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The importance of timing: The varying impact of childhood and adolescent maltreatment on multiple problem outcomes
Abstract
A substantial body of literature suggests that childhood maltreatment is related to negative outcomes during adolescence, including delinquency, drug use, teenage pregnancy, and school failure. There has been relatively little research examining the impact that variation in the developmental stage during which the maltreatment occurs has on these relationships, however. In this paper, we reassess the impact of maltreatment on a number of adverse outcomes when developmentally specific measures of maltreatment-maltreatment that occurs only in childhood, only in adolescence, or in both childhood and adolescence-are considered. Data are drawn from the Rochester Youth Development Study, a broad-based longitudinal study of adolescent development. The analysis examines how maltreatment affects delinquency, drug use, alcohol-related problems, depressive symptoms, teen pregnancy. school dropout, and internalizing and externalizing problems during adolescence. We also examine whether the type of maltreatment experienced at various developmental stages influences the outcomes. Overall, our results suggest that adolescent and persistent maltreatment have stronger and more consistent negative consequences during adolescence than does maltreatment experienced only in childhood.
... The expansion of ACE inventory, however, continues to be characterized by an inconsistent use or complete lack of theoretical frameworks guiding the choice of ACE items, inconsistent operationalizations of ACEs, and limited assessments of their validity and reliability. Furthermore, few studies have begun to consider how exposure to adversity and its consequences may vary across childhood developmental stages/ages (Turner et al., 2020;Grasso et al., 2016;Thornberry, Ireland & Smith, 2001). Those that do primarily focus on specific ACE items (e.g., child maltreatment [Thornberry et al., 2001]) or the seminal ACE scale/analogous measures (Grasso et al., 2016) and were not designed to measure an expanded index of adversities, while other studies are limited in their measurement of and categorization of age (Krinner et al., 2021;Turner et al., 2020). ...
... Furthermore, few studies have begun to consider how exposure to adversity and its consequences may vary across childhood developmental stages/ages (Turner et al., 2020;Grasso et al., 2016;Thornberry, Ireland & Smith, 2001). Those that do primarily focus on specific ACE items (e.g., child maltreatment [Thornberry et al., 2001]) or the seminal ACE scale/analogous measures (Grasso et al., 2016) and were not designed to measure an expanded index of adversities, while other studies are limited in their measurement of and categorization of age (Krinner et al., 2021;Turner et al., 2020). Finally, most of the extant literature relies on adult samples and retrospective recall of ACEs many years in the past and are thus subject to higher rates of memory impairment, false negatives, and substantial measurement error (Hardt & Rutter, 2004). ...
... Although the association between adverse childhood experiences and its myriad of consequences have become well-established and are evident in the results of the current study, there remains a critical gap in our understanding of the mechanisms through which this association not only exists but may vary across developmental stages. Growing evidence suggests that the presence of ACEs creates a cascading stress-related life course (Thornberry, Ireland, & Smith, 2001;Cprek et al., 2020;Jones, Shurtliff, & Gerlinger, 2022;Leban, 2021;Toth & Cicchetti, 2013;Shonkoff et al., 2012). Adversities experienced during the sensitive developmental periods of childhood and adolescence are associated with a host of negative life outcomes that further the waterfall of consequences well into adulthood. ...
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) refer to events that are often chronic and occur within a child’s family or social environment. These stressors may cause distress and disrupt the child’s physical, psychological, and social development. Despite its empirical support, critics identify several limitations of the ACE model, such as it being largely atheoretical; its failure to consider a consistent list of diverse adversities outside of the home, as well as the differential prevalence and effects of individual ACEs across developmental stages; and a lack of psychometric analyses of expanded ACE measures.
Utilizing pooled data from the National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence (NatSCEV I - III) and drawing on Agnew’s General Strain Theory (GST), the study proceeds in five stages: review the literature for revised ACE measures; assess the prevalence of seminal and revised ACEs across developmental stages: early childhood (ages 2 to 4) (n = 1,919), middle childhood (ages 5 to 9) (n = 3,175), early adolescence (ages 10 to 13) (n = 2,515), and late adolescence (ages 14 to 17) (n = 3,208); identify latent structures of the seminal and revised ACE measures across developmental stages; evaluate the associations between seminal and revised ACE exposure with proximal mental health and physical health issues, delinquency, and alcohol, tobacco and other drug (ATOD) use across developmental stages; and compare these associations with cumulative ACE scores.
The results suggest that, at least using a population-based sample of youth, ACEs do not reflect meaningful latent constructs. However, the current study finds support for an age-graded perspective based on the robust deviation in the prevalence of seminal and revised ACEs and their association with psychological and behavioral issues across developmental stages. In contrast, seminal and revised ACEs and their cumulative measures are not associated with immediate physical health issues. Lastly, the expansion of ACE items to the revised model expands the predictability of statistical models, but in some cases, the addition of these specific ACEs does not strengthen the effect of the cumulative ACE model beyond that of the seminal model. The implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed.
... Neglect has been linked to early onset of sexual behaviours and non-use of contraception (James et al., 2009), to experiences of child sexual exploitation (CSE) and to young people behaving in sexually harmful ways during adolescence (Hanson, 2016;Hackett, 2016). Young people who experience neglect have also been found to be more persistently involved in offending during adolescence (Stewart et al., 2008;Ryan et al., 2013) and into adulthood, including involvement in violent crime (Thornberry et al., 2001;Thornberry et al., 2010). A meta-analysis indicated that neglected adolescents were likely to engage in 'antisocial behaviours' of all kinds (lying, theft, aggression-criminal and non-criminal delinquent acts) (Braga et al., 2017). ...
... Perhaps the most notable example of accounting for the timing of neglect has been the Rochester Youth Development Study (RYDS). Designed to investigate the aetiology of antisocial behaviour this was a prospective, longitudinal study of 1000 young people's lives from the age of 14-31, with annual interviews and access to official data from health, education, CPS and the police / criminal justice agencies (Thornberry et al., 2001). ...
... On the basis of this extensive dataset, researchers have proposed a distinction between 'childhood limited' (at least one substantiated incident before the age of 12), 'adolescent limited' (one or more substantiated incidents between 12 and 17) and 'persistent' maltreatment (ongoing incidents throughout childhood). They have been able to show the particular importance of adolescent limited maltreatment for negative short and long term outcomes (when compared to childhood limited maltreatment), 2 and the equivalence of harm from neglect when compared to abuse (Thornberry et al., 2001;Thornberry et al., 2010). They have also explored the differences between childhood limited and adolescent limited maltreatment-for example noting increased severity of neglect in the latter (Thornberry and Henry, 2013). ...
This chapter focuses on children’s vulnerability manifested in economic and social context. Key aims are to examine the influence of economic and peer-group vulnerability on children’s subjective well-being and feelings of safety—a key domain of well-being. Data for this paper were obtained from over 2000 primary and secondary school children aged between 10 and 14 years in Bangladesh. For data collection, a questionnaire was developed and administered as part of the third Wave of the Children’s Worlds International Survey on Children’s Well-Being (ISCWeB). Children’s economic and peer-group vulnerability are found to have statistically significant influence on their assessment about their safety and subjective well-being. Vulnerability in material resource and peer-group victimisation appear to have respectively the first and second highest effect on self-perceived safety and children’s subjective well-being. Lower level of safety and well-being are associated significantly with those children who reported higher vulnerability in both material deprivation and peer-group relations. These findings are discussed in the context of previous empirical studies on child well-being, safety, and vulnerability. Suggestions for future research are also put forward.
... To add context to these similar results, the adolescents reported the experiences themselves, while the current study used parent-reported adversity. Concurringly, Thornberry et al. (2001) used latent class analysis to find that maltreatment between 12 and 17 as assessed by child protective services, but not earlier in childhood, is associated with higher drug use and alcohol-related problems. Yet another finding from a cohort study corroborates that later (after age of 6) as opposed to early maltreatment predicted adults receiving alcohol abuse diagnoses and lifetime antisocial personality disorders as assigned via diagnostic interviews (Kaplow & Widom, 2007). ...
... Second, the current study specifically describes an important factor behind substance use. Previous studies have documented early adversity as a consistent predictor of impaired mental health (Dunn et al., 2020;Thornberry et al., 2001), while here we also demonstrated the importance of late childhood adversity as an important risk factor of substance use. Preventive strategies for curtailing substance use already strongly advocate for the screening of negative life events in an individual's history (Stanis & Andersen, 2014). ...
A robust association has been reported between childhood adverse life events (ALEs) and risky substance use in adolescence. It remains unclear, however, what the impact of type and timing of these ALEs is. We investigated the association between ALEs and substance use in adolescents. ALEs were operationalized as broad (e.g., moving, parental divorce, family sickness) or physically threatening (physical and/or sexual abuse). First, we examined lifetime ALEs, followed by an investigation into their timing. The sample consisted of 909 adolescents (aged 12-18 years) from a cohort oversampled on high levels of emotional and behavioral problems. The primary caregiver indicated which ALEs each adolescent experienced across their lifetime. Adolescents self-reported on number and frequency of substances used. Poisson and ordinal regression models were used to model the associations. The associations between lifetime ALEs and a substance used were observed only for physical ALEs (incidence rate ratio 1.18 [1.03, 1.35], p = 0.02). When investigating timing, physical ALEs after the age of 12 predicted number of substances used (IRR 1.36 [1.13, 1.63], p < .001). Recent ALEs (occurring after age 12) seem to have considerable impact on substance use. Alcohol and drugs as a coping mechanism were considered a plausible explanation for the results.
... Despite the selective nature of the sample, the results were remarkably similar in that number of substance used was particularly associated with recent abuse. Concurringly, Thornberry et al. (2001) used latent class analysis to find that maltreatment between 12 and 17 as assessed by child protective services, but not earlier in childhood, is associated with higher drug use and alcohol-related problems. Yet another finding from a cohort study corroborates that later (after age of 6) as opposed to early maltreatment predicted adults receiving alcohol abuse diagnoses and lifetime antisocial personality disorders as assigned via diagnostic interviews (Kaplow & Widom, 2007). ...
... Second, the current study specifically describes an important factor behind substance use. Previous studies have documented early adversity as a consistent predictor of impaired mental health (Dunn et al., 2020;Thornberry et al., 2001), while here we also demonstrated the importance of late childhood adversity as an important risk factor of substance use. Preventive strategies for curtailing substance use already strongly advocate for the screening of negative life events in an individual's history (Stanis & Andersen, 2014). ...
Background – A robust association has been reported between childhood adverse life events (ALEs) and risky substance use in adolescence. It remains unclear, however, what impact of severity and timing of these ALEs is.Aims – We investigated the association between ALEs and substance use in adolescents. ALEs were operationalized as broad (e.g., moving, getting bullied, family sickness) or severe (physical and/or sexual abuse). First, we examined lifetime ALEs, followed by an investigation into their timing.Methods – The sample consisted of 909 adolescents (aged 12-18 years) from a cohort oversampled on high levels of emotional and behavioral problems. The primary caregiver indicated which ALEs each adolescent experienced across their lifetime. Adolescents self-reported on number and frequency of substances used. Poisson and ordinal regression models were used to model the associations. Results – The associations between lifetime ALEs and a substance used were observed only for severe life events (incidence rate ratio 1.18 [1.03, 1.35], p = 0.02). When investigating timing, severe events after the age of 12 predicted number of substances used (IRR 1.36 [1.13, 1.63], p < .001). Conclusions – Recent ALEs (occurring after age 12) seem to have considerable impact on substance use. Alcohol and drugs as a coping mechanism was considered a plausible explanation to the results.
