are commonly diagnosed via visible radiographic changes. However, veterinarians can use a combination of subjective and objective clinical scoring systems, such as clinical metrology instruments and gait assessment in conjunction with radiography to aid their diagnosis and longitudinal monitoring of musculoskeletal diseases. These scoring systems may be more sensitive to earlier signs of mobility impairments in dogs, ultimately, promoting increased canine health and welfare by enabling pain reduction, improvement of muscle strength and preservation of joint function. Current canine mobility scoring systems available to veterinarians will be discussed in turn throughout this review for implementation into clinical practice.
In this paper we propose a machine learning-based approach to predict a multitude of insurance claim categories related to canine diseases. We introduce several machine learning approaches that are evaluated on a pet insurance dataset consisting of 785,565 dogs from the US and Canada whose insurance claims have been recorded over 17 years. 270,203 dogs with a long insurance tenure were used to train a model while the inference is applicable to all dogs in the dataset. Through this analysis we demonstrate that with this richness of data, supported by the right feature engineering, and machine learning approaches, 45 disease categories can be predicted with high accuracy.
High body weight (BW) in dogs has been associated with developmental as well as degenerative diseases, but the heritability of BW in dog breeds is largely unknown. The aim of the current study was to estimate heritability and genetic change (genetic trend) for BW in a range of dog breeds in Sweden. Body weight registrations from 19 dog breeds (with n ranging from 412 to 4710) of varying body size, type and usage were collected from 2007 to 2016. The average BW of the breeds was 8-56 kg. The BW registrations were performed when the dogs were 12-24 months of age (18-30 months for one large-sized breed) in connection with an official radiographic screening program for hip dysplasia. Collected weight records were used to estimate heritability and genetic trends for BW. Several statistical models were used. The preliminary model included the fixed effects of breed (p<0.001), sex (p<0.001), year of screening (p<0.001), litter size (p=0.06), parity of the dam (p=0.03) and linear regression on age at screening (p<0.001), the latter five effects all nested within breed, and the random effects of litter and dam. Season of birth and the quadratic effect of age were also tested, but were not significant (p>0.10). For the genetic analysis, various mixed linear models were tested within breed with different combinations of random effects; the most complex model included random effects of litter, direct additive and maternal genetic effects, and maternal permanent environmental effect. The average heritability for BW over all 19 breeds was 51%, with a range of 35-70%, and the additive genetic coefficient of variance was around 9%. Maternal heritability was 5-9% and litter variance was below 10% with one exception (15% in Shetland Sheepdogs). For nine breeds, there was a genetic trend of increasing BW, whereas seven breeds had a genetic trend of decreasing BW. The largest absolute genetic change over a 10-year period was around 0.6 kg or about 2% of the mean. In conclusion, given the small genetic changes in spite of the high heritability, it seems that there is generally a very weak selection, if any, for BW in the included dog breeds.
The guidelines are the first comprehensive consensus report on veterinary healthcare recommendations for working, assistance, and therapy dogs. This category of canine patients includes a broad assortment of animals, some with well-defined functions and others that provide a more generalized support role. The guidelines discuss recommendations for dogs trained for protection, odor/scent detection, service functions for people with diagnosed disabilities or physical limitations, emotional support, and therapeutic intervention. Although the term is often used to describe dogs providing animal-assisted activities, true therapy dogs provide goal-directed therapy, often under the supervision of a healthcare professional such as an occupational therapist or psychologist. Many working dogs undergo extensive training and have rigorous physical demands placed upon them. These factors make working, assistance, and therapy dogs inherently valuable and impose a need for a high level of primary veterinary care as described in the guidelines. Because working dogs have a particularly close relationship with their handlers, a trust relationship between the practice team and the working-dog client is imperative.
Hip dysplasia (HD) is one of the most common hereditary orthopaedic diseases in dogs, with serious implications for the quality of life of the affected animals. Radiographic screening is essential for the selection of breeding stock in some at-risk breeds, and radiography is also used in the diagnosis of clinical HD cases. A definitive diagnosis of HD is based on radiographic examination, and the most commonly used view is the ventrodorsal hip extended projection, sometimes in combination with various hip stress-based techniques. Radiographic images require high quality positioning and dogs are usually anesthetized and often manually restrained to facilitate optimal positioning. The ‘as low as reasonably achievable’ (ALARA) principle used in human radioprotection is not always fulfilled in veterinary practice, except in the UK, where human exposure to ionizing radiation in veterinary medicine is strictly regulated. While each dose of ionizing radiation is small, doses accumulate over a lifetime, which can eventually result in substantial radiation exposure. Therefore, manual restraint should be avoided and mechanical immobilization, sedation or general anaesthesia should be used. This review examines the biological effects of human exposure to ionizing radiation and common sources of veterinary exposure. The diagnostic quality of imaging methods for the diagnosis of canine HD is compared between manually restrained and hands-free dog positioning. Hands-free radiographic techniques are available to assess hip laxity, degenerative joint changes and hip osseous structure while preserving image quality, and can be used to select animals for breeding or for the diagnosis of HD.
