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Glucosinolates: Bioavailability and Importance to Health
Abstract
Epidemiological studies suggest that brassica vegetables are protective against cancers of the lungs and alimentary tract. Cruciferous vegetables are the dietary source of glucosinolates, a large group of sulfur-containing glucosides. These compounds remain intact unless brought into contact with the enzyme myrosinase by pests, food processing, or chewing. Myrosinase releases glucose and breakdown products, including isothiocyanates. These highly reactive compounds are potent inducers of Phase II enzymes in vitro. Isothiocyanates also inhibit mitosis and stimulate apoptosis in human tumor cells, in vitro and in vivo. To understand and exploit such effects it is important to determine the routes of absorption of glucosinolate breakdown products, their metabolism, and delivery to systemic tissues. Glucosinolates can be gained or lost by vegetables during storage. They may be degraded or leached during processing, or preserved by thermal inactivation of myrosinase. Glucosinolates are broken down by plant myrosinase in the small intestine or by bacterial myrosinase in the colon. Isothiocyanates are absorbed from the small bowel and colon, and metabolites are detectable in human urine two to three hours after consumption of brassica vegetables. Interpretation of epidemiological data and exploitation of brassica vegetables for human health requires an understanding of glucosinolate chemistry and metabolism, across the whole food chain, from production and processing to the consumer.
... Glucosinolates (GLS) are primarily found in plants of the genus Brassica, which include crops of economic and nutritional importance. GLS are rich in sulfur and anionic secondary metabolites [5]. GLS have been extensively studied for their protective effect against herbivory in plants and chemotherapeutic activity in humans [6]. ...
... GLS have been extensively studied for their protective effect against herbivory in plants and chemotherapeutic activity in humans [6]. e consumption of vegetables containing glucosinolates may confer protection against cancer in humans [5]. e hydrolytic breakdown products of glucosinolates have beneficial effects on human health, including cytotoxic and apoptotic effects in damaged cells and reducing risks of degenerative diseases [5,6]. ...
... e consumption of vegetables containing glucosinolates may confer protection against cancer in humans [5]. e hydrolytic breakdown products of glucosinolates have beneficial effects on human health, including cytotoxic and apoptotic effects in damaged cells and reducing risks of degenerative diseases [5,6]. ...
This study was conducted to explore the effects of ethanolic extracts of leaves of Glycyrrhiza uralensis on the growth and nutritional quality of Chinese flowering cabbage (Brassica rapa subsp. parachinensis) under field conditions. Preliminary greenhouse experiments were carried out with different concentrations of G. uralensis extracts to select the suitable dose for field studies. An extract concentration of 12.5 g/L was selected based on relative growth rate analysis and increase in photosynthetic pigment biosynthesis. Shoot length, shoot fresh weight and dry weight, number of leaves, and marketable value of Chinese flowering cabbage plants were significantly increased in the field trials with foliar application of G. uralensis leaves extracts at a concentration of 12.5 g/L. This biotic elicitor also enhanced the total phenolic and flavonoid contents, with optimal values increasing by 18.76% and 22.43%, respectively, compared with the control under field conditions. The total glucosinolate content was effectively increased (from 11.21 to 15.37 μmol·g−1 DW sinigrin equivalents), particularly 4-methoxyglucobrassicin (from 4.31 to 6.72 μmol·g−1 DW sinigrin equivalents) and glucoalyssin (from 0.14 to 0.19 μmol·g−1 DW sinigrin equivalents) compared with the control plants in field trials. Overall, foliar application of leaf extracts of G. uralensis can markedly increase the growth of Chinese flowering cabbage and enhance its medicinal and nutritional quality in the fields.
... All glucosinolates have a chemical structure with a sulfonated moiety, a β-D-thioglucose group, and a variable side chain [10]. The biological activities of glucosinolates can generally be credited to their hydrolysis products (mostly isothiocyanates), which reduce the risk of lung, stomach, colon, and rectum cancers [11]. It is thought that the isothiocyanate sulforaphane derivative of 4-methylsulfinylbutyl glucosinolate and other isothiocyanates may help prevent tumor growth by blocking the cell cycle and promoting apoptosis [10,12]. ...