... Women with current depressive symptoms and CSA specifically endorsed greater severity of emotional maltreatment from both parents and peers, which persisted from early childhood into adolescence. Significant childhood maltreatment spanning several developmental periodsas demonstrated by this samplehas been found to have stronger and more negative consequences cross-diagnostically (Manly, Kim, Rogosch, & Cicchetti, 2001;Russotti et al., 2021;Thornberry, Ireland, & Smith, 2001). Our findings bolster previous research indicating that women with CSA are more likely to report a multiplicity of maltreatment and specifically heightened emotional maltreatment compared to women without history of sexual abuse (Carey, Walker, Rossouw, Seedat, & Stein, 2008;Lacelle et al., 2012). ...
Background
Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and emotional maltreatment are salient risk factors for the development of major depressive disorder (MDD) in women. However, the type- and timing-specific effects of emotional maltreatment experienced during adolescence on future depressive symptomatology in women with CSA have not been explored. The goal of this study was to fill this gap.
Methods
In total, 203 women (ages 20–32) with current depressive symptoms and CSA (MDD/CSA), remitted depressive symptoms and CSA (rMDD/CSA), and current depressive symptoms without CSA (MDD/no CSA) were recruited from the community and completed self-report measures. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) and a detailed maltreatment history was collected using the Maltreatment and Abuse Chronology of Exposure (MACE). Differences in maltreatment exposure characteristics, including multiplicity and severity of maltreatment, as well as the chronologies of emotional maltreatment subtypes were compared among groups. A random forest machine-learning algorithm was utilized to assess the impact of exposure to emotional maltreatment subtypes at specific ages on current depressive symptoms.
Results
MDD/CSA women reported greater prevalence and severity of emotional maltreatment relative to rMDD/CSA and MDD/no CSA women [ F (2,196) = 9.33, p < 0.001], specifically from ages 12 to 18. The strongest predictor of current depressive symptoms was parental verbal abuse at age 18 for both MDD/CSA women (variable importance [VI] = 1.08, p = 0.006) and MDD/no CSA women (VI = 0.68, p = 0.004).
Conclusions
Targeting emotional maltreatment during late adolescence might prove beneficial for future intervention efforts for MDD following CSA.
... Similar findings have been observed in more recent studies. For example, increased behavioral problems were more frequently observed in children who experienced maltreatment across multiple developmental periods, rather than specific time points (Dunn et al., 2018;Jaffee & Maikovich-Fong, 2011;Thompson et al., 2014;Thornberry et al., 2001). These findings collectively demonstrate that the effects of adversity on mental health may be proportional to the duration of exposure. ...
Associations between adversity and youth psychopathology likely vary based on the types and timing of experiences. Major theories suggest that the impact of childhood adversity may either be cumulative in type (the more types of adversity, the worse outcomes) or in timing (the longer exposure, the worse outcomes) or, alternatively, specific concerning the type (e.g., parenting, home, neighborhood) or the timing of adversity (e.g., specific developmental periods). In a longitudinal sample from the Future of Families and Wellbeing Study ( N = 4,210), we evaluated these competing hypotheses using a data-driven structured life-course modeling approach using risk factors examined at child age 1 (infancy), 3 (toddlerhood), 5 (early childhood), and 9 (middle childhood). Results showed that exposures to more types of adversity for longer durations (i.e., cumulative in both type and timing) best predicted youth psychopathology. Adversities that occurred at age 9 were better predictors of youth psychopathology as compared to those experienced earlier, except for neglect, which was predictive of internalizing symptoms when experienced at age 3. Throughout childhood (across ages 1–9), aside from the accumulation of all adversities, parental stress and low collective efficacy were the strongest predictors of internalizing symptoms, whereas psychological aggression was predictive of externalizing symptoms.
... 26 For example, a wealth of child maltreatment research has examined the relations between maltreatment exposure and child behavior problems at different ages during childhood and adolescence. 13,14,27 However, simultaneous tests of whether child behavior problems are also directionally related to child maltreatment, a key test to rule out reverse causality, 28,29 are lacking and, to our knowledge, no previous study has examined each of these crosslagged relations within the age range of this study. ...
OBJECTIVES
Establish the longitudinal cross-lagged associations between maltreatment exposure and child behavior problems to promote screening and the type and timing of interventions needed.
METHODS
The Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect, a multiwave prospective cohort study of maltreatment exposure, enrolled children and caregivers (N = 1354) at approximately age 4 and followed them throughout childhood and adolescence. Families completed 7 waves of data collection with each wave occurring 2 years apart. Maltreatment was confirmed using official case records obtained from Child Protective Services. Six-month frequencies of behavior problems were assessed via caregiver-report. Two random-intercept, cross-lagged panel models tested the directional relations between maltreatment exposure and externalizing and internalizing behaviors.
RESULTS
Maltreatment exposure predicted increases in externalizing behaviors at ages 8 (b = 1.06; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.14–1.98), 12 (b = 1.09; 95% CI 0.08–2.09), and 16 (b = 1.67; 95% CI 0.30–3.05) as well as internalizing behaviors at ages 6 (b = 0.66; 95% CI 0.03–1.29), 12 (b = 1.25; 95% CI 0.33–2.17), and 14 (b = 1.92; 95% CI 0.76–2.91). Increases in externalizing behaviors predicted maltreatment exposure at age 12 (odds ratio 1.02; 95% CI 1.00–1.05).
CONCLUSIONS
Maltreatment exposure is robustly associated with subsequent child behavior problems, strengthening inferences about the directionality of these relations. Early screening of externalizing behaviors in pediatric settings can identify children likely to benefit from intervention to reduce such behaviors as well as prevent maltreatment exposure at entry to adolescence.
... During this pivotal developmental stage, the closeness of the parent-child interaction typically diminishes (Min et al., 2016), which may exacerbate adolescents' perceptions of emotional neglect (Wang et al., 2019a). Consequently, adolescents are more likely than younger children to experience psychological problems (Thornberry et al., 2001). The precise mechanisms by which emotional neglect contributes to adolescent depressive symptoms warrant more detailed investigation. ...
Emotional neglect, despite its potential and long-term impact on adolescent psychological development, has received insufficient attention due to the absence of observable behavioral indicators and the difficulty in recalling details. Particular attention was paid to emotional neglect in this study, which adds to the body of evidence supporting emotional neglect’s association with depression in the future. Based on a combination of the Diathesis-Stress Model, the Stress-Reward-Mentalizing Model of Depression, and the Parental Acceptance-Rejection Theory, this study constructed a moderated mediation model. An anonymous face-to-face survey of 646 high school students (age = 17.18 ± 0.76) in China was conducted using the questionnaire method. The results showed that (1) parental emotional neglect was a significant predictor of depressive symptoms in high school students (β = 0.40, p < 0.001); (2) resilience partially mediated the relationship between parental emotional neglect and depressive symptoms, with a mediating effect of 39.51%; and (3) peer support moderated the relationship between parental emotional neglect and resilience, so as peer support increased, the impact of parental emotional neglect on resilience increased.
... While not diminishing the ground-breaking impact ACEs research has had on the field, there is concern surrounding whether ACEs are an appropriate measure of adversity for justice-involved populations. First, the dichotomous nature of ACE measures only indicates if an ACE occurred (yes or no) and does not account for timing, frequency, or the duration of the ACEall of which are critical factors regarding the impact of trauma (for examples, see Fisher et al., 2010;Friedman et al., 2015;Slopen et al., 2013;Thornberry et al., 2001). Compared to single traumatic events, repeated exposure to trauma results in complex trauma and can lead to more severe outcomes (see Briere & Scott, 2015; International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation [ISSTD], 2020). ...
Background: Youth in the U.S. juvenile justice system are exposed to adverse childhood experiences(ACEs) at higher rates than youth in the general public. Additionally, research has demonstrated ACEs can vary by race/ethnicity and gender. However, little is known about how ACEs are experienced across gendered racial/ethnic groups of justice-involved youth.
Objective: To address this gap, this exploratory study is the first to apply an intersectional lens to examine the prevalence of ACEs among a group of justice-involved youth in the U.S.
Participants & setting: Using secondary data, this study examines ACEs by gender, race/ethnicity, and six gendered racial/ethnic groups of justice-involved youth referred to the Division of Youth and Family Services (DYFS) in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Methods: Descriptive analyses are presented by gender and race/ethnicity separately, followed by gendered racial/ethnic groups to understand differential rates of exposure to ACEs.
Results: The study’s findings align with previous research and reinforce that justice-involved youth experience higher rates of adversity than the general public. The results also support the
feminist pathway’s perspective within an intersectional context, emphasizing the importance of accounting for race/ethnicity and gender simultaneously to identify the unique experiences of
ACEs among justice-involved youth.
Conclusion: Recommendations related to these findings and considerations surrounding ACE measures are discussed. Specifically, findings from this study stress the importance of accounting for gender and race/ethnicity simultaneously when measuring experiences of adversity. This is a critical step to providing equitable treatment and services to address trauma-related needs across gendered racial/ethnic groups of system-involved youth.
... 27 Additionally, adolescent-only exposure (i.e., ages 12-17) to physical abuse and neglect has been found to increase the risk for delinquency and aggression. 28 Challenges in the peer context can present risk for the development of internalizing symptomatology (e.g., depression 29 ) and externalizing symptomatology (e.g., aggression 30 ). ...
... For instance, building on the developmental psychopathology perspective (Sroufe & Rutter, 1984) that stresses the importance of early life experiences in laying the foundation for later adaptation and functioning, exposure to maltreatment during early years (e.g., infancypreschool) might have a stronger impact on adolescent substance use compared to maltreatment experiences in school age or adolescence. Empirical evidence has yielded mixed and inconsistent findings regarding the most critical developmental period or the timing of maltreatment exposure, with different studies suggesting different developmental periods (e.g., early childhood; Lansford et al., 2010, adolescence;Thornberry et al., 2001; continued exposure from early to later developmental stages; Russotti et al., 2021) having the most detrimental effects on youth development. To disentangle these relationships, it is vital to longitudinally examine the ways in which maltreatment experiences at certain developmental periods might increase or decrease potential risks of using substances during adolescence. ...
... In a prior study, among families investigated for maltreatment whose children remained in the home, children with clinically significant behavior problems were significantly more likely to have a new maltreatment report over an 18-month period compared to children with behaviors in the normal range (Kohl & Barth, 2007). Maltreatment contributes to the development of children's behavior problems (Jonson-Reid et al., 2009;Thornberry et al., 2001), but children's difficult behavior may also contribute to a parent's negative parenting, which then further exacerbates the behavior problems (Johnston, 2016). This highlights the importance of training parents to address problem behaviors using non-violent, positive parenting to improve both child disruptive behavior and safety outcomes. ...