The goals of this project were to quantify medical problems among a population of Military Working Dogs (MWDs) and analyze factors associated with common medical conditions. Medical conditions recorded in veterinary Master Problem List (MPL) entries for 774 young, non-deployed, active MWDs were categorized and combined with demographic information to analyze risk factors. Most dogs were male (74%), German Shepherd (39%) or Belgian Malinois (31%) breeds, certified in Explosive Detection (60%), and had a dark coat color (83%). Ages ranged from one to six years, with an average of 2.6 years (± 0.5 years). Eighty-three percent of dogs had a non-surgical medical problem in their record. The most common non-surgical medical problems were dermatologic (25% of MPL entries), alimentary (21%), dental (15%), soft-tissue injury (10%), and musculoskeletal conditions (4%). Factors associated with each medical condition were breed (Odds Ratios 1.96-8.24), sex and spay/neuter status (ORs 1.78-5.77), occupational duty certification (ORs 2.65-3.62), military command location (ORs 2.32-7.44), and military branch (OR 5.16). As MWDs are a valuable asset for the Department of Defense, training and work conditions for the identified at-risk groups of MWDs should be further assessed to maximize their operational capabilities and assess the potential to serve as sentinel indicators for human diseases. Improved understanding of the most common medical problems affecting MWDs, and the identification of factors associated with these conditions, can help drive changes in their preventive care.
Canine hip dysplasia is a multifactorial disorder characterized by hip laxity and osteoarthritis. The early diagnosis of hip laxity is an important topic in small animal orthopedics. This study aimed to evaluate the correlation between clinical orthopedic examinations and the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) scoring method. Thirty purebred Rottweilers were examined at approximately four (20 ± 2 weeks), eight (35 ± 2 weeks), and twelve months of age (54 ± 1 weeks), respectively. The Ortolani, Barlow, and Bardens tests and reduction/subluxation angle measurements were performed at each time. FCI scoring was conducted at the third examination time. Positive correlations were recorded between the reduction angle and Ortolani test, reduction angle and FCI score, and Ortolani test and FCI score for the second and third examination dates. No correlation was observed between the subluxation angle and other methods. Despite previous studies reporting 16–20 weeks as the earliest age for diagnosing hip laxity in dogs, in our study, early diagnosis was possible from the age of 35 ± 2 weeks. This difference might originate from the small sample size, low number of the dogs with severe grades of laxity, and breed differences.
The aim of this study was to investigate the variability of the slope of the pelvis in different dog breeds and the correlation between pelvic slope and femoral subluxation. The sacrum-pelvis angle (SPA), the angulation between the sacrum and the axis of the ilium was created to represent the differences in the slope of the pelvis on lateral pelvic radiographs. The Norberg angle (NA) was used to quantify the femoral subluxation on hip-extended radiographs. Archived standard ventrodorsal hip radiographs and lateral lumbosacral radiographs of the same dogs were retrieved and a single observer measured the SPA and the NA in each case. A total of 180 dogs from six different breeds were sampled. The SPA varied between 40° and 71.5° and the NA between 71.2° and 113.9°. The findings indicated that there are significant individual and interbreed variations in the slope of the pelvis. However, no significant relationship between the slope of the pelvis and femoral subluxation could be identified.
Objective Radiographic hip scoring according to the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) and PennHIP (Pennsylvania Hip Improvement Program) method was performed with the purpose to compare the PennHIP and FCI results as well as coxofemoral joint laxity by correlation of Norberg angle and distraction index measurements.
Materials and methods A total of 167 dogs of various breeds presented for official screening examination in a veterinary teaching hospital in Germany were included. Using receiver operating characteristic analysis, the best Norberg angle and distraction index cut-off values to distinguish between dysplastic and non-dysplastic groups based on FCI grades and to distinguish between lax and tight hip joints according to the PennHIP proposal were calculated.
Results More than one third (38.2 %) of dogs that passed the breeding criterions according to FCI (grades A and B) were in the half of the population with lax hip joints and should not be used for breeding according to the PennHIP proposal. A cut-off value for the distraction index of 0.44 with sensitivity of 82.7 % and specificity of 84.2 % was superior to the best cut-off value for the Norberg angle at 101.8° with sensitivity of 82.7 % and specificity of 71.9 % to discriminate between non-dysplastic joints (A, B) and dysplastic joints (C, D, E).
Conclusions and clinical relevance Our results show a limited impact of laxity on the FCI grading. Breeding selection processes that are based on the FCI method could profit by an additional and complementary use of the distraction index.
Canine hip dysplasia is the most common orthopedic developmental condition in the dog and early hip laxity is the main risk factor. The importance of hip laxity in young animals in the development of hip dysplasia is unanimously recognized among researchers and veterinarians due to its medical applicability in terms of disease control and prevention. In the market, there is some certified hip distractors to promote joint laxity. However, the clinical use of some of these distractors complies with a set of usage rules, that can limit its medical application. In this study was compared the technical quality of radiographs and hip distraction using a certified hip distractor (CertD) and Dis-UTAD in 104 dogs (208 joints). The mean pelvic tilting of 1.5 ± 1.6° and 1.5 ± 1.8° were similar when using the CertD and the Dis-UTAD distractors, respectively (P > 0.05). In the CertD sample, the mean hip distraction index (DI) was 0.46 ± 0.17 and in the Dis-UTAD 0.46 ± 0.16; the mean DI differences was 0.001 ± 0.045, resulting in a non-significant paired t-test (P = 0.65) and a significant intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.96, with the 95% lower limit confidence interval of 0.95 (P < 0.05). The statistical power analysis showed a very low distraction index difference effect size. The results suggest that the statistical reproducibility of CertD hip distraction by the Dis-UTAD and the DI mean differences of 0.001 might be considered without clinical importance. The Dis-UTAD might be considered adequate to promote dog hip laxity.
