Content uploaded by Dale E. Berger
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Dale E. Berger on Oct 29, 2017
Content may be subject to copyright.
Content uploaded by Dale E. Berger
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Dale E. Berger on Oct 16, 2017
Content may be subject to copyright.
Education of Personal Trainers
1
Importance of Health Science Education for
Personal Fitness Trainers
Moh H. Malek1, David P. Nalbone2, Dale E. Berger1, and Jared W. Coburn3
1Claremont Graduate University, Department of Psychology
123 East 8th Street, Claremont, California 91711.
Phone: (909) 621-8084
Fax: (909) 621-8905
E-mail: Mo.Malek@CGU.Edu
2Hamilton College, Department of Psychology
Clinton, New York 13323.
3California State University, Fullerton, Department of Kinesiology,
Fullerton, California 92834.
Running head: EDUCATION OF PERSONAL TRAINERS
Education of Personal Trainers
2
ABSTRACT
Using a questionnaire developed for the current study, the Fitness Instructors
Knowledge Assessment (FIKA), we examined relationships between commonly used
indicators of knowledge (training and experience) and actual knowledge in the five
areas of (a) nutrition, (b) health screening, (c) testing protocols, (d) exercise
prescription, and (e) general training knowledge regarding special populations. FIKA
provided reliable measures of knowledge in these areas, which are of critical
importance in developing an optimal fitness program for the client and for avoiding
unnecessary injuries. A survey of 115 health fitness professionals revealed that a
bachelor’s degree in the field of exercise science and possession of American College
of Sports Medicine (ACSM) or the National Strength and Conditioning Association
(NSCA) certifications as opposed to other certifications were strong predictors of a
personal trainer’s knowledge, whereas years of experience was not related to
knowledge. These findings suggest that personal fitness trainers should have licensing
requirements, such as a bachelor’s degree in exercise science and certification by an
organization whose criteria are extensive and widely accepted, before being allowed to
practice their craft.
Key Words: Personal trainers, health clubs, fitness industry, FIKA, fitness certification.
Education of Personal Trainers
3
Introduction
Every day, people are bombarded with an array of enticing advertisements
encouraging them to get into shape. With the recent emphasis on health and fitness,
the number of health clubs within the United States reached an all-time high of 15,372
in 1999, while the number of memberships in U.S. health clubs increased to
approximately 10 million by the end of the 1990s. Not surprisingly, the number of
personal trainers has also grown. A recent survey found that over 62,000 personal
trainers work in the United States, the mean age of personal trainers' clients was 37
years, and the mean number of sessions per client was 18 (9). However, unlike many
other health professionals (e.g., doctors), personal trainers are not required by law to
possess a license in order to practice (6). The lack of such a provision and the
important health role of personal trainers raises the question, “What are good predictors
of expertise among personal trainers?”
Rupp, Campbell, Thompson, and Terbizan (1999) [11] stated that certification
assures the client that the health fitness instructor has completed a professional training
curriculum. A plethora of certifying organizations exists within the fitness industry, with
each organization claiming to test knowledge, skills, and abilities that are essential for
an effective fitness instructor. Past research has shown that few of the certifying
organizations actually live up to this billing (2, 3, 4, 12). Some certificates are issued
following relatively limited training in workshops, training that is much less
comprehensive than a broad formal education. Thus, may not be adequate for health
clubs merely to require certification of its personal trainers, because not all certificates
are equal.
Education of Personal Trainers
4
Extensive training experience in the health and fitness profession does not
necessarily translate into a knowledgeable and capable professional. Thomas, Long,
and Myers (1993) [12] studied the training and experience of 58 health fitness
professionals in the Houston area. Most respondents had a fair amount of experience
(41%had over six years experience in the health fitness profession), yet 84% of these
personal trainers recommended a higher percentage of protein in daily caloric intake
than that advised by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (6, 8, 13). Fuller and
Harding (1994) [3] identified a set of college courses that they believed are necessary
for health fitness professionals (e.g., nutrition, physiology, exercise prescription). They
found that no single course had been taken by more than 60% of the respondents in
their study, and 38% of these health fitness professionals had completed none of the
key courses. Similarly, Davis (1994) [2] found that only 39% of the 57 health fitness
professionals in his study had degrees in the field of exercise science. However, fitness
professionals who were certified by ACSM or NSCA and who had a background in
exercise science or physical education performed better than individuals who were not
certified by either ACSM or NSCA on questions pertaining to exercise physiology,
program design, and exercise nutrition. Thus, education may be more important than
training experience for knowledge in personal trainers.