... Regarding mechanis-c accounts for links between adversity exposure and outcomes, Gabard-Durnam and McLaughlin (2019) highlight that -ming of exposure ma]ers: where there is a co-occurrence of adversity with cri-cal and sensi-ve developmental periods this may mean that developmental trajectories are altered in the long term. Notably, scholars have inves-gated unique pathways of children's outcomes according to the developmental -ming of ACE exposure (Schroeder et al., 2020;Thornberry et al., 2001). Inves-ga-ons into the -ming of ACE exposure indicate that early childhood, encompassing infancy through preschool age, represents a par-cularly vulnerable period (Kotch et al., 2008). ...
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are a range of traumatic events, primarily including personal abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction, which frequently are associated with maladaptive consequences into adulthood. As such, ACEs also have the potential to adversely affect an individual’s response to their own children once they become a parent. While members of minority ethnic groups are at a higher risk of experiencing ACEs, research on how this affects parenting outcomes is limited. This study examines ACE exposure in a cohort of N=64 Black and minority ethnic parents in the UK. We found that ACEs were positively associated with parents self-reported harsh parenting, and negatively associated with nurturing parenting. Examining ACE timing, exposure during middle childhood, but not early or late childhood or adolescence, was predictive of both harsh and nurturing parenting. Examining the differential impact of ACE chronicity (i.e., prolonged exposure) and ACE frequency (i.e., number of ACEs), harsh parenting was significantly predicted by ACE chronicity, whereas nurturing parenting was predicted by ACE frequency. Mediation analyses showed a partial mediation of parental education for the link between ACE frequency and harsh and nurturing parenting outcomes. Our results contribute to a growing body of research highlighting the intricate interplay between early life adversity and parenting behaviours within minority ethnic communities. Findings underscore the need for targeted interventions and support systems aimed at breaking the cycle of ACEs, promoting healthier parenting practices, and ultimately fostering improved outcomes for both parents and their children in these communities. Future research should delve deeper into the specific mechanisms through which ACEs influence parenting behaviours and explore culturally sensitive approaches to mitigate their impact on minority ethnic parents.
... Se refiere a la que tiene lugar dentro de la familia, ya sea que el agresor comparta o haya compartido el mismo domicilio, y que comprende, entre otros: violación, maltrato físico y psicológico y abuso sexual. Las relaciones afectivas de la infancia determinarán en gran medida la vida del adulto, por lo que los padres tienen la responsabilidad de brindar intimidad, autoridad y educación adecuadas para el buen desarrollo de la psique del niño ( Thornberry, Ireland & Smith, 2001) sugieren que el abuso físico y la exposición a la violencia doméstica durante la niñez se consideran como factores importantes para la presencia de problemas de conducta en los jóvenes, dentro de las cuales están las conductas delictivas. ...
The purpose of this article is to perform a theoretical revision about the relationship present in family violence with the development of criminal behavior. Initially, the topic of violence is dealt with, from its definition up to the different contexts where they develop, as well as the different ages involved. Later, it is reviewed how this factors, have been the motive of study in various researches that report its relationship with the deviant behavior. Also, in this manuscript, it is described and analyzed the concept of the criminal behavior, which allows us to identify a dialectic relationship between this two entities, to acknowledge their complexity as a starting point, as well as the possibility to build new conceptualizations that will aim to a different understanding that recognizes the diversity and the opportunities in its approach. Within this analysis research performed at the Anahuac Center for Research in Psychology are reported.
... Furthermore, after stratifying the case group by age of childhood victimization, the proportion of those exposed to violence between 0 and 12 years of age was 3.2 times higher than those with exposure between 13 and 18 years of age. Age at the time of exposure to violence is recognized as a moderator of the impact of childhood adversity (Keiley et al., 2001;Thornberry et al., 2001;van der Vegt et al., 2009bvan der Vegt et al., , 2009a. For example, Fisher et al. (2010) found that the risk of developing a psychotic disorder later in life was twice as high in patients who have been the victim of maternal physical abuse under the age of 12 years compared to those who experienced it later (Arseneault et al., 2011;Fisher et al., 2010). ...
This study investigated the connection between childhood violence exposure and violent behavior in adults with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSDs). The case-control study included 398 SSD patients: 221 cases with a history of severe interpersonal violence in the past and 177 controls with no history of violence. The findings indicated that cases were significantly more likely to report childhood exposure to all forms of witnessed or personally sustained violence both within and outside the family, with those who had witnessed intra-familial violence being more likely to assault a family member in adulthood. Cases reported exposure to violence before the age of 12 years significantly more frequently than controls, and those with early-life violence exposure were significantly more likely to report that they were in a state of intense anger when they behaved violently. A dose-response relationship was observed, with evidence of an increased risk of later violence when the exposure occurred before the age of 12 and an increased likelihood of intrafamilial violence. The evidence suggests that childhood violence exposure was associated with an increased risk of violent behavior in adult SSD patients, and early exposure was linked to an increased likelihood of physical violence occurring in states of intense anger.
... Developmental chronicity of maltreatment (Manly, 2005) is an important characteristic to consider to adequately ascertain the consequences of maltreatment on functioning across the lifespan. Studies have found that exposure to maltreatment over several developmental stages poses a higher risk for the onset of mental health problems compared to exposure at one developmental period (Jaffee & Maikovich-Fong, 2011;Russotti et al., 2021;Thornberry et al., 2001;Warmingham et al., 2019). Moreover, the timing of exposure (e.g., whether maltreatment occurred in preschool versus school-age versus adolescence) can also provide specificity regarding differential outcomes. ...
Background
Both prospective and retrospective measures of child maltreatment predict mental and physical health problems, despite their weak concordance. Research remains largely based on retrospective reports spanning the entire childhood due to a scarcity of prospectively completed measures targeting maltreatment specifically.
Objective
We developed a prospective index of child maltreatment in the Québec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD) using prospective information collected from ages 5 months to 17 years and examined its concordance with retrospective maltreatment.
Participants and setting
The QLSCD is an ongoing population-based cohort that includes 2,120 participants born from 1997-1998 in the Canadian Province of Quebec.
Methods
As the QLSCD did not have maltreatment as a focal variable, we screened 29,600 items completed by multiple informants (mothers, children, teachers, home observations) across 14 measurement points (5 months-17 years). Items that could reflect maltreatment were first extracted. Indicators were derived across preschool, school-age and adolescence periods and by the end of childhood and adolescence, including presence (yes/no), chronicity (re-occurrence), extent of exposure and cumulative maltreatment. Two maltreatment experts reviewed these items for inclusion and determined cut-offs for possible child maltreatment (n=251 items). Retrospective maltreatment was self-reported at 23 years.
Results
Across all developmental periods, the presence of maltreatment was as follows: physical abuse (16.3-21.8%), psychological abuse (3.3-21.9%), emotional neglect (20.4-21.6%), physical neglect (15.0-22.3%), supervisory neglect (25.8-44.9%), family violence (4.1-11.2%) and sexual abuse (9.5% in adolescence only). The degree of concordance between prospective and retrospective reports for each type of maltreatment was weak (.038-.110), yet significant (ps<.01), except for emotional neglect (p=.148).
Conclusions
In addition to the many future research opportunities offered by these prospective indicators of maltreatment, this study offers a roadmap to researchers wishing to undertake a similar task.
... Developmental chronicity of maltreatment (Manly, 2005) is an important characteristic to consider to adequately ascertain the consequences of maltreatment on functioning across the lifespan. Studies have found that exposure to maltreatment over several developmental stages poses a higher risk for the onset of mental health problems compared to exposure at one developmental period (Jaffee & Maikovich Fong, 2011;Russotti et al., 2021;Thornberry et al., 2001;Warmingham et al., 2019). ...
Background: Both prospective and retrospective measures of child maltreatment predict mental health problems, despite their weak concordance. Research remains largely based on retrospective reports spanning the entire childhood due to a scarcity of prospectively completed questionnaires targeting maltreatment specifically.
Objective: We developed a prospective index of child maltreatment in the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD) using prospective information collected from ages 5 months to 17 years and examined its concordance with retrospective maltreatment.
Participants and Setting: The QLSCD is an ongoing population-based cohort that includes 2,120 participants born from 1997-1998 in the Canadian Province of Quebec.
Methods: As the QLSCD did not have maltreatment as a focal variable, we screened 29,600 items completed by multiple informants (mothers, children, teachers, home observations) across 14 measurement points (0-17 years). Items that could reflect maltreatment were first extracted. Two maltreatment experts reviewed these items for inclusion and determined cut-offs for possible child maltreatment. Retrospective maltreatment was self-reported at 23 years.
Results: Indicators were derived across preschool, school-age and adolescence periods and by the end of childhood and adolescence, including presence (yes/no), chronicity (re-occurrence), extent of exposure and cumulative maltreatment. Across all developmental periods, the presence of maltreatment was as follows: physical abuse (16.3-21.8%), psychological abuse (3.3-21.9%), emotional neglect (20.4-21.6%), physical neglect (15.0-22.3%), supervisory neglect (25.8-44.9%), family violence (4.1-11.2%) and sexual abuse (9.5% in adolescence only).
... However, the timing, chronicity, and severity of emotional abuse and neglect are related to the extent to which maltreatment affects developmental trajectories [76]. For example, when maltreatment is less severe or ends early in childhood, it is possible that its impact might fade with time in some individuals [77,78]. Indeed, our data show that the vast majority of the participants experienced none or mild to moderate levels of emotional abuse and neglect. ...
Background
Exposure to childhood trauma is associated with an increased risk of developing and maintaining psychotic symptoms later in life. Self-esteem might be an important psychological process underlying the association between childhood trauma and psychosis, but there is only limited evidence to support this claim, especially in daily life.
Objective
In this study, we aimed to investigate whether exposure to childhood trauma (physical, emotional, and sexual abuse and physical and emotional neglect) moderates the cross-sectional and temporal associations between self-esteem and psychotic experiences in patients with psychotic disorders, their first-degree relatives, and controls.
Methods
We assessed momentary self-esteem and psychotic experiences in daily life using the experience sampling method in 139 patients with psychotic disorders, 118 first-degree relatives of patients with psychotic disorders, and 111 controls. Childhood trauma was measured using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. We fitted linear mixed models and added two-way and three-way interaction terms to test the hypotheses.
ResultsThe association between momentary self-esteem and psychotic experiences in daily life was modified by prior exposure to high versus low levels of several types of childhood trauma, that is, physical (χ22=24.9, family-wise error-corrected P
... Prior research has largely focused on the association between child maltreatment and substance use in adolescence (ages 12-18). Indeed, all types of maltreatment have been associated with adolescence substance use (Benedini & Fagan, 2020a;Hamburger et al., 2008;Harrison et al., 1997;Hussey et al., 2006;Lansford et al., 2010;Moran et al., 2004;Sartor et al., 2013;Thornberry et al., 2001;White & Widom, 2008). Importantly, this association varies by sex (Benedini & Fagan, 2020b;Halpern et al., 2018a;Horan & Widom, 2015;Lansford et al., 2010;McHugh et al., 2018) and maltreatment type (Harrison et al., 1997;Huang et al., 2011;Moran et al., 2004). ...