The aim of this study was to test the accuracy of a new automated computer software tool for the assessment of passive hip laxity. The hip laxity was estimated using the dedicated computer software by two blinded evaluators, one previously trained and one without specific training for distraction index measurement, in two independent sessions using 230 hip joints from 115 dogs that underwent screening for passive hip laxity using the distraction view. Previously, all of these radiographs were sent to PennHIP Analysis Center for an official distraction index record. The measurement repeatability of the two sessions was adequate for both evaluators. The reproducibility of the official distraction index measurement, mean distraction index±standard deviation 0.44±0.15, was adequate (P>0.05) for the trained evaluator, 0.44±0.15, and non-adequate (P<0.05), for the non-trained evaluator 0.47±0.17. The distraction index measurement tool proposed can be used with confidence for hip laxity evaluation by trained evaluators, as it provided good repeatability and reproducibility of official reports. The simplicity of the process described leads to a less time-consuming and more affordable procedure.
Objectives
This study aimed to verify if a significant difference exists between parameters in the early evaluation of normal and near-normal hip joints, to evaluate the influence of age and breed on the parameters, and to clarify the usefulness of a total score for differentiating between Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) grade A and B hips.
Methods
A total of 231 dogs were classified according to whether they had FCI A or B hips at adulthood, with measurements obtained at 14–28 weeks of age. The total score was calculated by the summation of the following quantitative parameters: angle of subluxation (AS), angle of reduction (AR), laxity index (LI), and dorsal acetabular rim slope (DARS). Logistic regression analysis was performed to establish the probability of the study population to develop an FCI B hip based on the total score. This was repeated for the highest score in combination with the worst-rated hip and once more for breeds.
Results
No correlation between age and the parameters was found in the cohort, or for FCI A and B. The values of all the parameters were significantly lower in the FCI A group than in the FCI B group (AR: 4.42° ± 6.0° vs 7.62° ± 7.2°; AS: 0.45° ± 1.9° vs 1.55° ± 3.8°; LI: 0.32 ± 0.1 vs 0.36 ± 0.1; DARS: 3.30° ± 1.8° vs 3.77° ± 1.9°; TS: 11.47 ± 8.3 vs 16.65 ± 10.9). Labrador Retrievers and Golden Retrievers showed significant differences between parameters for both FCI grades. The range, where FCI A and B hips can be predicted on the basis of the total score, was different when assessed for the entire cohort, Labrador Retrievers, and Golden Retrievers.
Clinical significance
Our results show that even in normal and near-normal hips, the parameters significantly differed in the early evaluation. Moreover, cutoff values should be set for different breeds in the prediction of the FCI grade during early evaluation for a better breeding selection regarding canine hip dysplasia, one of the most common orthopedic diseases among large and giant breed dogs.
Objective:
To assess the medium- to long-term radiographically confirmed outcomes in juvenile dogs with hip dysplasia (HD) that did and did not undergo double pelvic osteotomy (DPO).
Study design:
Retrospective case-controlled.
Animals:
Twenty-six dogs with HD that were candidates for DPO; 22 dogs underwent DPO (16 bilateral, six unilateral); four dogs did not.
Methods:
Initial and follow-up radiographs of DPO candidates (2011-2017) that did and did not undergo surgery were reviewed, and the British Veterinary Association and Kennel Club Hip Dysplasia Scheme score (BVA-HD), osteoarthritis score (OAS) and laxity index score (LI) were determined. Baseline and follow-up BVA-HD, OAS, and change in radiographically confirmed scores were compared by using analysis of variance for correlated samples.
Results:
There was no significant difference in BVA-HD or OAS between surgically treated and nonsurgically treated cohorts at baseline. Follow-up radiographs (median, 49 months) revealed that most (34/38) hips had a BVA-HD ≤10 after DPO, while four of eight hips from the nonsurgical cohort had BVA-HD >10. Follow-up BVA-HD and OAS were lower in hips after surgery (BVA-HD median 2.15, interquartile range [Q1-Q3] 1.3-4.1; OAS median 1.9, Q1-Q3 1.1-4.1) compared with the nonsurgically treated cohort (BVA-HD median 11.4, Q1-Q3 8.1-17.5, P < .01; OAS median 7.0, Q1-Q3 5.1-13.4, P < .01). Seven hips with an LI >1 had no radiographically confirmed progression of osteoarthritis after DPO.
Conclusion:
Double pelvic osteotomy prevented radiographically confirmed progression of osteoarthritis in the medium- to long-term. Laxity index score > 1 was not a contraindication for DPO in this study.
Clinical significance:
Double pelvic osteotomy prevents progression of radiographically confirmed features of osteoarthritis in juvenile dogs with HD.