Fuller et al. (1995) [4] assessed possible relationships among formal
education, type of certifying organization, and level of knowledge. The researchers
identified 13 core courses that they considered important in preparation as a personal
trainer: (1) Anatomy (human); (2) Biochemistry; (3) Biomechanics; (4) Care and
prevention of athletic injuries; (5) Exercise physiology; (6) Exercise prescription; (7)
Exercise testing; (8) Fitness programming; (9) Nutrition; (10) Nutrition, exercise, and
Education of Personal Trainers
5
weight control; (11) Physiology (human); (12) Sports medicine; and (13) Weight
training. They found that individuals certified by ACSM or NSCA, as well as individuals
working in rehabilitation, had completed an average of 74% (n = 9) of these core
courses. Over 80% of this sub-sample had completed at least three or more of the core
courses. Fitness knowledge was highest among ACSM certified trainers and
individuals working in rehabilitation, while the NSCA certified trainers were most
knowledgeable in the area of strength training.
In a recent study of 110 health clubs within Massachusetts, McInnis et al. (1997)
[10] found that only 34% of clubs (n=37) had staff entirely composed of individuals who
possessed bachelor’s degrees. They also found that 74% of clubs (n=82) did not
require a physician’s consent prior to exercise for men over 40 or for women over 50
years old (10). This lack of screening is in direct violation of the ACSM’s guideline for
exercise prescription (1). Other researchers have found that only 3% of personal
trainers followed ACSM guidelines for prescribing aerobic exercise to their clients (12).
A solid understanding of nutrition, health screening, testing protocols, exercise
prescription, and knowledge regarding special populations (e.g., individuals with
hypertension) is of critical importance in developing an optimal fitness program for
clients. The Fitness Instructors Knowledge Assessment (FIKA), was developed for
this study to provide measures of knowledge in these areas. The purpose of this study
was to examine the strength of the relationships between years of professional fitness,
training experience, education, and professional certification credentials and actual
fitness training knowledge as determined via the Fitness Instructors Knowledge
Assessment questionnaire. Based upon past research, we hypothesized that (i)
number of years participants have worked as a health fitness professional would not be
Education of Personal Trainers
6
associated with performance on the five scales of the FIKA questionnaire, (ii)
participants with a bachelor’s degree or higher in Exercise Science would score higher
on all sections of the FIKA questionnaire than those without such a degree, (iii)
participants who have completed more core courses would score higher than those who
have completed fewer core courses, and (iv) participants with ACSM or NSCA
certifications would score higher on all sections of FIKA than those with other
certifications.
Methods
Experimental Design
All participants completed an eight-page questionnaire, which included the
Fitness Instructors Knowledge Assessment (FIKA), designed by the authors of this
study. The first page of the assessment packet contained background questions, while
the remaining seven pages contained questions that assessed the knowledge, skills,
and abilities of the health fitness professional. The researchers contacted each of
twelve fitness-certifying organizations, and requested a description of topics covered on
each organization’s health fitness instructor certification examination. All certifying
organizations that were contacted complied with this request. Using this knowledge,
the researchers developed a set of questions that tested knowledge of the health
fitness professional in the five specific areas outlined above, without bias toward any
particular certifying organization. Although past surveys used 15 or fewer questions,
the researchers believed that a longer survey would provide a better measure of the
participants’ knowledge base.