Child maltreatment is associated with substance use beginning in adolescence and throughout early adulthood. Substance use disorders (SUD) are most likely to develop during emerging adulthood (18–25 years old). Thus, to develop effective substance use prevention strategies, it is useful to know the ages at which associations between maltreatment exposure (prior to age 18) and SUD are most strongly tied. This study examined the age-varying association between child maltreatment and past-year SUD in emerging adulthood by sex and by maltreatment type using time-varying effect models (TVEM). Data were from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC-III). The analytic sample consisted of 5194 emerging adults. The association was strongest at younger ages, with individuals who experienced child maltreatment having three times greater odds of reporting SUD in the past-year. Differential associations were found by sex, racial-ethnic group, and maltreatment type across age. Prevention efforts may be more effective if their development is informed by these important differences and targeted at emerging adults rather than adolescents.
... Total family income (1 = <$5000; 2 = $5000-$9999; 3 = $10,000-$14,999; 4 = $15,000-$19,999; 5 = $20,000-$24,999; 6 = $25,000-$29,999; 7 = $30,000-$34,999; 8 = $35,000-$39,999; 9 = $40,000-$44,999; 10 = $45,000-$49,999; 11 = >$50,000) and caregiver marital status (0 = Married, 1 = Not Married) at the age 12 LONGSCAN assessment were also included as covariates. Confirmed child maltreatment experienced between ages 12 and 16 (0 = No, 1 = Yes) was included as a covariate to control for confirmed maltreatment occurring after age 12 based on research that maltreatment occurring during adolescence may be influential on adolescent outcomes (Thornberry et al., 2001). All covariates were included as time-invariant (Level 2) predictors of the intercept to control for hypothesized relations with adolescent internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. ...
Background:
Parent-child relationship quality (PCRQ) and parental monitoring (PM) are associated with adolescent behavior problems following child maltreatment (CM). Whether these associations are best characterized as between (trait) or within-person (state) differences is unknown.
Objective:
Disaggregate between and within-person effects for PCRQ and PM on adolescent behavior problems and test whether these effects vary as a function of prior CM.
Participants and setting:
Participants (n = 941) are from the Longitudinal Studies on Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN).
Methods:
Multi-level modeling was employed using PCRQ, PM, and adolescent behaviors assessed at ages 12, 14, and 16 and confirmed CM prior to age 12.
Results:
At the between-person level, adolescents with higher average levels of PCRQ and PM had significantly lower initial levels of externalizing (b = -9.47 and -5.54, respectively, p's < 0.05; possible range 0-66) and internalizing behaviors (b = -4.45 and -6.41, respectively, p's < 0.001; possible range 0-62). At the within-person level, greater declines in externalizing and internalizing behaviors were found when individuals reported higher-than-usual levels of PCRQ (b = -4.99 and -2.59, respectively, for externalizing and internalizing, p's < 0.001) and PM (b = -3.58 and -1.69, respectively, for externalizing and internalizing, p's < 0.001). There was an interaction between PM and CM on internalizing behaviors over time (b = -1.15, p = 0.026).
Conclusions:
There are between and within-person effects of PCRQ and PM on adolescent behavior problems. Adolescents with CM histories and low levels of PM may be at risk for sustained internalizing behaviors.
... The Rochester Youth Development Study (RYDS) is a prospective cohort study of 1,000 youth who were enrolled in either the seventh or eighth grade in the Rochester, New York public school system in 1988. We provide a brief overview of the study here (see Thornberry et al. [2001] for more details). The primary aim of RYDS was to study the development of adolescent antisocial behaviors; thus, the study oversampled males and recruited adolescents with a probability proportional to the arrest rate within their census tracts in 1986. ...
Heavy episodic drinking (HED) is a major public health concern, and youth who engage in HED are at increased risk for alcohol-related problems that continue into adulthood. Importantly, there is heterogeneity in the onset and course of adolescent HED, as youth exhibit different trajectories of initiation and progression into heavy drinking. Much of what is known about the etiology of adolescent HED and alcohol-related problems that persist into adulthood comes from studies of predominantly White, middle-class youth. Because alcohol use and related problems vary by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status, it is unclear whether previous findings are relevant for understanding developmental antecedents and distal consequences of adolescent HED for minoritized individuals. In the current study, we utilize a developmental psychopathology perspective to fill this gap in the literature. Using a racially and economically diverse cohort followed from adolescence well into adulthood, we apply group-based trajectory modeling (GBTM) to identify patterns of involvement in HED from age 14 to 17 years. We then investigate developmental antecedents of GBTM class membership, and alcohol-related distal outcomes in adulthood (∼ age 31 years) associated with GBTM class membership. Results highlight the importance of adolescent alcohol use in predicting future alcohol use in adulthood.
... It is well established that cumulative ACEs can have a long-lasting effect on child development and life course health (3)(4). Health risks associated with ACEs include chronic disease, health risk behaviors, mental health problems, and risk for victimization (5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10). ...
Objective − The aim of this research was to evaluate the physical and mental health of emerging adults who lost a parent before the age of 18, and to examine the predictors of satisfaction with physical and mental health. Materials andMethods − The subjects who participated in this study were emerging adults (18-29 years of age) from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. For this study, the equivalent pairs method was used - participants who had experienced the death of a parent were matched with those who had not experienced such a loss in relation to the variables of sex, age, and socioeconomic status, comprising a sample of 29 pairs, i.e., 58 subjects - 50 women and 8 men. The research was conducted via an online questionnaire. Participants completed the Psychosomatic Symptoms Questionnaire, CORE-OM questionnaire for evaluation of general psychopathological difficulties, and were asked to rate their satisfaction with their physical and mental health.Results − The results show no statistically significant difference between the two groups in the levels of satisfaction with physical health, the presence of physical symptoms, and the presence of general psychopathological difficulties. A statistically significant difference was found between the groups in the level of satisfaction with mental health - those who had experienced the loss of a parent reported lower satisfaction with their mental health. The experience of the loss of a parent explained their mental health satisfaction level, above the results of the standardized measures of mental health.Conclusion − The results indicate the need for assessing levels of satisfaction with mental health beyond the assessment of levels of general psychopatological symptoms when working with adults who experienced the early death of a parent.
... It is well established that cumulative ACEs can have a long-lasting effect on child development and life course health (3)(4). Health risks associated with ACEs include chronic disease, health risk behaviors, mental health problems, and risk for victimization (5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10). ...
Objective − The aim of this research was to evaluate the physical and mental health of emerging adults who lost a parent before the age of 18, and to examine the predictors of satisfaction with physical and mental health. Materials and Methods − The subjects who participated in this study were emerging adults (18-29 years of age) from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. For this study, the equivalent pairs method was used-participants who had experienced the death of a parent were matched with those who had not experienced such a loss in relation to the variables of sex, age, and socioeconomic status, comprising a sample of 29 pairs, i.e., 58 subjects-50 women and 8 men. The research was conducted via an online questionnaire. Participants completed the Psychosomatic Symptoms Questionnaire, CORE-OM questionnaire for evaluation of general psychopathological difficulties, and were asked to rate their satisfaction with their physical and mental health. Results − The results show no statistically significant difference between the two groups in the levels of satisfaction with physical health, the presence of physical symptoms, and the presence of general psychopathological difficulties. A statistically significant difference was found between the groups in the level of satisfaction with mental health-those who had experienced the loss of a parent reported lower satisfaction with their mental health. The experience of the loss of a parent explained their mental health satisfaction level, above the results of the standardized measures of mental health. Conclusion − The results indicate the need for assessing levels of satisfaction with mental health beyond the assessment of levels of general psychopatological symptoms when working with adults who experienced the early death of a parent.
The study compared life course models (LCM; accumulation, recency, and sensitive period) of child maltreatment and general psychopathology in a large, national longitudinal data set of 1354 youth ages birth-16 years (657 boys, 53.2% Black, 59.7% <$40K caregiver income). Previous research has supported the accumulation and recency models, albeit with shorter or fewer time periods of outcome measurement. We extend this work by modeling the impact of combined abuse and neglect allegations on a general psychopathology factor (dysregulation profile). Cross-sectional structural equation models were constructed using LCMs and tested across two-year periods from 4–16 years old and compared using Akaike Information Criterion weights. The recency variable generally explained the greatest proportion of variance in psychopathology. Notably, maltreatment more proximal to the time of outcome measurement had the strongest effect, suggesting that more recent maltreatment may have stronger effects on general psychopathology. These results lend support to a recency effect of maltreatment on psychopathology outcomes, although substantive overlaps with the accumulation model are noted.
This chapter aims to provide an in-depth examination of the cycle of developmental trauma and its profound effect on criminal behavior. By exploring how early traumatic experiences shape an individual’s development and influence their subsequent engagement in criminal activities, we will gain valuable insights into this complex phenomenon. The discussion will encompass various theoretical frameworks and empirical evidence to establish a comprehensive understanding of the relationships between developmental trauma, psychopathology, and criminality.
Background
Previous studies have consistently highlighted that exposure to childhood maltreatment adversely affects the developmental domains of subsequent generations. Little, however, is known about the relationship between maternal childhood maltreatment history and adolescent development, as well as the mediator role of offspring childhood maltreatment.
Objective
The current study attempts to investigate the mediating role of offspring childhood maltreatment in the relationship between maternal childhood maltreatment history and offspring behavioral adjustment problems and competence.
Methods
Participants were 1102 adolescents aged 10–15 years (Mage = 12.14, SD = 1.22) and their mothers (Mage = 39.40, SD = 5.31). Participating adolescents filled out self-report instruments assessing their childhood maltreatment by their mothers, self-esteem, academic performance, loneliness, and prosocial and aggressive behaviors between October 2018 and May 2019. In addition, we collected data from mothers on their childhood maltreatment history.
Results
We analyzed the data through a structural equation model. The findings revealed insignificant direct effects of maternal childhood maltreatment history on offspring behavioral adjustment problems and competence. Yet, indirect effects demonstrated that offspring maltreatment by mothers mediated the relationship between maternal childhood maltreatment history and offspring behavioral adjustment problems and competence. Maternal childhood maltreatment history was significantly associated with offspring maltreatment (β = 0.30; p < .001), which in turn was linked to a higher level of behavioral adjustment problems (β = 0.40; p < .001) and a lower level of competence (β = −0.71; p < .001).
Conclusion
The research findings extend our understanding of the relationship between maternal childhood maltreatment history and offspring behavioral adjustment problems and competence, identifying the mediating role of offspring maltreatment.