The study of sexual dimorphism in dog anatomy, especially with regard to skeletal elements, has received little attention. The present work focuses on elements of the canine stylo‐ and zeugopodium, less documented than the skull or pelvis in the literature. In order to identify only sex‐dependent effects, we analysed a single breed: the German Shepherd Dog. Data come from 25 dogs, with a balanced sex ratio (12 males and 13 females). Four skeletal elements of the forelimb and hindlimb (humerus, radius, femur, tibia) were each measured using seven linear morphometric variables. Univariate and multivariate analyses were then performed on these 28 variables. For all measurements, males are on average larger than females, with a mean sexual dimorphism ratio of 1.07. Sexual dimorphism is significant for 92.8% of the variables. Except of femoral measurements, diaphyseal values show the highest grade of sexual dimorphism. The mean level of disparity is higher in the forelimb (1.08) than in the hindlimb (1.05). A significant dimorphism is shown for the first component of principal component analyses conducted on each skeletal element, and for the second component with humerus measurements. Discriminant functions for sex identification give success rates included between 82% for the radius and 93% for the femur, the latter providing the highest reported score for sex identification in dogs from any skeletal element. These complementary statistic methods highlight a more dimorphic forelimb in size and a more dimorphic hindlimb in shape.
This chapter discusses conditions affecting the hip region (i.e. any of the structures affecting the hip joint and surrounding area). A brief discussion of the clinically relevant local anatomy is followed by a detailed description of the history, physical examination, and diagnostic findings typically found in patients presenting with pathology of this region.
In human medicine, computed tomography (CT) is the gold standard for visceral fat measurement. Research shows that the visceral fat area (VFA) of the umbilical slice is significantly correlated with the visceral fat volume (VFV). In veterinary medicine, however, few studies have evaluated visceral fat using CT. This study aimed to evaluate the visceral fat in dogs using CT images, and determine if the slice significantly correlated with VFV to simplify visceral fat measurements. This retrospective study includes data on 90 dogs that underwent whole-body CT scans for diagnostic purposes. VFV was calculated as the product of VFA and thickness in each CT slice; the correlation between VFV and VFA was analyzed at the level of each lumbar vertebra. Visceral fat percentage (VF%) was calculated as the ratio of the product of VFV and fat density to the body weight. Visceral fat area percentage (VFA%) was calculated as the ratio of VFA to the body area, and its correlation with the VF% and the body condition score (BCS) was analyzed. VFA was highly correlated with VFV at the level of each lumbar vertebra, with the highest correlation (r=0.964) at the L3 level. VFA% was significantly correlated with VF% (r=0.930) and weakly correlated with BCS (r=0.523). This study demonstrates that it is sufficient to use only the L3 slice for visceral fat evaluation and that the evaluation can be based on VFA% of the L3 level.
The number of dogs in the UK is on the rise, as are canine sports involving the use of a harness to allow the dog to pull against an interface in the same way as a husky might pull a sled. Service dogs and those involved in essential work commonly wear a harness throughout their working lives, yet little is understood regarding the biomechanical impact of their use. This systematic review was conducted to review reported evidence of the biomechanical effects of harness and head collar (Halti) use in dogs.
Searches were applied covering 1910 to 2018 on the following databases: PubMed, Web of Science and Writtle Discovery.
Three publications were identified as suitable which were then critically evaluated using predefined criteria and ARRIVE based guidelines for bias assessment. Only one was considered to provide the most reliable data regarding the influence of harnesses on gait, whilst the remainder were considered to suffer a variety of issues including poor sample size, repeatability and study execution. The most appropriate study found that wearing a chest strap harness reduced shoulder extension in both walk and trot by up to 8 0 of movement, whilst a Y-shaped harness commonly marketed as non-restrictive reduced shoulder extension by up to 10 0 of movement, suggesting that the use of harness type restraints can affect canine gait, whereas no studies were found relating to the biomechanical effects of head-collar usage
Pelvic limb lameness is a clinical presentation that may result from primary musculoskeletal or neurological disease. Lists of differential diagnoses for this clinical sign are extensive. The goal of this chapter is to summarize the most common presentations that are seen in companion animal practice. In addition, this chapter will review how to approach a case of pelvic limb lameness, beginning with signalment and history taking. Both provide clues that facilitate narrowing of the differentials list to those that are most probable. The role of observation can also not be understated. Gait analysis can unearth subtle signs of lameness, for example, a hip hike of the affected limb when bearing weight. Grading‐observed lameness can also provide for documentation of trends. An orthopedic examination is a critical component of any patient work‐up for lameness. However, recognize that pelvic limb lameness, as a clinical sign, does not necessary occur in a vacuum. The entire patient should be examined in any case of lameness so as to not miss systemic signs of illness. Additionally, a neurological evaluation is indicated in any lame patient that presents without pain on palpation.
Prior research demonstrates significant inaccuracy when repeatedly measuring the same amount of dry dog food using a dry-food measuring cup, bringing into question the accuracy of measuring devices. This study aimed to determine dog owners’ accuracy when measuring different volumes of dry dog food using different types of measuring devices. One hundred dog owners, randomly assigned one of three measuring devices (a one-cup dry-food measuring cup, a two-cup graduated-liquid measuring cup or a two-cup commercial food scoop), were asked to measure ¼, ½ and 1 cup of dry dog food. Accuracy was assessed with an electronic gram scale by comparing measured volumes with the correct weight in grams. Individual accuracy ranged from −47.83% to 152.17% across devices and volumes. Measuring accuracy was found to be associated with the volume of food measured (p<0.001) and the type of measuring device used (p<0.001). Findings highlight approaches for decreasing excess intake of calories by dogs, including promotion of tactics to improve measurement accuracy (eg, gram scales, volume-calibrated dry-food measuring devices), especially for measuring small volumes.