... Once horseradish root tissues are ground or crushed, sinigrin (or other glucosinolates) mix with myrosinase, and pungent volatile allyl compounds (isothiocyanates) are produced [1,16]. Thus, glucosinolates react with myrosinase that lead to the formation of biologically active isothiocyanates, such as sulforaphane and indole-3-carobinol [1,11]. Myrosinase is the enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis of the parent glucosinolates into the biologically active products [15]. ...
... Most of the commercial horseradish crop is crushed fresh into sauces or used as food additives for its pungent flavor [11]. Vinegar (acetic acid) is often added immediately after grinding to stop this reaction and stabilize the flavor of horseradish. ...
Horseradish is a flavorful pungent herb that has been used for centuries to enhance the flavor of food, aid in digestion, and improve human health. Horseradish is a neglected and underutilized plant species (NUS), especially concerning the potential benefits to improve human health. The roots of this plant have been known for centuries to provide effective treatments for various human health disorders and has a long history of use in traditional medicine. Horseradish is a source of many biologically active compounds and its richness in phytochemicals has encouraged its recent use as a functional food. The medicinal benefits of horseradish are numerous, and this plant should be promoted more as being beneficial for human health. Glucosinolates or their breakdown products, isothiocyanates, are responsible for most of the claimed medicinal effects. Recent studies have suggested that glucosinolates provide prevention and inhibitory influences on different types of cancer, and horseradish contains high amounts of these compounds. Other medicinal benefits of horseradish include its well-known antibacterial properties that are also attributed to isothiocyanates, and its high content of other antioxidants that benefit human health. Additionally, horseradish contains enzymes that stimulate digestion, regulate bowel movement, and reduce constipation. Horseradish is a species that is vastly underexploited for its abilities as a medicinal plant species for improving human health. The health promoting effects of horseradish are numerous and should be used in an extensive marketing campaign to improve consumption habits. Consumers need to be made more aware of the tremendous health benefits of this plant, which would most likely increase consumption of this valuable NUS. Although horseradish is a highly versatile plant species and holds great potential for improving human health, this plant can also be used to enhance biodiversity in landscapes and food systems, which will also be briefly discussed.
... Myrosinase is active in fresh vegetables and in the stomach and small intestine. 40 Glucosinolate hydrolytic rearrangement is dependent upon pH. At a low pH ≤ 3 (i.e., the pH of the stomach), hydrolytic rearrangement favors formation of nitriles and at pH ≥ 7 (i.e., the pH of the small intestines) hydrolytic rearrangement favors formation of isothiocyanates. ...
... Article urine 2−3 h after consumption of Brassica vegetables in humans. 40 Glucosinolate hydrolysis products are primarily responsible for the anticarcinogenic activity associated with consuming Brassica vegetables. These low-molecular weight compounds are able to rapidly diffuse into the cells of the intestinal epitheilium and modulate the expression of genes important to chemoprevention (e.g., those associated with xenobiotic metabolism, antioxidation, cell cycle regulation, apoptotic pathways, and stress response). ...
... Intact glucosinolates are not absorbed through the intestinal epithelium, and the hydrolysis products, which are absorbed, are the bioactive forms of glucosinolates. 40 Therefore, it is important to understand the disposition of bioactive glucosinolate hydrolysis products available for absorption in the small intestine. Phenylacetonitrile 3-butenyl isothiocyanate, allyl nitrile, and sulforaphane were identified in gastric digesta by 60 min of HGS (Figures 2 and 3 and Table 5). ...
Glucosinolates and their hydrolysis products were characterized in fresh and in in vitro gastric and intestinal digesta of Dinosaur kale (Brassica oleracea L var. palmifolia DC). In fresh kale, glucoraphanin, sinigrin, gluconapin, gluconasturtiin, glucoerucin, glucobrasscin and 4-methoxylglucobrassicin were identified. After 120 mins of gastric digestion, the levels of glucoraphanin, sinigrin, and gluconapin decreased, and no glucoerucin or glucobrasscin was detected. However, a concomitant increase in the glucosinolate hydrolysis products allylnitrile, 3-butenyl isothiocyanate, phenylacetonitrile, and sulforaphane was observed. This trend continued through intestinal digestion. After 120 mins the levels of allylnitrile, 3-butenyl isothiocyanate, phenylacetonitrile, and sulforaphane were 88.19 ± 5.85, 222.15 ± 30.26, 129.17 ± 17.57, and 13.71 ± 0.62 pmol/g fresh weight, respectively. Intestinal digesta were then applied to Caco-2 cell monolayers to assess bioavailability. After 6 h of incubation, no glucosinolates were detected, and the percentage of total cellular uptake of the glucosinolate hydrolysis products ranged from 29.35% (sulforaphane) to 46.60% (allyl nitrile).