Previous studies on exposure to violence lack a nuanced understanding of the causal effects of different exposure types on offending behaviors. This study, drawing on Pathways to Desistance Study (PDS) data tracking 1354 adjudicated youths aged 14–18 over 7 years, explores the contemporaneous (cross‐sectional), acute (after 1 year), enduring (after 3 years), and long‐term (after 6 years) causal effects of violence exposure on property and violent offending. The sample, predominantly male (86%), consisted of White (20%), Black (42%), and other (38%) individuals. The generalized propensity score is used to match unbalanced covariates across multiple exposure types, namely noninvolved ( n = 392), witnessed ( n = 577), experienced ( n = 31), and experienced‐witnessed violence ( n = 305). Results demonstrate the contemporaneous, acute, enduring, and long‐term effects of violence exposure on both violent and property offending, with varying durations and strengths across exposure types. The most pronounced risk effects are immediate, diminishing over time and potentially reversing in the long term as youth transition into adulthood. Among exposure types, experienced‐witnessed violence exhibits the most potent effects on offending, followed by witnessed violence and then experienced violence—a pattern consistent across the observed time points. Noteworthy is the finding that the impact of violence exposure is more pronounced for violent offending, diminishing more rapidly compared to the effects on property offending.
In 2018, the child welfare system in Ontario, Canada, expanded the age of protection to include 16 and 17 year olds for the purpose of mitigating risk of harm for older adolescents. To date, there is little information regarding investigations of older adolescents, particularly in Ontario; this study will address this gap. Data used for this analysis were drawn from the Ontario Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect‐2018. The Ontario Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect‐2018 sample data were weighted to derive an annual incidence estimate of 155 649 maltreatment‐related investigations conducted in Ontario in 2018. Child, caregiver, household, and investigation characteristics were compared across three age groups: children (0–10), younger adolescents (11–15), and older adolescents (16–17). Characteristics and differences in the likelihood of a service response (referral to nonchild welfare services, transfer to ongoing child welfare services, or placement in out‐of‐home care during the investigation) were examined descriptively and using chi‐square automatic interaction detection. Half of investigations involving older adolescents received a service response, and they were more likely to receive a service response when there were concerns about future risk of harm, where there were concerns about the relationship between the adolescent and their caregivers, where internalizing or externalizing symptoms were noted, where caregivers had few social supports, and where the household experienced economic hardship. These findings suggest that older adolescents are being triaged for circumstances that reflect concerns about their vulnerability, including mental health needs, attachment concerns, and caregiver isolation.
It is estimated that up to 25% of all children growing up worldwide experience child maltreatment, making it a global emergency with substantial individual and public health consequences. This chapter addresses one of the most societally pervasive consequences of child maltreatment which is known as the "cycle of victimization." This concept depicts the increased risk of maltreated individuals to victimize others later in life, both within and outside the family environment. To understand the architecture of this victimization cycle, the chapter further sheds light on neurocognitive mechanisms aiding different forms of victimization and the buffering role of social support that could help break the cycle of victimization. Advancing our understanding of these complex and interrelated mechanisms will ultimately facilitate the design and implementation of more targeted early treatments and (preventive) interventions and support a move toward a safer society.
Little research exists on victimization for gender and sexual minority adolescents (GSMA) of color. This study identifies differences in past year rates across six victimization types for GSMA by ethnoracial identification. Descriptive analyses were conducted on 1,177 GSMA (14-19 years old), with victimization types stratified by ethnoracial identification and multiple logit regression was used to identify differences. Compared to White (non-Hispanic) peers, Black (non-Hispanic) GSMA reported lower victimization rates across multiple categories with two exceptions. Higher rates of racially biased physical assault were noted among Black (non-Hispanic) and bi/multi-ethnoracial GSMA. Higher rates of witnessing community violence were reported by Black (non-Hispanic), bi/multi-ethnoracial, and Latinx GSMA. To address GSMA's needs, we need to understand the differential risk so that our interventions are responsive to the diversity within this community.
Introduction: Child maltreatment is among the strongest risk factors for mental disorders. However, little is known about whether there are ages when children may be especially vulnerable to its effects. We sought to identify potential sensitive periods when exposure to the 2 most common types of maltreatment (neglect and harsh physical discipline) had a particularly detrimental effect on youth mental health. Methods: Data came from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), a birth cohort oversampled from “fragile families” (n=3,474). Maltreatment was assessed at 3, 5, and 9 years using an adapted version of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS-PC). Using least angle regression, we examined the relationship between repeated measures of exposure to maltreatment on psychopathology symptoms at age 15 (Child Behavior Checklist; CBCL/6-18). For comparison, we evaluated the strength of evidence to support the existence of sensitive periods in relation to an accumulation of risk model. Results: We identified sensitive periods for harsh physical discipline, whereby psychopathology symptom scores were highest among girls exposed at age 9 (r2=0.67 internalizing symptoms; r2=1% externalizing) and among boys exposed at age 5 (r2=0.41%). However, for neglect, the accumulation of risk model explained more variability in psychopathology symptoms for both boys and girls. Conclusion: Child maltreatment may have differential effects based on the child’s sex, type of exposure, and the age it occurs. These findings provide additional evidence for clinicians assessing the benefits and drawbacks of screening efforts and point towards mechanisms driving increased vulnerability to psychopathology.
The majority of children with maltreatment histories do not go on to develop depression in their adolescent and adult years. These individuals are often identified as being "resilient", but this characterization may conceal difficulties that individuals with maltreatment histories might face in their interpersonal relationships, substance use, physical health, and/or socioeconomic outcomes in their later lives. This study examined how adolescents with maltreatment histories who exhibit low levels of depression function in other domains during their adult years. Longitudinal trajectories of depression (across ages 13-32) in individuals with (n = 3,809) and without (n = 8,249) maltreatment histories were modeled in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. The same "Low," "increasing," and "declining" depression trajectories in both individuals with and without maltreatment histories were identified. Youths with maltreatment histories in the "low" depression trajectory reported lower romantic relationship satisfaction, more exposure to intimate partner and sexual violence, more alcohol abuse/dependency, and poorer general physical health compared to individuals without maltreatment histories in the same "low" depression trajectory in adulthood. Findings add further caution against labeling individuals as "resilient" based on a just single domain of functioning (low depression), as childhood maltreatment has harmful effects on a broad spectrum of functional domains.
Finding and retaining a job is one of the most challenging problems women confront after being released from prison. Given the dynamic and fluid interactions between legal and illegal work, we argue that to better identify and describe job trajectories after release, we must simultaneously consider disparities in work types and offending behavior. We leverage a unique dataset - the Reintegration, Desistance and Recidivism Among Female Inmates in Chile study- to describe patterns of employment within a cohort of 207 women during the first year after being released from prison. By considering different types of work (i.e., self-employed/employed, legitimate/under-the- table) and including offending as another type of income-generating activity, we adequately account for the intersection between work and crime in a particularly understudied population and context. Our results reveal stable heterogeneity in employment trajectories by job type across respondents but limited overlap between crime and work despite the high levels of marginalization in the job market. We discuss the role of barriers to and preferences for certain types of jobs as possible explanations for our findings.
Childhood adversity has been implicated in poorer developmental outcomes such as behavioral problems, poorer mental health and cognitive deficits. Studies have also linked adversity to alterations in cortical brain structures. To date however, almost all knowledge of the effects of adversity on outcomes has come from cross-sectional studies or longitudinal studies that used cross-sectional data analysis method. In an attempt to bridge this gap, across three empirical studies, this thesis sets out to implement series of longitudinal data modelling aimed at disentangling the intricacies of the effects of childhood adversity on mental health, cognitive abilities and brain development. In study 1, I analyzed a large sample (N=13,287) of 5 wave longitudinal data obtained from the Millennium Cohort Study in an attempt to understand how early-life adversity, mental health and cognition affect one another or how the effects unfold over time. To achieve this, I used focused longitudinal mediation model via path model approach. Results showed that early-life adversity was associated with poorer performance in spatial working memory and vocabulary performance. Notably, current and previous mental health mediated a substantial proportion (working memory: 59%; vocabulary: ¬70%), of these effects. Findings also showed that adversity has an enduring adverse effect on mental health, and that poorer mental health is associated with poorer cognitive performance later on in development. Moreover, the adverse effects of mental health were cumulative: poor mental health early on is associated with poorer cognitive scores up to 11 years later, above and beyond contemporaneous mental health. Based on this evidence, I suggested that the academic and cognitive competence of vulnerable children may be enhanced if their early mental health conditions are given deliberate clinical attention. In a follow-up study 2, I attempted to provide empirical support for dimensional model of adversity which argues that childhood adversity can be classified into subgroups, known as dimensions. For this purpose, I analyzed rich set of adverse childhood experiences obtained from a subset of ALSPAC cohort sample (N = 2,965) using latent class analysis. Findings showed evidence of five distinct adversity subgroups, namely, low adversity, dysfunctional family, parental deprivation, family poverty and global adversity. To establish a pathway to cognitive functioning among the adversity subgroups, a further analysis using latent class regression revealed that family poverty subgroup performed poorest in working memory and inhibition tasks. A separate analysis revealed that the effects of each individual adversity types on cognitive outcomes were mostly consistent with the observed class performance in which they co-occurred. Regardless, sensitive periods (timing of adversity exposure) explained more variability in these observed effects compared to accumulation hypothesis. In study 3, I analysed a subset of IMAGEN cohort sample (N = 502) using latent change score model and complete longitudinal mediation model via autoregressive path approach, aimed to understand the long-term interrelations between adverse life events, cortical development and cognitive functioning. Results of latent change score model showed that greater baseline adverse life events predicted a marginal reduction in the right anterior cingulate surface area. In addition, baseline right orbitofrontal cortical thickness predicted a decrease change in adverse life events. I found no evidence of association between adverse life events and volumes of cortical structures or cognitive outcomes. In separate longitudinal analyses, I found no evidence of indirect effects in the two neurocognitive pathways that link adverse life events in adolescence to brain and cognitive outcomes. Although the results of latent change score model appear to support the robust cross-sectional studies which have implicated adverse events in brain alterations, especially in the prefrontal, however, the magnitude of effects observed in this study 3 are smaller than have been reported in the cross-sectional studies, suggesting that potential long-term impact of adverse life events on brain structures may likely be more modest than previously noted. I end the thesis by articulating the implications of these findings across the 3 empirical studies, indicating the strengths and limitations, and suggesting areas for future directions. Generally, it is my hope that new insight drawn from these longitudinal studies will inform the right policies in the society. Such policies may include but not limited to increase clinical intervention for the vulnerable and most underprivileged children as well greater financial aids to families living in poverty, given recent reports that such aid package can alter the trajectories of developmental outcomes of children in a positive way.
This longitudinal population-based study examines the association between maltreatment victimization experiences and the likelihood of intergenerational (dis)continuity of maltreatment. Our data include all individuals born in 1983/1984 in Queensland (QLD), Australia who are registered as parents via birth records and who experienced system contacts for maltreatment victimization in childhood (n = 2906). Child safety data on system contacts as a child victim and person responsible for harm to a child were obtained from the Department of Children, Youth Justice and Multicultural Affairs. Out-of-home care experiences and maltreatment frequency, timing, and type were examined. Results indicated that childhood maltreatment experiences significantly differed between parents who were not subsequently responsible for harm to a child (cycle breakers) and parents who were subsequently responsible for harm to a child (cycle maintainers). Different patterns of association were observed across sex. These findings highlight the importance of recognizing the heterogeneity of victim maltreatment experiences and associated risk of maltreatment for their children, and can inform effective and targeted interventions by tailoring these by sex and developmental period.