Objective:
To compare distraction index (DI) with hip arthroscopy findings in juvenile dogs with hip dysplasia undergoing unilateral or bilateral double pelvic osteotomy (DPO).
Study design:
Retrospective case series.
Animals:
Twenty dogs (36 hip joints).
Methods:
Medical records from dogs undergoing unilateral or bilateral DPO (2011-2016) were reviewed. Distraction index was measured by using distraction view radiographs. Arthroscopic images were analyzed. Cartilage was graded by using the modified Outerbridge scale (0 = arthroscopically normal, 1 = chondromalacia, 2 = surface fibrillation, 3 = deep fissuring, 4 = full-thickness cartilage loss, and 5 = eburnation of exposed subchondral bone). Dorsal acetabular rim, acetabular labrum, the ligament of head of the femur, and synovitis were graded by using a four-point scale (normal, mild, moderate, severe). Spearman and Pearson correlations were used to compare DI between grade groups and age.
Results:
Distraction index ranged from 0.4 to 1.0 (mean 0.69 ± 0.16). Most of the hips had an arthroscopically normal femoral head and acetabulum in most regions, except for the region at the insertion of the ligament of the head of the femur. There was a low positive correlation between synovitis and DI (Spearman ρ = 0.35, P = .0346). No other differences in DI were identified between grade or age groups.
Conclusion:
There was a low positive correlation between synovitis and DI. No other differences in DI were identified.
Clinical significance:
Arthroscopic evaluation of the coxofemoral joint prior to DPO can allow detection of joint pathology that might not be appreciated by using traditional radiographic screening criteria.
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the 3-D geometry of canine pelves and to characterize the long-term effects of juvenile pubic symphysiodesis (JPS) on pelvic geometry by comparing the pelvic configuration between littermates that did and did not undergo the procedure.
ANIMALS 24 Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, or Labrador Retriever–Golden Retriever crossbred service dogs from 13 litters.
PROCEDURES At 16 weeks old, puppies with a hip joint distraction index ≥ 0.5 were randomly assigned to undergo thermal JPS (n = 9), mechanical JPS (7), or a sham (control) surgical procedure (8). Ten years later, each dog underwent a CT scan of the pelvic region. Modeling software was used to create 3-D reconstructions from the CT scans, and various pelvic measurements were made and compared among the 3 treatments.
RESULTS Compared with the control treatment, thermal and mechanical JPS increased the hemipelvis acetabular angle by 4°, the acetabular angle of lateral opening by 5°, and the orientation of the medial acetabular wall in a transverse plane by 6°, which indicated that JPS increased dorsal femoral head coverage by the acetabulum. Both JPS procedures decreased the pelvic canal area by approximately 20% and acetabular inclination by 6° but did not alter acetabular retroversion.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that thermal and mechanical JPS were equally effective in altering the 3-D pelvic geometry of dogs. These findings may help guide future studies of alternatives for optimizing canine pelvic anatomy to minimize the risk of hip dysplasia and associated osteoarthritis.
A representation and interpretation of the area under a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve obtained by the "rating" method, or by mathematical predictions based on patient characteristics, is presented. It is shown that in such a setting the area represents the probability that a randomly chosen diseased subject is (correctly) rated or ranked with greater suspicion than a randomly chosen non-diseased subject. Moreover, this probability of a correct ranking is the same quantity that is estimated by the already well-studied nonparametric Wilcoxon statistic. These two relationships are exploited to (a) provide rapid closed-form expressions for the approximate magnitude of the sampling variability, i.e., standard error that one uses to accompany the area under a smoothed ROC curve, (b) guide in determining the size of the sample required to provide a sufficiently reliable estimate of this area, and (c) determine how large sample sizes should be to ensure that one can statistically detect differences in the accuracy of diagnostic techniques.
To determine prevalence of radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis in 4 diarthrodial joints of dogs with restricted feed intake, compared with dogs without restricted feed intake.
Paired feeding study.
48 Labrador Retrievers.
Dogs in litters from 7 dams and 2 sires were paired by sex and weight within litters and randomly assigned to a control-fed group or a limit-fed group that received 25% less food than the control-fed group. Radiographic evaluation of prevalence and severity of osteoarthritis in the hip, shoulder, elbow, and stifle joints was performed when dogs were 8 years of age.
Radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis that affected multiple joints was significantly more common in the control-fed group than in the limit-fed group. Prevalence of lesions in the hip joint was 15/22 in the control-fed group and 3/21 in the limit-fed group. Prevalence of lesions in the shoulder joint was 19/22 in the control-fed group and 12/21 in the limit-fed group; lesions in this joint were generally mild. Severity, but not prevalence, of osteoarthritis in the elbow joint was greater in the control-fed group than in the limit-fed group.
Prevalence and severity of osteoarthritis in several joints was less in dogs with long-term reduced food intake, compared with control dogs. Food intake is an environmental factor that may have a profound effect on development of osteoarthritis in dogs.