... On the other hand, toxic constituents like glucosinolates protect against plant pests and diseases. Pungent enzyme, myrosinase has the function of changing glucosinolate to isothiocyanate which inhibits mitosis and stimulates apoptosis of human tumor cells in both in vitro and in vivo [48]. ...
... Dysbiosis, as opposed to homeostasis, is a term used to describe alteration in the composition of the gut microbiota and this state has been linked with many pathological conditions and with aging. It was found that preventing of dysbiosis in gut microbiota extends the lifespan of aging flies [48]. The 'US Human Microbiome Project (HMP)' and the 'European Metagenomics of the Human Intestinal Tract (MetaHIT)' have been established to determine the types and functions of human intestinal microbiota in the health and disease conditions [6]. ...
... The study populations were workers, obese women, security guards, university and special needs students and pre-school children. Study designs included quasi-experimental randomized and cluster randomized controlled trials [43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50]. Three out of eights studies combined dietary and physical activity interventions [43,45,48]. ...
Fruits and vegetables (FV) are important sources of nutrients and phytochemicals. Consumption of adequate amounts of FV has been indicated to lead to reduction in the risk factors that are associated with chronic diseases. However, whether an individual appreciates the importance of fruits and vegetables and includes them in his diet is dependent upon several factors. These factors are food culture, income level, tradition, location of residence and health awareness amongst others. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of demographics, dietary choices, health awareness and food culture on FV consumption among tertiary institution students. Specifically, students of the University of Johannesburg (UJ), South Africa were selected as study samples. Structured questionnaire containing 30 items was administered via contact and online platforms and the responses obtained were analysed using principal component analysis (PCA). Based on the analysed data, the impact of daily consumption of FV and the awareness of the health benefits of FV among the students were evaluated. It was concluded that most of the students are not aware of the health benefits of FV consumption. This study, would assist the students to begin to consume the right proportion of FV and would assist them to educate their families and ultimately the wider society on the health benefits of FV consumption.
... Glucosinolates (GLs) are primarily found in plants of the genus Brassica, which include crops of economical and nutritional importance. GLs are rich in sulfur and anionic secondary metabolites (Johnson, 2002). GLs have been extensively studied for their protective effect against herbivory in plants and chemotherapeutic activity in humans (Barba et al., 2016). ...
... GLs have been extensively studied for their protective effect against herbivory in plants and chemotherapeutic activity in humans (Barba et al., 2016). The consumption of vegetables containing glucosinolates may confer protection against cancer in humans (Johnson, 2002). The hydrolytic breakdown products of glucosinolates have beneficial effects on human health, including cytotoxic and apoptotic effects in damaged cells, and reducing risks of degenerative diseases (Barba et al., 2021). ...
Current research was conducted to explore the effects of liquiritoside on the growth and physiochemical features of Chinese flowering cabbage (Brassica rapa subsp. parachinensis) under lead (Pb) stress. Lead stressed B. rapa plants exhibited decreased growth parameters, chlorophyll, and carotenoid contents. Moreover, Pb toxicity escalated the synthesis of malondialdehyde (MDA), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), flavonoids, phenolics, and proline in treated plants. Nevertheless, foliar application of liquiritoside mitigated Pb toxicity by decreasing oxidative stress by reducing cysteine, H2O2, and MDA contents in applied plants. Liquiritoside significantly increased plant height, shoot fresh weight and dry weight, number of leaves, and marketable value of Chinese flowering cabbage plants exposed to Pb toxicity. This biotic elicitor also enhanced the proline, glutathione, total phenolics, and flavonoid contents in Chinese flowering cabbage plants exposed to Pb stress compared with the control. Additionally, total glucosinolate content, phytochelatins (PCs), and non-protein thiols were effectively increased in plants grown under Pb regimes compared with the control plants. Overall, foliar application of liquiritoside can markedly alleviate Pb stress by restricting Pb translocation in Chinese flowering cabbage.