Variation in the mental health of people who have experienced childhood maltreatment is substantial. One hypothesis is that this variation is attributable, in part, to the timing of maltreatment—specifically, whether maltreatment occurs during sensitive periods in development when the brain is maximally sensitive to particular types of environmental input. To determine whether there is scientific consensus around when periods of peak sensitivity occur, we did a systematic review of human observational studies. Although 89 (75%) of the 118 unique cross-sectional or longitudinal cohort studies we identified reported timing effects, no consistent sensitive periods were identified for any of the most studied outcomes. Thus, observational research on childhood maltreatment has yet to converge on a single period (or set of periods) of increased vulnerability. We identified study characteristics that might contribute to these between-study differences and used observations from our Review to suggest a comprehensive set of recommendations for future research.
Although a growing body of research has documented the characteristics and experiences of young people with child welfare and juvenile justice system contact (i.e., dual system involvement), less is known about the pathways leading to dual system involvement. Sequence analysis was used to empirically identify pathways by plotting child welfare and juvenile justice spells for a cohort of 4404 dual system youth in Los Angeles County between 2014 to 2016. Procedures produced a five-cluster model delineated by the extent of child welfare involvement and the ages at which involvement occurred. Comparisons across pathways demonstrated that youth with less child welfare involvement in childhood had the least intrusive juvenile justice experiences and lower recidivism than youth experiencing longer and deeper child welfare involvement in late childhood and adolescence. Pathway findings have significant implications for building a delinquency prevention continuum prior to system involvement and after involvement for young people and their family members who enter the child welfare system.
The issue of poor or deficient parenting—of neglect—affects large numbers of children and young people, but it has rarely featured in studies of child maltreatment and it remains an elusive phenomenon in empirical research on parenting. This is especially true for adolescents, for young people traversing the protracted and challenging transition to adulthood, when normative developmental changes and a drive for autonomy can increase the risk to a young person’s safety and well-being, and pose challenges for the adults who care for and support them. The little evidence we have suggests a failure by parents to meet these challenges—when parental care becomes neglectful during adolescence—this can have a profound impact, significantly hampering a young person’s health and happiness and jeopardising their future prospects. So why is there such a large gap in knowledge and understanding? Why have researchers found it so difficult to study adolescent neglect? And why has policy and practice failed to adequately address the issue of parental neglect of adolescents? This chapter reflects on the neglect conundrum and on the complexities of adolescence and offers suggestions for ways forward in researching and responding to adolescent neglect.
Objectives: Test whether primary caregivers’ monitoring habits protect against recidivism among juvenile justice and dual system youth and whether dual system contact moderates the relation between monitoring habits and recidivism. Methods: Among a sample of 519 male adolescents, logistic regression analyses were conducted assessing the relation between primary caregiver effort, knowledge, and monitoring on violent, non-violent, and overall self-reported recidivism six months following their first arrest. Results: Primary caregiver knowledge moderately protected against all forms of juvenile recidivism, regardless of whether youth had prior child welfare system contact. Dual system youth were less likely to engage in non-violent and overall recidivism than those without prior child welfare system contact. Dual system contact did not moderate the relation between monitoring habits and recidivism. Conclusions: Results suggest that primary caregiver knowledge is protective against recidivism among male juvenile justice and dual system involved youth, although the present study was limited in providing detailed information regarding child welfare system contact and maltreatment. Results support parental monitoring habit education in child welfare and juvenile justice systems to reduce adolescent recidivism.
Objective
We examine factors associated with changes in posttraumatic stress symptoms for children following completion of an early and brief, trauma-focused mental health treatment that engages children together with their caregivers, with the child as the identified patient.
Method
The Child and Family Traumatic Stress Intervention (CFTSI), a brief (5–8 session) trauma-focused mental health treatment designed to reduce trauma symptoms in the aftermath of traumatic experiences in children aged 7 years and older. CFTSI has been widely disseminated in Child Advocacy Centers (CAC) and community treatment clinics nationally. We report on results of a naturalistic treatment study of CFTSI implementation without a comparison group that includes 1190 child caregiver dyads from 13 community-based clinical settings.
Results
Mixed modeling revealed a significant reduction in child reported posttraumatic stress scores from pre to post-CFTSI. Scores on the Child Posttraumatic Checklist (CPSS) declined an average of 8.74 points from pre to post-CFTSI (p < .0001). There were no statistically significant differences in CPSS score changes based on age, gender, ethnicity, race, number of prior trauma types the child had experienced, caregiver posttraumatic stress symptoms, child relationship to the perpetrator, nature of event or length of time to begin treatment.
Conclusion
This study provides further evidence that CFTSI can reduce child posttraumatic stress symptoms when implemented by community-based providers.
This study explored how Hispanic youth (ages 13-21 years) living in low-income neighborhoods of Florida defined resiliency and expressed agency navigating personal challenges and neighborhood adversity in pursuit of success. From the standpoint of the participants, this study focused on how youths: 1) judge the quality of life in their neighborhoods and the opportunities available for them, 2) identify personal aspirations for themselves and 3) identify what resilient factors allowed them to face the challenges and barriers of their daily lives to pursue this aspiration. This study takes into account the structural barriers that create inequities to examine how personal assets (e.g., familial and cultural values, self-esteem, and life experience) and external resources (e.g., social support, neighborhood resources, and political climate) affect youth behavior and resilience. Despite the participants living in similar neighborhoods with similar opportunities, the relationship between resources and assets exposed varying levels of resiliency, self-confidence (i.e., self-esteem), and agency against personal and structural challenges in their lives. Drawing from a critical medical anthropology (CMA) theory and resilience theory to examine both agency and resilience, this study designed a model called the “Youth Agency and Resiliency model” which consists of two perspectives: 1) the foundational assets (e.g., life experience, self-esteem, personal talents) and resources (e.g., social support, political climate, neighborhood environment) that contribute to an individual’s sense of agency, defining an aspiration, and perception of their surrounding and own self-worth and 2) how that sense of surrounding and self-worth affects their ability to take action (i.e. agentic action) and sustain resiliency to reach that aspiration.
Participant observation took place over two years (2016-2018), focusing on youth from two adjacent low-income rural communities in Florida. Using community-based participatory research methods, a total of 127 Hispanic youths were included in this study who participated in only one data collection activity. In total, forty-eight participants completed semi-structured interviews, forty-three participated in four focus groups, and thirty-six completed community perception surveys that included questions about neighborhood, opportunities for youth, challenges and barriers, and self-described plans for attaining goals.
This study revealed that out of 127 participants, 18 (14%) were able to both identify a long-term personal aspiration and actively were working towards that goal (displaying resilience) or were close to achieving that goal (“positively resilient”). The improvements youths identified as needed to improve resilience and success included strong social supports (e.g., presence of role models), recreational spaces, and increased educational/ economic opportunities geared towards youths’ interests. For the 18 Hispanic youth who self-identified as resilient and were actively working towards their goals, the factors with the strongest correlations to positive resilience were: 1) access to opportunities (both academic and economic); 2) strong social support from family and mentors and; 3) high self-esteem that supported agentic action to pursue their goals. Youth violence involving fighting was revealed to be a hidden resilience in a large majority of youth studied, enhancing self-esteem and expressions of resilience. All these resilience-enhancing factors played a protective role in overcoming the negative influences of peers or challenges faced within their own neighborhoods and influenced agency and self-esteem amongst youth to take action. The study also examined the individual-level challenges that inhibited resiliency in most of the youth in this study. A sense of hopelessness was the strongest factor that kept many youth from formulating or pursuing a long-term goal, with factors such as lack of opportunities and resources to support those goals (structural), lack of familial support (resources) and low self-esteem (individual capacity), coupled with underlying mental stress and emotional trauma. This study contributes to the literature on resilience and agency amongst minority youths by adding new resilience-enhancing factors to consider when working within disadvantaged neighborhoods. The study made the distinction between family support and family cohesion, with the former being a stronger resilience enhancer when it coincides with youth’s goals and aspirations, a distinction not made in any resilience literature. This study added a holistic and youth-perspective approach to how youths navigate hostile environments in their own defined resilient ways. This study was also the first to fuse resilience theory and critical medical anthropology theory to create a new youth agency and resilience framework model for working with young minority groups.
Based on the overall rationale and methodology described previously by the 1st author , the present article reports the construction of editions of the Child Behavior Profile for boys aged 12–26 and girls aged 6–21 and 12–26 yrs. Scored from the Child Behavior Checklist, the profile consists of social competence and behavior problem scales derived from factor analysis of the checklists filled out by parents of 450 children of each sex and age group referred for mental health services. Second-order factor analyses showed that the behavior problem scales for each sample could be divided into broad-band groupings called "internalizing" and "externalizing." Normalized T scores for the social competence scales, behavior problem scales, internalizing, and externalizing were derived from nonclinical samples. Comparison of clinical and nonclinical samples showed significant differences on all social competence and behavior problem scores. Test–retest (1 wk) correlations averaged .87, and interparent correlations averaged .67. Comparison with findings for boys aged 6–11 yrs are reported. Computerized and hand-scored versions of the profile can be used to display item and scale scores for individual children. (7 ref)
This investigation examined the impact of dimensions within maltreatment such as the severity, frequency, chronicity, and subtypes of maltreatment and their relationship with child outcome. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 who participated in a summer camp program were assessed on their social competence, behavior problems, and peers ratings of cooperation, disruption, and initiation of aggression. The 235 participants were all from low-socioeconomic status families; 145 children were from families with documented histories of child maltreatment, whereas 90 of the children had no record of maltreatment. The study found that severity of the maltreatment, the frequency of Child Protective Services reports, and the interaction between severity and frequency were significant predictors of children's functioning. Additionally, the chronicity of the maltreatment in the family significantly predicted peer ratings of aggression. Subtype differences emerged as well, with children in the sexual abuse group being more socially competent than other maltreated children, and children in the physical abuse group having more behavior problems than nonmaltreated children. Regression analyses with cooccurrence of multiple subtypes of maltreatment indicated that physical neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse made significant unique contributions in predicting child outcomes. The advantages of exploring multiple dimensions within maltreatment, the necessity of developing better operational definitions of these dimensions, and social policy implications of the findings are discussed.
This investigation explored differences in depressive symptomatology among low-socioeconomic status children aged 7–12 years from abusive (N = 46), neglectful (N = 35), and nonmaltreating (N = 72) homes. Measures of aggression and self-esteem also were included. Children from abusive homes evidenced significantly more depressive symptomatology than children from either neglectful or nonmaltreating families. Additionally, children from physically abusive homes exhibited lower self-esteem than did nonmaltreated children. While significant differences among groups on aggression did not emerge, all groups evidenced higher levels of acting out behaviors than would be expected in a nonclinic group of children. Results were discussed in terms of the effects of physical abuse on depression and the importance of intervening to prevent the deleterious effects of abuse. Additionally, the impact of neglect and poverty status on the presence of aggression was discussed.