Forty-eight 8-week-old Labrador Retrievers were allotted to 2 groups of 24 dogs each; 1 group was fed ad libitum and the other group was given 25% less of the same feed until the dogs were 2 years old. Radiography of the hip joints was done when the dogs were 30, 42, 54, 78, and 104 weeks old. Subluxation was measured by the Norberg angle on radiographs made with the dog in the standard (extended limb) position. Independent of age at which the radiography was done, there was less subluxation of the femoral heads in the limit-fed dogs. Using the Swedish method of hip joint evaluation on the same radiographs, it was found that fewer dogs on limited food intake had signs of hip dysplasia. Radiographs done when dogs were 2 years old, for all the methods used (Norberg angle in standard and frog-limb position, the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals [OFA] score, and the Swedish score), revealed less hip dysplasia (less joint subluxation and less degenerative joint disease) in the limit-fed dogs. Using the OFA method, 7 of the 24 limit-fed dogs and 16 of the 24 ad libitum-fed dogs were diagnosed as having hip dysplasia. Similarly, using the Swedish method, 5 of the 24 limit-fed dogs and 18 of the 24 ad libitum-fed dogs were diagnosed as having hip dysplasia. The food-intake-related differences were significant both for the OFA score and for the Swedish score.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
From mechanical principles and postmortem observations of coxofemoral joints of dogs, a hydrostatic mechanism influencing hip joint stability was discovered. This discovery led to the development of a stress-radiographic positioning method to quantitate hip joint laxity in dogs. The method incorporated 2 views with the dog in supine position and hips at neutral flexion/extension angle: a compression view, with the femoral heads fully seated in the acetabula; and a distraction view, with the femoral heads at maximal lateral displacement. An index measurement method was formulated to quantitate the relative degree of joint laxity appearing in either the compression or distraction view. Clinical evaluation of 6 dogs was done to compare the compression/distraction method with the standard hip-extended radiographic method. Also, the stress-radiographic method was performed on 16-week-old Borzoi and German Shepherd Dogs to compare the characteristics of inherent hip joint laxity in these breeds. In all dogs tested, hip joint laxity was masked by the standard hip-extended view as indicated by a 2.5-fold improvement in sensitivity to hip joint laxity of the new method (P less than 0.00001). Moreover, the mean hip joint laxity of 16-week-old German Shepherd Dogs exceeded the mean hip joint laxity of Borzois by 79% (P less than 0.00001). Reports in the literature document the incontrovertible association of hip joint laxity to the development of hip dysplasia in dogs. We believe the ability to accurately quantitate hip joint laxity will provide key diagnostic and prognostic criteria for the selection of pet dogs, and more importantly, breeding stock.
Hip dysplasia is considered to be one of the most serious problems in dog breeding. In the past 20 years the studies of, and the attempts to control, this condition have been directed mainly to the overall picture of the abnormality of the hips. The various efforts have resulted in a decrease in the incidence of HD in several breeds of dogs. For other breeds the results have not been very convincing, however. In some instances they are even said to be conflicting with other aims of breeding. Based on these data some separate studies have recently been performed in respect of the details of the disorders in the hip joints and of the heritability of these elements. The present study concerns itself with the roots of the disorders as they are observed in the various breeds. A great variety of data indicates that selection within the canine species for specific morphological traits must be considered as one of the most important roots of the occurrence of HD. The collected data strongly indicate that improvements in the HD status in the various breeds can be reached by selection against specific disorders of the hip joints in these breeds.
Examination of over 3700 dogs has proven that 42% of all purebred dogs in Switzerland are affected by CHD despite control programs for the last 30 years. Breeding with dysplastic dogs and lack of progeny control are responsible for this slow progress.
Passive laxity of the coxofemoral joints, as measured quantitatively by radiographing the joints under stress, has been shown to be an accurate measure of the risk for developing degenerative joint disease (DJD) of the coxofemoral joints. Seventy-four Rottweilers between 12 and 40 months old were evaluated subjectively for radiographic evidence of DJD, using the ventrodorsal view of the pelvis with the coxofemoral joints fully extended and the knees internally rotated (standard hip-extended view). Effect of age, sex, weight, and distraction index on the risk of developing DJD was evaluated by use of a logistic regression model. Results were compared with those from a group of German Shepherd Dogs. Results indicated that in Rottweilers the distraction index was the only statistically significant predictor of the risk of developing DJD of the coxofemoral joint. When German Shepherd Dogs were included in the model, they had a significantly greater risk of developing DJD than did Rottweilers. This finding provides further support for the theory that there are differences in disease susceptibility among breeds and emphasizes the need to develop disease susceptibility curves for all breeds affected by hip dysplasia to facilitate accurate, scientifically based recommendations for breeding or treatment.
Passive coxofemoral joint laxity of dogs, as quantitated by a distraction-stress radiographic method, may have important prognostic value in determining susceptibility to hip dysplasia. Data from 151 dogs, representing 13 breeds, were included in a logistic regression model to evaluate the contribution of factors such as age, breed, weight, sex, distraction index, and Norberg angle to the risk of developing degenerative joint disease (DJD) of the coxofemoral joint. Of the factors studied, the amount of passive hip laxity, as quantitated by the distraction index, was the most significant (P < 0.0001) determinant of the risk to develop DJD of the coxofemoral joint. In the longitudinal and cross-sectional components of the study, distraction index was a significant (P < 0.001) risk factor for DJD, irrespective of age at evaluation (4, 12, or 24 months). The strength of the hip laxity:DJD correlation increased with the age of dog. In contrast, the Norberg angle, a measure of hip laxity on the standard hip-extended radiograph, was not found to be a significant risk factor for DJD, either in the longitudinal or cross-sectional analyses. Breed-specific probability curves of DJD susceptibility indicated that German Shepherd Dogs had a significantly (P < 0.05) greater risk of developing DJD than did the pool of non-German Shepherd Dogs. The information derived from this statistical model will help to scientifically characterize the role of passive hip laxity as a component in the pathogenesis of DJD of the coxofemoral joint.