... All displayed gene functions have been significantly increased or decreased as a result of restrictive diet administration to the Trichoplusia ni groups used in this study. Additionally, it has been reported that microbial myrosinases can also metabolize glucosinolates 39,40 . Thus, it is possible that the bacterial genera detected in both leaves of A. thaliana and the gut communities of insects fed with A. thaliana may be indicative of bacteria that express glucosinolate-toxicity-tolerance (or glucosinolatedegradation abilities). ...
... In support of this hypothesis, we observed that three genera (Propionibacterium, Shinella and Terribacilus) were exclusively more abundant in gut samples from insect populations fed with A. thaliana compared to those fed other diets. Members of the Propionibacterium genus have been reported to be tolerant to glucosinolate-toxicity [40][41][42][43] . In a recent study, an increase in the number of Propionibacterium colonies was observed in petri dishes supplemented with glucosinolate-compounds sourced from A. thaliana leaves 41 . ...
Insects are known plant pests, and some of them such as Trichoplusia ni feed on a variety of crops.
In this study, Trichoplusia ni was fed distinct diets of leaves of Arabidopsis thaliana or Solanum
lycopersicum as well as an artifcial diet. After four generations, the microbial composition of the
insect gut was evaluated to determine if the diet infuenced the structure and function of the microbial
communities. The population fed with A. thaliana had higher proportions of Shinella, Terribacillus and
Propionibacterium, and these genera are known to have tolerance to glucosinolate activity, which is
produced by A. thaliana to deter insects. The population fed with S. lycopersicum expressed increased
relative abundances of the Agrobacterium and Rhizobium genera. These microbial members can
degrade alkaloids, which are produced by S. lycopersicum. All fve of these genera were also present
in the respective leaves of either A. thaliana or S. lycopersicum, suggesting that these microbes
are acquired by the insects from the diet itself. This study describes a potential mechanism used by
generalist insects to become habituated to their available diet based on acquisition of phytochemical
degrading gut bacteria
... In terms of bioavailability, Johnson [26] reported that isothiocyanates were absorbed through the small bowel and colon, where their metabolites were detected 2-3 h post consumption, with Petri and colleagues in an elegant study showing high levels of absorption for sulforaphane and quercetin 3,4'-diglucoside from an onion and broccoli extract by enterocytes using a perfused jejunal segment and determined that a proportion was effluxed back into the lumen as sulforaphane-glutathione and quercetin-3'-glucuronide [27]. An often-neglected aspect, however, is the role that digestion and cooking practices play in bioactivity and bioavailability, especially in relation to amounts of phytochemicals delivered to the colon. ...
... However, the higher concentration of sulforaphane in the broccoli soup with added myrosinase would be within the inhibitory range determined, so it is possible that this broccoli soup could inhibit the growth of bacteria present in the stomach and upper small intestine rather than the lower intestine. Also, the GIs present in the ileal fluids (Fig. 3) represent reservoirs of sulforaphane (i.e., from the major component, glucoraphanin, or other isothiocyanates from other GIs) that could be released by the colonic microflora [26]. Bacteria that could be potentially affected by sulforaphane include Helicobacter pylori, a pathogenic bacterium associated with gastric and duodenal ulcers, which has been suggested through human trials to be inhibited by sulforaphane [58][59][60][61]. ...
PurposeStudies on broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) indicate beneficial effects against a range of chronic diseases, commonly attributed to their bioactive phytochemicals. Sulforaphane, the bioactive form of glucoraphanin, is formed by the action of the indigenous enzyme myrosinase. This study explored the role that digestion and cooking practices play in bioactivity and bioavailability, especially the rarely considered dose delivered to the colon.Methods
The antimicrobial activity of sulforaphane extracts from raw, cooked broccoli and cooked broccoli plus mustard seeds (as a source myrosinase) was assessed. The persistence of broccoli phytochemicals in the upper gastrointestinal tract was analysed in the ileal fluid of 11 ileostomates fed, in a cross-over design, broccoli soup prepared with and without mustard seeds.ResultsThe raw broccoli had no antimicrobial activity, except against Bacillus cereus, but cooked broccoli (with and without mustard seeds) showed considerable antimicrobial activity against various tested pathogens. The recovery of sulforaphane in ileal fluids post soup consumption was < 1% but the addition of mustard seeds increased colon-available sulforaphane sixfold. However, when sulforaphane was extracted from the ileal fluid with the highest sulforaphane content and tested against Escherichia coli K12, no inhibitory effects were observed. Analysis of glucosinolates composition in ileal fluids revealed noticeable inter-individual differences, with six “responding” participants showing increases in glucosinolates after broccoli soup consumption.Conclusions
Sulforaphane-rich broccoli extracts caused potent antimicrobial effects in vitro, and the consumption of sulforaphane-enriched broccoli soup may inhibit bacterial growth in the stomach and upper small intestine, but not in the terminal ileum or the colon.