In Phase 1, a set of 55 multiple-choice questions was generated by one of the
authors, who has taught courses in exercise science since 1988. The 55 questions
Education of Personal Trainers
7
were given to a group of health fitness professionals, graduate students in exercise
science, and exercise physiologists who were asked to sort each question into one of
five categories: (1) Nutrition (e.g., “Protein should contribute no more than _____% of
the total daily caloric input for an average individual?”); (2) Health screening (e.g., “In
order to have a positive risk factor for “age” the client must be _____?”); (3) Testing
protocols (e.g., “When administering the Sit and Reach test, the client should _____?”);
(4) Exercise prescription (e.g., “What intensity of exercise is most appropriate to
develop a cardiovascular benefit in an apparently healthy individual?”); and (5)
Treatment of special populations (e.g., “Which of the following exercise prescriptions
would you recommend to a non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus [NIDDM] client?”).
The order of these categories does not necessarily reflect our evaluation of their merit.
If a question was consistently placed into a given category, it was retained; if not,
it was omitted. Of the 55 questions initially generated, 52 were consistently placed into
the appropriate categories. In Phase 2, the refined list of 52 questions was given to a
different group of fitness professionals, graduate students in exercise science, and
exercise physiologists to ensure clarity, accuracy, and content validity. Between nine
and eleven questions were retained for each category, to produce the final 48 questions
used in the questionnaire (see Table 1). Reliability (as indexed by Cronbach’s alpha)
ranged from .57 to .72 for the individual subscales, and attained .90 for the overall
scale.
Education of Personal Trainers
8
Experimental Procedures
The health fitness professionals in the current study were employed in four
environments: (1) independent gyms or proprietorships, (2) large fitness chains, (3)
colleges, and (4) self-employed. The study was approved by the Institutional Review
Board for the Protection of Human Subjects at Claremont Graduate University prior to
contact with the health clubs.
Initial contact with the manager of each facility was made by telephone. The
researcher introduced himself as a student of the Claremont Colleges, and informed the
manager that he was compiling a profile of individuals working in the health fitness
industry by means of a questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered over a four-
month period during the fall of 1999 and the winter of 2000 and was either given in
person or left with the health club manager to distribute to employees. The latter option
was implemented with most health clubs. Participants were assured both verbally and
in written form (i.e., on the questionnaire itself) that all responses would be kept strictly
anonymous and that no individual's name or health club affiliation would be collected.
The researcher obtained informed consent from the respondents prior to administering
the questionnaire. The respondents were told to answer each question to the best of
their abilities and not to use any resource materials. They were told that there was one
question that required mathematical computation, but that a calculator would not be
needed because the numbers were all factors of ten. This information was also written
on the FIKA survey next to that question.
For surveys administered in-person, respondents were told to ask the researcher
if a question arose and the researcher would answer the question to the best of his
abilities, without compromising the survey. Once subjects finished the questionnaire,
Education of Personal Trainers
9
they were asked to place the survey into an envelope and then to seal the envelope.
The researcher collected the envelopes, thanked the respondents for their time and
cooperation, and exited the facility.
When the FIKA questionnaires were given to the health club manager to
administer, a script was provided to each manager to read to the participants. The
health fitness professionals were told, in the script that their manager read to them, that
the survey was not to be taken outside of the health club premises and that they were
not to use any resource materials. The researchers allowed four weeks for the
manager to complete the data collection. If the manager requested additional time, one
extra week was granted.
Participants
Participants were 115 health fitness professionals (61 men and 54 women), ages
20 to 54 (M = 30.1 years, SD = 7.8), from the Inland Empire area of Southern
California. This area encompasses the eastern part of Los Angeles County, the
western part of San Bernardino County, and the northwestern part of Riverside County,
and consists of approximately three million people in 130 cities, ranging from very small
to metropolitan. Thirty-three health clubs were identified in the target area. Each was
contacted, and 28 facilities (85%) agreed to participate in the study.