A 3-year prospective study of large-breed dogs (4 months to 3 years of age) was conducted to evaluate the influence of radiographic positioning and age on coxofemoral joint (hip) laxity, subjective hip score, and development of degenerative joint disease (DJD). The dogs (n = 142) were breeder- or client-owned and represented 14 breeds. With dogs under heavy sedation, hips were radiographed in the standard hip-extended position and in the new compression/distraction position at 4, 6, 12, 24, and 36 months of age. The standard hip-extended radiographic view was evaluated by 3 methods: subjective evaluation by a board-certified veterinary radiologist (WHR), according to the standard 7-point Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) scoring scheme (OFA/WHR); joint laxity quantitation, using the Norberg angle (NA) method; and subjective scoring by a veterinary orthopedic surgeon for radiographic evidence of DJD. The hips in the distraction radiographic view were evaluated for passive hip laxity, as measured by use of a unitless distraction index (DI). Results of the study indicated that at a specific age (4, 6, 12, 24, or 36 months), all methods of hip evaluation correlated with each other at a moderate level (P < 0.05). The strength of contemporaneous correlation tended to increase with age of evaluation. Longitudinally, the between-method correlations were usually significant (P < 0.05), but not at a sufficiently high level to permit reliable between-method prediction. Prospective intraclass (within-method) statistical analysis of the various hip-scoring methods indicated that DI was superior to NA and OFA/WHR in comparability of score over time. The intraclass correlation coefficient ranged from 0.55 to 0.91 for DI in contrast to 0.40 to 0.78 for NA, and 0.06 to 0.39 for OFA/WHR over the age intervals of the study. For reference, the highest Kappa of 0.39 for the subjective OFA/WHR scoring reflected a maximal level of agreement between time intervals, only slightly better than chance. The associated large error questions the predictive use of the 7-point, subjective hip-scoring scheme, particularly prior to the age of 2 years.
To evaluate the effect of premature closure of the pubic symphysis on pelvic development.
18, 21-day-old male guinea pigs.
The pubic symphysis was surgically approached in 10 guinea pigs of the symphysiodesis group and in 4 of the sham-operated group; 4 guinea pigs served as unoperated controls. The pubic symphysis was destroyed by use of electrocautery in the 10 guinea pigs of the symphysiodesis group. All guinea pigs were allowed to grow to skeletal maturity and were euthanatized at 33 weeks of age. Body weight was recorded throughout the study and was compared between groups. Histologic examination of the symphyses confirmed premature closure of the pubic symphyseal growth plates in guinea pigs of the symphysiodesis group. Pelvic measurements taken from pretreatment radiographic views and from video images of harvested pelves were compared between groups.
There were no significant differences between groups with regard to pretreatment radiographic variables, rate of weight gain, or body weight at any time. Pubic symphysiodesis resulted in significant narrowing of the caudal aspect of the pelvis, narrowing and shortening of the pubic bones, and outward rotation of the acetabula.
The pubic symphyseal growth plates contribute significantly to development of the pelvis. Premature closure of these growth plates (pubic symphysiodesis) results in outward rotation of the acetabula, which might be beneficial in some cases of can be hip dysplasia; however, this rotation is accompanied by concomitant narrowing of the caudal aspect of the pelvis.
To examine the effects of limited food intake on frequency and severity of osteoarthritis in coxofemoral joints of labrador Retrievers.
Dogs were paired according to gender and body weight, within each litter at 8 weeks of age. One dog of each pair was fed ad libitum. The limit-fed pairmate was fed 75% of the amount eaten the previous day by the ad libitum-fed counterpart.
48 Labrador Retrievers.
All dogs received the same diet. Radiographic evaluation of coxofemoral joints for frequency and severity of osteoarthritis were made when dogs were 4 and 6 months and 1, 2, 3, and 5 years old.
Radiographic evaluation for osteoarthritis indicated greater frequency and more severity of osteoarthritis in the ad libitum-fed group of dogs.
Analysis of data suggested that limit feeding of dogs over a 5-year period minimizes development of osteoarthritis in the coxofemoral joints.
To determine the prevalence and changes over time in the prevalence of hip dysplasia; to ascertain whether prevalence or severity of hip dysplasia was associated with sex of the dogs, age at which coxofemoral joint status was evaluated, or ancestral background; to determine the effects of selective breeding; and to conduct an economic evaluation of the hip dysplasia program operated by the Swedish Kennel Club.
Analysis of radiographic evaluations of coxofemoral joint conformity.
83,229 dogs from 7 breeds registered by the Swedish Kennel Club.
All radiographs were scrutinized by a single radiologist (LA), and coxofemoral joint conformation was classified as normal or dysplastic, with the degree of dysplasia classified as 1,2,3, or 4.