The present study examines the effect of child neglect, alone and in combination with abuse, on academic achievement and school disciplinary problems for elementary, junior high, and senior high students. The sample included 324 neglected children and adolescents, and a matched nonmaltreated sample of 420 children and adolescents. All subjects were in grades K through 12 in a small city in New York state. The results revealed that neglected children did perform more poorly than their nonmaltreated counterparts, having lower grades, more suspensions, more disciplinary referrals, and more grade repetitions, even when controlling for gender of child and SES. Neglect alone and neglect in combination with physical or sexual abuse was related to lower grades and more suspensions. The combination of abuse and neglect had a particularly strong effect on the number of disciplinary referrals and grade repetitions. Abused/neglected students in junior high had the highest number of grade repetitions. The number of disciplinary referrals continued to increase through senior high for both neglected and abused/neglected students. Interestingly, the academic performance of all subjects dropped during junior high. Neglect and neglect in combination with abuse appeared to exacerbate a decline in academic performance that occurs as children enter junior high school.
This study examined the extent to which being abused and/or neglected in childhood increases a person's risk for promiscuity, prostitution, and teenage pregnancy.
A prospective cohorts design was used to match, on the basis of age, race, sex, and social class, cases of abused and/or neglected children from 1967 to 1971 with nonabused and nonneglected children; subjects were followed into young adulthood. From 1989 to 1995 1196 subjects (676 abused and/or neglected and 520 control subjects were located and interviewed.
Early childhood abuse and/or neglect was a significant predictor of prostitution for females (odds ratio [OR] = 2.96). For females, sexual abuse (OR = 2.54) and neglect (OR = 2.58) were associated with prostitution, whereas physical abuse was only marginally associated. Childhood abuse and neglect were not associated with increased risk for promiscuity or teenage pregnancy.
These findings strongly support a relationship between childhood victimization and subsequent prostitution. The presumed causal sequence between childhood victimization and teenage pregnancy may need to be reevaluated.
Cicchetti and Lynch have conceptualized ecological contexts as consisting of nested levels with varying degrees of proximity to the individual. These levels of the environment interact and transact with each other over time in shaping individual development and adaptation. With a sample of maltreated (n = 188) and nonmaltreated (n = 134) children between the ages of 7 and 12 years, this investigation employed a 1-year longitudinal design to conduct an ecological-transactional analysis of the mutual relationships among community violence, child maltreatment, and children's functioning over time. Indicators of children's functioning were externalizing and internalizing behavior problems and self-rated traumatic stress reactions, depressive symptomatology, and self-esteem. Either full or partial support was obtained for the study's primary hypotheses. Rates of maltreatment, particularly physical abuse, were related to levels of child-reported violence in the community. In addition, child maltreatment and exposure to community violence were related to different aspects of children's functioning. Specific effects were observed for neglect and sexual abuse and for witnessing and being victimized by violence in the community. Finally, there was evidence that children and their contexts mutually influence each other over time. Results were discussed within the framework of an ecological-transactional model of development.
This paper presents a critical appraisal of resilience, a construct connoting the maintenance of positive adaptation by individuals despite experiences of significant adversity. As empirical research on resilience has burgeoned in recent years, criticisms have been levied at work in this area. These critiques have generally focused on ambiguities in definitions and central terminology; heterogeneity in risks experienced and competence achieved by individuals viewed as resilient; instability of the phenomenon of resilience; and concerns regarding the usefulness of resilience as a theoretical construct. We address each identified criticism in turn, proposing solutions for those we view as legitimate and clarifying misunderstandings surrounding those we believe to be less valid. We conclude that work on resilience possesses substantial potential for augmenting the understanding of processes affecting at-risk individuals. Realization of the potential embodied by this construct, however, will remain constrained without continued scientific attention to some of the serious conceptual and methodological pitfalls that have been noted by skeptics and proponents alike.
The defining features of developmental psychopathology concepts include attention to the understanding of causal processes, appreciation of the role of developmental mechanisms, and consideration of continuities and discontinuities between normality and psychopathology. Accomplishments with respect to these issues are reviewed in relation to attachment disorders, antisocial behavior, autism, depressive disorder, schizophrenia, and intellectual development. Major research challenges remain in relation to measurement issues, comorbidity, gender differences, cognitive processing, nature-nurture interplay, heterotypic continuity, continuities between normal variations and disorders, developmental programming, and therapeutic mechanisms in effective treatments.
“[A]n overview of the past suggests that today's investigators are as much determined by history as they are makers of it.” (Cairns, 1983, p. 90)
The study of teen parenthood has become almost synonymous with the study of teen mothers, but relatively little research attention has been devoted to the study of teen fathers. Nevertheless, because it appears that becoming a teen father has negative developmental consequences for both the teen father and his children, it is an important area of inquiry. This article uses data from the Rochester Youth Development Study, an ongoing panel study of urban youth, to identify early risk factors for the likelihood of becoming a teen father. The study is well suited to this task because the prevalence of teen fatherhood in this sample is quite high, and the project has collected extensive data in a range of developmental domains. We found teen fatherhood to be related to a variety of risk factors, such as social class, educational performance, precocious sexual activity, and drug use. Perhaps most important is the finding that teen fatherhood is strongly related to the cumulation of risk factors across many domains.
Child maltreatment is a phenomenon that poses significant difficulties for the individual, the family, and society as a whole. Research has revealed the deleterious effects of maltreatment on the organization of child development. Additionally, the long-term effects of maltreatment on adjustment have been documented. In this article, we present research on the effects of child maltreatment in various areas of functioning, including the development of secure attachment relationships, an autonomous self, peer relationships, and school adaptation. Implications of these results for educational settings and policy development are discussed.
The present study assessed the contribution of physical abuse to increased risk for suicidal behaviors in physically abused adolescents compared with nonabused adolescents. Suicidal thoughts and behaviors were assessed using the Suicide Probability Scale. Physically abused adolescents had higher mean scores on the Hopelessness, Negative Self-Evaluation, Hostility, and Suicide Ideation subscales. Significant predictors of subscale and overall scores included parent and adolescent psychopathology, poor academic performance, and decreased family cohesiveness. Physical abuse was a significant predictor of negative self-evaluation scores. It was concluded that physically abused adolescents experienced a combination of risk factors related to increased suicidal thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors. Furthermore, a model proposing an indirect relationship between physical abuse and suicide risk was described.
This study examines the interrelationship among childhood victimization, running away, and delinquency, and whether running away serves to mediate or moderate this relationship. Data are from a prospective cohorts design study in which documented cases of childhood abuse and neglect were compared to matched controls, and followed-up and interviewed between 1989 and 1995. Results indicate that being abused or neglected in childhood increases the likelihood that a youth will run away from home, both childhood victimization and running away increase the risk of juvenile arrest, and chronic runaways were at greater risk of arrest as juveniles. Furthermore, running away does not mediate the relationship between childhood victimization and delinquency, because running away increases the risk of juvenile arrest for both childhood victims and nonvictims. The effect of running away is stronger for non-abused and nonneglected youths than for abused and neglected children. Implications of these findings for research and policy are discussed.
The CES-D scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. The items of the scale are symptoms associated with depression which have been used in previously validated longer scales. The new scale was tested in household interview surveys and in psychiatric settings. It was found to have very high internal consistency and adequate test- retest repeatability. Validity was established by pat terns of correlations with other self-report measures, by correlations with clinical ratings of depression, and by relationships with other variables which support its construct validity. Reliability, validity, and factor structure were similar across a wide variety of demographic characteristics in the general population samples tested. The scale should be a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of de pression.
Sample retention is a potentially serious problem in panel studies of drug use that include minority respondents. Minority respondents may be more difficult to retain primarily because their disadvantaged economic status makes tracking and contacting them more difficult. It is suggested that with standard techniques of tracking applied aggressively, high retention rates can be obtained for these respondents. This paper describes strategies that are used in an ongoing panel study of drug use among primarily African American and Puerto Rican respondents and evaluates how effective these strategies have been. Over an eight year period involving ten waves of data collection, 86 percent of the initial 1000 adolescents have been retained. Among adolescents, there is little difference in attrition by racial/ethnic status. However, among the parents, Puerto Rican respondents have somewhat lower retention rates than white or African American respondents. Reasons for the attrition of the Puerto Rican parents are discussed. Comparisons of drug use and delinquency at Wave 1 between respondents who remained in the study at Wave 10 and those who did not are not statistically different. Correlations between risk factors and drug use and delinquency computed for those respondents who are retained compared with correlations for the total panel are also not substantially different. The findings suggest that given sufficient resources and aggressive implementation of retention strategies, a high retention rate evidencing no significant selection bias can be obtained.
Alerts APA researchers and readers that the article "Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature" by C. S. Widom (
Psychological Bulletin, 1989, Vol 106(1), Jul, 3–28) has been amplified and reprinted in a book chapter: Widom, C. S. (1989). The intergenerational transmission of violence. In N. A. Weinger & M. E. Wolfgang (Eds.),
Pathways to criminal violence. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Through an oversight, cross-reference between the two publications and information in the copyright for this article were omitted from the Sage book. The copyright is held by the American Psychological Association. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in PA, Vol 76:36811.) Critically examines the "violence breeds violence" hypothesis broadly defined. Organized into 7 sections, the literature review includes (a) the abuse breeds abuse hypothesis; (b) reports of small numbers of violent/homicidal offenders; (c) studies examining the relationship of abuse and neglect to delinquency; (d) to violent behavior, and (e) to aggressive behavior in infants and young children; (f) abuse, withdrawal, and self-destructive behavior; and (g) studies of the impact of witnessing or observing violent behavior… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
abuse and neglect are embedded in a wide range of adolescent problems—delinquency, parricide, running away, and prostitution / these links provide an important aspect of the context within which we must understand and intervene in adolescent maltreatment / a second aspect of that context is public and professional stereotypes about adolescents
the challenge of being parent to an adolescent / the adolescent's power is much greater than the child's / the adolescent has a broader field of other significant individuals with whom the parents must come to terms / the adolescent's cognitive abilities are likely to be more advanced than are the child's / adolescents are likely to be a financial drain / families at high risk for maltreatment in adolescence are more likely to contain stepparents / adolescents at high risk for maltreatment are less socially competant and exhibit more developmental problems than their peers / adolescent maltreatment includes all forms of abuse and neglect, but psychological and sexual abuse appear to be particularly prevalent (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of the study reported in this chapter is to examine the characteristics of the sexual abuse experience in a sample of girls and female adolescents and to see how these characteristics are related to developmental outcomes in these girls. The sample consisted of 77 6–16 yr old females who had been abused by a family member and were taking part in a longitudinal study of the impact of sexual abuse on psychological and biological development. Information about the characteristics of abuse was obtained from the Caseworker Abuse History Questionnaire. Problem behaviors and psychopathology were measured with the Child Behavior Checklist and the Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents, respectively. The following variables were examined: severity of abuse, age of onset of abuse, duration of abuse, perpetrator characteristics, physical violence, and multiple perpetrator.