Statistical Analysis
In order to test each of the four hypotheses, a two-tailed t-test was conducted to
compare the relevant group means specified in each hypothesis. When appropriate,
we present group means (M) and standard deviations (SD) for relevant groups. In
order to predict the variance in overall knowledge scores that can be explained by the
four main factors identified in our hypotheses, we conducted a linear regression of the
Education of Personal Trainers
10
four factors onto overall FIKA score. For this analysis, we presented the variance
accounted for (R2) and an F-test of the significance of the regression equation. In order
to assess the unique contribution of each predictor, we calculated and tested the beta
weight () of each predictor. Finally, in order to assess the strength of the relationships
between individual predictor variables, we report the relevant correlation coefficients (r).
The alpha level for statistical significance of each statistical test was set at .05.
Results
As seen in Table 2, the majority of the 115 participants worked in either
independently-owned or corporate-owned health clubs. The vast majority of
participants were fitness instructors, and most respondents had no college degree.
Table 3 displays results for analyses addressing each of the four hypotheses.
Our first hypothesis was that the number of years that a participant had worked as a
health fitness professional would not be associated with performance on the five scales
of the FIKA questionnaire. Experience ranged from 0.2 years to 18.0 years (M = 3.0,
SD = 3.7). As predicted, the number of years individuals had worked as a health fitness
professional was unrelated to scores on any of the five FIKA scales or overall. Fitness
professionals with five or more years of experience had no greater knowledge than
those with fewer years of experience (see Table 3).
As predicted in our second hypotheses, individuals with at least a bachelor’s
degree in exercise science scored higher on all FIKA scales, and overall, than
individuals who did not hold a bachelor’s degree in exercise science (see Table 3).
Our third hypothesis was that participants who had completed more core
courses, as identified by Fuller et al. (1995), would score higher on all FIKA scales
than those who had completed fewer core courses. Participants completed between 0
Education of Personal Trainers
11
and 12 of the 13 core courses (M = 2.0, SD = 3.3). As predicted, individuals who had
completed four or more core courses scored higher on all scales, and overall (see
Table 3).
Our fourth hypothesis was that participants with ACSM or NSCA certifications
would score higher on all FIKA scales than those without one of these certifications.
Out of the 115 respondents, ten held certification from only ACSM or only NSCA and
100 were certified by one or more other organizations but not by ACSM or NSCA; one
was certified by ASCM, NSCA, and one other organization; and four held no
certification. As predicted, respondents holding a certificate from either ASCM or
NSCA scored higher on all scales, and overall (see Table 3).
Finally, we used the four predictor variables in a regression model to predict
participants’ performance on the FIKA questionnaire. As can be seen in Table 4,
three of these four variables were strongly correlated with overall knowledge: (1)
having a bachelor’s degree in exercise science, (2) having taken four or more core
courses, and (3) having an ACSM or NSCA certification. Years of experience was not
related to knowledge. When all four predictors were entered into a regression model,
67% of the variance in fitness knowledge was accounted for [R2 = .67, F (4,110) = 56.7,
p < .001]. Having a bachelor’s degree in exercise science made only a small unique
contribution to predicting knowledge (beta = .18, p < .05). This may be due to the fact
that having a bachelor’s degree is substantially correlated both with having completed
four or more courses in exercise science [r (115) = .70, p < .001] and with having an
ACSM or NSCA certification [r (115) = .40, p < .001].
A regression model with only the two best predictors of overall knowledge
(having a bachelor’s degree in exercise science and having an ACSM or NSCA
Education of Personal Trainers
12
certification) explained the data nearly as well as the model with all four predictors [R2
= .63, F (2,112) = 94.0, p < .001].
Discussion
The findings of this study address a number of issues raised by the ACSM Code
of Ethics (7). The health fitness professional, by definition, is a professional who uses
an individualized approach to assess, motivate, educate, and train clients regarding
their health and fitness needs. However, in order to realize these objectives, the
personal trainer must have a strong foundation in exercise science. This can best be
accomplished through formal education. The fact that an individual has worked for
years as a personal trainer or has met a minimum standard for passing a certification
exam should not be misconstrued as proof of competence in designing a safe and
optimal fitness program. As such, using years of experience as a barometer of the
capabilities of potential hires in the health fitness industry may need to be reconsidered.