Decreasing prevalence of hip dysplasia corresponding to selection of breeding stock and high heritabilities was found. Sex differences were documented in 3 of the breeds. This was interpreted as breed differences in the distribution of genes related to hip dysplasia. Economic analyses showed that costs of screening and registration of coxofemoral joints was less than the value of dogs estimated to have been saved from moderate, severe, or very severe hip dysplasia in 6 of the breeds.
Documented effects of age suggest that all dogs should be screened at the same age, rather than screening a few dogs at an older, more revealing age. In screening and control programs based on an open registry with access to family records, decreasing prevalence of hip dysplasia can be expected, and related to selection of breeding stock.
The DI method was developed, at least in part, because of perceived variations among radiologists in regard to subjective hip scores assigned to radiographs. It also was recognized that the prevalence of CHD among many dog breeds was disturbingly high, despite efforts to lower the prevalence using subjective score as a selection criterion. The DI method was developed on the basis of results of mechanical testing of cadaver hip joints, which accomplished 3 principal objectives. First, it showed that when the hip joint is in the standard, hip-extended, internally rotated position, passive laxity is minimized. Second, it showed that passive laxity was maximized when the hip joint is in the neutral position. Third, it demonstrated the sigmoidal nature of the load/displacement curve for the hip joint in the neutral position, which suggested that high repeatability from examiner to examiner in regard to DI could be expected without the need to standardize applied force. The mean and range of DI were shown to vary from 1 breed to the next, but within an individual dog, DI appears to remain constant (within limits of scientific acceptability and clinical applicability) from 16 weeks of age. Passive hip laxity measured on the distraction view is, on average, 2.5 to 11 times greater than that measured on the standard, hip-extended radiographic view. Performance Borzois and Greyhounds, which have an extremely low prevalence of CHD, uniformly have tight hip joints (DI < 0.3), and mean DI for dog breeds that have a high prevalence of CHD is significantly greater than mean DI for Borzois and Greyhounds. However, individual dogs that have DI < 0.3, even though members of breeds prone to CHD, have a low risk of developing DJD. Some, but not all, dogs with DI > 0.3 will develop DJD by 3 years of age, and DI has been shown to be the principal risk factor for development of DJD. Susceptibility to development of DJD appears to be breed-specific. For example, given equivalent DI, German Shepherd Dogs are more at risk for developing DJD than are Rottweilers. Heritability of DI is higher than that of the subjective hip score; thus, selection pressure based on DI should result in faster genetic change than selection pressure based on subjective hip scores. Finally, the DI method has been performed on approximately 14,000 dogs, some of which were evaluated multiple times. It is apparent that this method is no more harmful than the standard, hip-extended radiographic method or palpation performed as part of a routine orthopedic examination.
To evaluate in vivo repeatability of the distraction index method of evaluating hip joint laxity in dogs.
31 two-year-old Labrador Retrievers.
Each dog was anesthetized and radiographically evaluated for hip joint laxity 4 times: twice by an experienced examiner and twice by an examiner who had no previous knowledge of or training in the technique prior to the first day of testing. Distraction indices (DI) were determined from the radiographs and intraclass correlation coefficients were calculated to evaluate the repeatability of DI measurements between and within examiners.
Intraclass correlation coefficients were high (range, 0.85 to 0.94). Lower limits of the 95% confidence intervals for the intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from 0.75 to 0.89.
Between- and within-examiner repeatabilities of DI measurements were high, suggesting that the technique is clinically reliable.
Distraction index is a reliable measure of hip joint laxity and a good predictor of the risk of development of degenerative joint disease associated with hip dysplasia in dogs. Establishment of high repeatability of DI measurements suggests that the stress-radiographic method may be used by multiple examiners with the expectation of comparable and consistent results.
To determine in dogs what effect using hip conformation scores assigned by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) as a criterion for breeding selections would have on hip conformation scores of the progeny.
Longitudinal study.
English Setters, Portuguese Water Dogs, Chinese Shar-peis, and Bernese Mountain Dogs for which OFA hip conformation scores were known.
Pedigree data were obtained from the national breed clubs and the American Kennel Club and merged with data from the OFA hip conformation score database. An ANOVA was used to evaluate the effects of sex, age at the time of radiographic evaluation, and year of birth on the variation in hip conformation scores among the progeny. Heritability was estimated by use of within-year midparent offspring regression analyses.
Significant differences in progeny hip conformation scores between sexes were not detected, but age at the time of radiographic evaluation and year of birth had a significant effect on hip joint conformation of the progeny. Estimated heritability (mean +/- SE) was 0.26 +/- 0.03, and dam and sire hip conformation scores had a significant effect on progeny hip conformation scores. Annual decreases in percentage of dysplastic progeny and increases in percentages of progeny and breeding dogs with phenotypically normal hip joint conformation were detected.
Results indicated that hip conformation scores have moderate heritability in dogs and selection of breeding stock with better hip conformation scores will increase the percentage of progeny with phenotypically normal hip joint conformation.
Bekampfung der Huftgelenkdysplasie in der Schweiz. Ein Ruckblick auf die vergan-genen 24 Jahre
- Lang M J Fluckiger
- H Binder
Fluckiger M, Lang J, Binder H, et al. Bekampfung der Huftgelenkdysplasie in der Schweiz. Ein Ruckblick auf die vergan-genen 24 Jahre. Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd 1995;137:243–250.