Findings indicate that, for this sample, it is not appropriate to consider "father or father figure" to be a unitary construct when considering the impact on the development of sexually abused girls. Here, "biological father" is a powerful predictor of maladaptive developmental outcome and especially "acting-out or externalizing problems. The other abuse characteristic that predicts more severe developmental outcomes is "abuse count" or severity of the abusive act. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper describes the prevalence of and patterns of overlap among four problem behaviours (alcohol abuse, drug abuse, non-violent crime and violence) in abused and neglected children grown up. Using data from a prospective cohort design study, abused and neglected children were matched with a control group and followed up into adulthood (n = 1190). After controlling for parental alcohol and drug problems, parental arrest, childhood poverty and ethnicity, we found that abused and neglected females, but not males, are at significantly higher risk for substance abuse/dependence diagnoses and arrests for violent crimes than control group subjects. Abused and neglected males and females, as compared with controls, have higher rates of comorbidity for substance abuse and non-violent arrests. Abused and neglected females are at greater risk for comorbidity for substance abuse and violent arrests as well, as compared with control females. Overall, the results reveal gender differences in the consequences of childhood victimisation. Copyright © 1997 Whurr Publishers Ltd.
This paper presents a general strain theory of crime and delinquency that is capable of overcoming the criticisms of previous strain theories. In the first section, strain theory is distinguished from social control and differential association/social learning theory. In the second section, the three major types of strain are described: (1) strain as the actual or anticipated failure to achieve positively valued goals, (2) strain as the actual or anticipated removal of positively valued stimuli, and (3) strain as the actual or anticipated presentation of negatively valued stimuli. In the third section, guidelines for the measurement of strain are presented. And in the fourth section, the major adaptations to strain are described, and those factors influencing the choice of delinquent versus nondelinquent adaptations are discussed.
Subject attrition is a potentially serious threat to the validity of inferences drawn from panel studies of delinquency and drug use. Prior assessments of this issue produce somewhat conflicting results, with some finding that respondents who leave the panel have higher rates of delinquency and drug use than those who remain, while other studies report little or no differential attrition. Despite these findings, there has been virtually no examination of the extent to which respondent attrition can bias substantive findings in panel studies of delinquency and drug use. The present article addresses this issue by simulating higher levels of attrition in an ongoing panel study that has a low rate of attrition and little differential attrition. It finds that failure to include more elusive respondents (those who are more mobile) would bias estimates of prevalence and frequency of delinquency and drug use as well as results from basic regression analyses. Failure to include less cooperative respondents (those who require more contacts) produces similar, but somewhat smaller, differences. The methodological implications of the results are discussed.
This study examines the reduction of the number of items in the scales of the Child Behavior Checklist, while maintaining the reliability and predictability of its original scales. For that purpose, the original scales were replicated with data from the Pittsburgh Youth Study. New, abbreviated scales were constructed using the most potent items. This process yielded trimmed scales that were highly correlated with the full scales and that still reflect the original meanings of the scales. Further, there was no loss of reliability or predictability with the trimmed as opposed to the full scales. The results were replicated in an analysis with identical variables from the Rochester Youth Development Study. This replication produced equally high reliabilities with similar levels of prediction of delinquent behavior.
This paper reviews and integrates research knowledge about the impact of different forms of child maltreatment-physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect. Both the short-term impact on the child and the long-term impact on the adolescent and adult are considered. A developmental perspective guides the review. Research studies on these forms of child maltreatment which meet certain criteria (e.g., an appropriate comparison group) are reviewed with the aim of understanding how the experience of child abuse or neglect interferes with development at the time it is experienced and how it may affect the resolution of later developmental processes or tasks as the individual goes through adolescence and then adulthood. Evidence about the role of other mediating factors such as gender and other individual difference variables, characteristics of maltreatment, and family environment is also presented. Gaps in knowledge are noted, and recommendations are made for future research.
Two questions concerning the effect of physical abuse in early childhood on the child's development of aggressive behavior
are the focus of this article. The first is whether abuse per se has deleterious effects. In earlier studies, in which samples
were nonrepresentative and family ecological factors (such as poverty, marital violence, and family instability) and child
biological variables (such as early health problems and temperament) were ignored, findings have been ambiguous. Results from
a prospective study of a representative sample of 309 children indicated that physical abuse is indeed a risk factor for later
aggressive behavior even when the other ecological and biological factors are known. The second question concerns the processes
by which antisocial development occurs in abused children. Abused children tended to acquire deviant patterns of processing
social information, and these may mediate the development of aggressive behavior.
Official reports of maltreatment involving adolescent victims were compared to those involving younger children in a representative sample of protective services' reports drawn from New York State in 1985. Specific case characteristics, including age, gender, ethnicity of the victim, and source of report, are described and their relation to case substantiation is examined. Analyses revealed that adolescents represent a substantial proportion of all victims of official child maltreatment reports. The impact of age on substantiation varied as a function of the type of maltreatment, where for adolescents sexual abuse reports were more likely to be substantiated, while neglect and physical abuse reports were less likely to be substantiated. Reports involving adolescents were significantly more likely to involve a female victim. Significant gender differences in substantiation rate were found only for sexual abuse reports involving adolescents. White children were also found to be under-represented in this sample, while blacks were over-represented relative to their numbers in the population. The impact of minority status on substantiation was significant for neglect and physical abuse reports involving children. The majority of adolescent reports came from mandated sources, which had a significantly higher substantiation rate than reports from non-mandated sources.
Long-term intellectual and academic outcomes associated with early childhood victimization were studied using a sample of previously abused and neglected individuals (n = 413) and a matched control group (n = 286). IQ (Quick Test) and reading ability (WRAT-R) were assessed at approximately age 28 and differences between the groups were compared via multivariate analyses. Abused and neglected and control group individuals differed significantly in IQ and reading ability, even when controlling for age, sex, race, and social class. Types of maltreatment were associated with differences in IQ and reading ability in young adulthood. The limitations of this study are discussed as well as the role of IQ and/or reading ability as potential mediating variables for other outcomes.
To study the relationships between retrospective reports of physical punishment/maltreatment and rates of adjustment difficulties at age 18 in a birth cohort of New Zealand subjects.
Data were gathered over the course of an 18 year longitudinal study of a birth cohort of 1,265 New Zealand born children. At age 18 retrospective reports of exposure to physical punishment/maltreatment were obtained. At this time the cohort was also assessed on measures of psychosocial adjustment juvenile offending, substance abuse behaviors, and psychiatric disorder.
Young people reporting exposure to harsh or abusive treatment during childhood had elevated rates of juvenile offending, substance abuse, and mental health problems. However, subsequent analysis using logistic regression methods showed that much of the elevated risk shown by this group was explained by social and contextual factors that were associated with patterns of childhood punishment/maltreatment. Nonetheless, even after control for confounding factors those reporting harsh or abusive childhood experiences were at increased risks of violent offending, suicide attempts, being a victim of violence, and alcohol abuse.
This study leads to three major conclusions: (1) Those exposed to harsh or abusive treatment during childhood are an at-risk population for juvenile offending, substance abuse, and mental health problems; (2) Much of this elevated risk arises from the social context within which harsh or abusive treatment occurs; (3) Nonetheless, exposure to abuse appears to increase risks of involvement in violent behavior and alcohol abuse.
In a longitudinal study of the effects of early childhood maltreatment, 92 adolescents who had become parents while under 20 years of age were compared to 297 adolescents who had not become parents during their teenage years. Preschool and school-age physical abuse alone and in combination with neglect were found to have significant relationships with teenage parenthood. Low self-esteem, as evaluated by elementary school teachers, was related to both early maltreatment and teenage parenthood. Sexual abuse, based on retrospective reports of the adolescents, had a significant but weaker relationship to teenage parenthood. The implications of these findings and the findings that high school dropout, assaultive behavior, and drug use are also related to teenage parenthood are discussed.
A prospective longitudinal design was employed to assess risks associated with maltreatment in a representative community sample of 107 maltreated children and an equal number of nonmaltreated comparison children. Heightened difficulties in peer relationships and self-esteem were associated with greater severity and chronicity of maltreatment. For example, children who experienced chronic maltreatment were less well-liked by peers. Type of maltreatment was also related to specific aspects of children's adjustment. For instance, sexual abuse predicted low self-esteem, but not problems in peer relationships. Emotional maltreatment, on the other hand, was related to difficulties in peer relationships, but not to low self-esteem. Thus, the best predictions of specific aspects of children's adjustment were provided by considering timing, type, and severity of maltreatment. For some groups of maltreated children, having a good friend was associated with improvement over time in self-esteem.
Examined the complex interplay among emotion, attention, and aggression in a sample of 141 maltreated and 87 non-maltreated impoverished, inner-city children. Data were collected during a summer day camp, which provided an ecologically valid setting for studying children's behavior in social contexts. Maltreated children were more likely than non-maltreated children to be aggressive, with findings suggesting that physically abused children were at heightened risk for reactive aggression. Maltreated children also evidenced attention deficits, and subclinical or nonpathological dissociation was more likely among children who had experienced physical or sexual abuse. A history of abuse also predicted emotion dysregulation, affective lability/negativity, and socially inappropriate emotion expressions. This emotion dysregulation, fostered by poor attention modulation, was a mechanism of the effects of maltreatment on reactive aggression.
To investigate the magnitude and independence of the effects of childhood neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse on adolescent and adult depression and suicidal behavior.
A cohort of 776 randomly selected children was studied from a mean age of 5 years to adulthood in 1975, 1983, 1986, and 1992 during a 17-year period. Assessments included a range of child, family, and environmental risks and psychiatric disorders. A history of abuse was determined by official abuse records and by retrospective self-report in early adulthood on 639 youths. Attrition rate since 1983 has been less than 5%.
Adolescents and young adults with a history of childhood maltreatment were 3 times more likely to become depressed or suicidal compared with individuals without such a history (p < .01). Adverse contextual factors, including family environment, parent and child characteristics, accounted for much of the increased risk for depressive disorders and suicide attempts in adolescence but not in adulthood (p < .01). The effects of childhood sexual abuse were largest and most independent of associated factors. Risk of repeated suicide attempts was 8 times greater for youths with a sexual abuse history (odds ratio = 8.40, p < .01).
Individuals with a history of sexual abuse are at greater risk of becoming depressed or suicidal during adolescence and young adulthood. Adolescence is the most vulnerable period for those youths who may attempt suicide repeatedly. Many of the apparent effects of neglect, in contrast, may be attributable to a range of contextual factors, suggesting broader focus for intervention in these cases.
Maltreatment was predicted to negatively affect children's academic and behavioral adjustment through the creation of deficits in academic engagement, social competencies, ego resiliency, and ego control. Teachers' comprehensive evaluations, school records, and camp counselors' ratings were obtained for 229 socioeconomically disadvantaged children (ages 5-12 years), 146 of whom had been maltreated. Maltreated children showed less academic engagement, more social skills deficits, and lower ego resiliency than nonmaltreated comparison children. Maltreated children manifested multiple forms of academic risk and showed more externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. The effects of maltreatment on academic maladjustment were partially mediated by academic engagement, whereas maltreatment's effects on behavior problems were mediated fully by social competencies and ego resiliency.