While many in the health fitness industry believe that practical experience is key, the
results of this study show that formal education is a far better predictor of personal
trainers’ health fitness knowledge than years of experience. In addition, when it comes
to certifying organizations, all certificates are not created equal. Certification by ACSM
or NSCA was associated with much higher levels of health fitness knowledge than
certification by any other certifying organization, or even certifications from several
other certifying organizations.
Most certifying organizations do not require a personal trainer candidate to
possess a college degree, or even to have completed college courses in exercise
science. In fact, many organizations promote 7-day or weekend workshops in
preparation for their examination. It seems unlikely that an individual will learn even the
Education of Personal Trainers
13
basics of this discipline in such a short time. Perhaps, in an effort to bring more
credibility to the profession, certifying organizations should require a minimal number of
core college-level courses completed, as identified by Fuller et al. (1995) [4], for their
“personal trainer” certification. At McGill University’s athletic department, in Quebec,
Canada, a 14-week course which covers topics in anatomy, biomechanics, exercise
physiology, exercise design and analysis, injury prevention, nutrition, and weight
training has been offered to those who want to pursue a career in personal training;
perhaps such a program should be implemented by two- or four-year colleges
throughout the United States.
Practical Applications
Individuals seeking the assistance of personal trainers deserve to have a health
fitness professional who possesses a proper level of knowledge, skills, and abilities in
exercise science in order to design a safe, injury-free, and optimal fitness program.
The results of the current study suggest that a person or health fitness club seeking to
hire a personal trainer would do well to ask two key questions: (1) “Do you have a
college degree in exercise science?”; (2) “Are you certified by ACSM or NSCA?” In our
sample, respondents who answered ‘yes’ to both of these questions scored an average
of 85% on the FIKA questionnaire, compared to only 36% for those who answered ‘no’
to both questions, and 55% for those who answered ‘yes’ to only one of the two
questions. These findings suggest that personal fitness trainers should have
requirements such as a bachelor’s degree in exercise science and certification by an
organization whose criteria are extensive and widely accepted.
In 1994, California Assembly member Vivian Bronshavag (D-Haywood) proposed
a bill that would require fitness instructors in California to pass an examination issued
Education of Personal Trainers
14
by the state in order to train clients (5). However, given a lack of statistical data (e.g.,
injury rates) and lack of support from professional associations (e.g., ACSM) on the
effectiveness such a measure might have, the proposed bill was defeated.
Many other health-related professionals (e.g., nutritionists, certified athletic
trainers) are required to earn a degree that imparts necessary health-related knowledge
and an appropriately rigorous certification before practicing their craft. It is the authors’
contention that such standards should be given serious consideration for personal
fitness trainers as well. In recent years, the number of lawsuits brought forth as a result
of alleged negligence on the part of fitness professionals has dramatically risen.
Inadequate screening and premature certification of unqualified candidates can expose
both health clubs and certifying organizations to liability should clients suffer injuries
due to the negligence of an unqualified personal fitness trainer. Thus, it is in the best
interest of all parties involved—clients, personal trainers, health clubs, certifying
organizations, and society as a whole—to implement standards that may reduce the
incidence of such injuries and the resulting legal entanglements.
Education of Personal Trainers
15
References
1. AMERICAN COLLEGE OF SPORTS MEDICINE. Guidelines for Exercise Testing and
Prescription 5th ed. Philadelphia: Williams and Wilkins, 1995.
2. DAVIS, C. A Survey of the Level of Knowledge of Exercise Leaders and Fitness
Instructors. Unpublished Master’s Thesis. Arizona State University: Department
of Exercise Science and Physical Education, 1994.
3. FULLER, B.B., AND F.V. HARDING. A Survey of Personal Trainers in the Greater
Los Angeles Area. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Southwest
Chapter American College of Sports Medicine. San Diego, November 1994.
4. FULLER, B.B., FEYRER-MELK, S., THOMAS, D.Q., AND F.V. HARDING. A Statistical
Analysis of the Academic Preparation and Knowledge of Fitness Instructors in
the Southwestern United States from 1992-1995. Poster presented at the Annual
Meeting of the Southwest Chapter American College of Sports Medicine. San
Diego, November 1995.
5. HERBERT, D.L. You be the judge: Should fitness instructors be licensed? NSCA
Journal. 16(4):50. 1994.
6. HEYWARD, V. Advanced fitness assessment and exercise prescription 3rd ed.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1997.
7. Hilgenkamp, K. Ethical Behavior and Professionalism in the Business of Health
and Fitness. ACSM's Health and Fitness Journal. 2(6). 1998.
8. HOWLEY, E.T., AND B.D. FRANKS. Health fitness instructor’s handbook.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1997.
9. IDEA. IDEA/ASD Personal Fitness Training Survey: The Consumer Perspective.
http://www.ideafit.com/prasdsurvey.cfm (17 Feb. 2000).
Education of Personal Trainers
16
10. MCINNIS, K.J., HAYAKAWA, S., AND G.J. BALADY. Cardiovascular screening and
emergency procedures at health clubs and fitness centers. The American
Journal of Cardiology. 80:380-383. 1997.
11. RUPP, J.C., CAMPBELL, K., THOMPSON, W.R., AND D. TERBIZAN. Professional
preparation of personal trainers. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and
Dance 70:54-57. 1999.
12. THOMAS, D.Q, LONG, K.A, AND B. MYERS. Survey of personal trainers in Houston,
Texas. NSCA Journal. 15(3):43-46. 1993.
13. WHITNEY, E.N., HAMILTON, E.M., AND S.R. ROLFES. Understanding Nutrition. New
York, NY: West Publishing Company, 1990.
Education of Personal Trainers
17
Acknowledgments
The researchers would like to thank John Hampton, M.S., of California State
University, Fullerton, his fellow graduate students, and other individuals in the field of
exercise science for their participation in the pilot study. Also we would like to thank
Elizabeth Campos, J.D., of Thomas Jefferson School of Law and Susan Chin, M.S. of
University of California, Los Angeles Medical Center for their assistance with the
literature review.
Education of Personal Trainers
18
Table 1.
Proportion of Correct Responses and Reliability for Each Knowledge Domain on
Fitness Instructors Knowledge Assessment (FIKA).
FIKA Scale
Number of
Questions
Cronbach’s
Alpha
Percentage
Correct
SD
Nutrition
9
.72
46%
.25
Health
Screening
9
.57
53%
.21
Testing
Protocols
11
.64
48%
.17
Exercise
Prescription
10
.63
41%
.23
Special
Populations
9
.71
26%
.22
Overall
48
.90
43%
.18
Education of Personal Trainers
19
Table 2.
Demographic Characteristics of the Sample Used.
Work Setting
N
Occupation
N
Highest
Degree Held
N
Independent health club
46
Fitness instructor
95
None
68
Corporate-owned health club
46
Fitness supervisor
15
A.A.
12
Self-employed
20
Fitness technician
1
B.A. a
31
College facility
3
Certified athletic trainer
3
M.A.
3
Other
1
Note: a Most of these individuals (n = 22) held their degrees in Exercise Science.
Education of Personal Trainers
20
Table 3.
Education of Personal Trainers
21
Table 4.
Correlations and Linear Regression Weights of Four Predictors of Overall Knowledge
on the Fitness Instructors Knowledge Assessment Questionnaire (FIKA).
Predictor Variable
r
Final
Five or more years of work
experience
.07
-.03
B.A. or higher in exercise
science
.68***
.18*
Four or more core courses
.62***
.30***
ACSM or NSCA
certification
.73***
.51***
Note. F (4, 110) = 56.7, p < .001, and R2 = .67 for this model.
* p < .05; *** p < .001; n = 115.