... In these cases, GLS was found not to be much absorbed in the upper digestive tract and to proceed further to the large intestine to be subjected to the action of human gut microbiota. Several studies revealed that various species available in the human microbiota have also the capability to produce myrosinase such as Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis and E. casseliflavus which will lead also to the processing of GLS concurrent with the production of its breakdown molecules such as I3C (Sikorska-Zimny and Beneduce 2021), further to be absorbed from the large intestine into the blood (Johnson 2002). ...
indole-3-carbinol (i3C) is a major dietary component produced in Brassica vegetables from glucosinolates (GLS) upon herbivores' attack. The compound is gaining increasing interest due to its anticancer activity. However, reports about improving its level in plants or other sources are still rare. Unfortunately, i3C is unstable in acidic media and tends to polymerize rendering its extraction and detection challenging. This review presents a multifaceted overview of i3C regarding its natural occurrence, biosynthesis, isolation, and extraction procedure from dietary sources, and optimization for the best recovery yield. Further, an overview is presented on its metabolism and biotransformation inside the body to account for its health benefits and factors to ensure the best metabolic yield. Compile of the different analytical approaches for i3C analysis in dietary sources is presented for the first time, together with approaches for its detection and its metabolism in body fluids for proof of efficacy. Lastly, the chemopreventive effects of i3C and the underlying action mechanisms are summarized. Optimizing the yield and methods for the detection of i3C will assist for its incorporation as a nutraceutical or adjuvant in cancer treatment programs. Highlighting the complete biosynthetic pathway and factors involved in i3C production will aid for its future biotechnological production.
... and their isothiocyanate derivatives. 5 Studies show that taste of food is one of the main determining factors of food consumption, so sensitivity to taste could condition food preferences and thus the quality of the diet. 6,7 Furthermore, the sense of taste takes an important role in human development because this serves as a key function in the evaluation of quality of food to make nutritionally meaningful decisions. ...
... Glucosinolates are amino acid-derived, active secondary metabolites that mainly contain sulfur-and nitrogen-related compounds (e.g., β-D-thioglucose, tryptophan, phenylalanine, and sulfonated oxime moiety). The breakdown components of glucosinolates, including aliphatic glucosinolates (progoitrin, sinigrin, glucoraphanin, and gluconapin), indole glucosinolates (4-hydroxyglucobrassicin, glucobrassicin, 4-methoxyglucobrassicin, and neoglucobrassicin), as well as aromatic glucosinolates (gluconasturtiin) have been reported to have anticarcinogenic effects and thus decrease the risk of developing lung, stomach, colon, and rectal cancer (Mithen et al. 2000;Johnson 2002;Cartea and Velasco 2008). ...
Controlled environment agriculture in artificial lighting facilities has enormous potential for improving crop quality and production capacity. Light conditions, including light quality, photoperiod, and light intensity, significantly affect the growth and functional component accumulation of crops. Several studies have been conducted to assess the effects of light conditions on different crops, but research on Chinese kale has been limited, especially its hydroponic growth in plant factories. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of light quality, photoperiod, and light intensity on Chinese kale growth and glucosinolate content during different growth stages of cultivation in a plant factory. Different light treatments, including four types of light (red (R): blue (B): white (W), R:W, R:B, and fluorescent), five photoperiods (12/12, 14/10, 16/8, 18/6, and 20/4 h), and five light intensities (100, 130, 160, 190, and 220 µmol m−2 s−1) were implemented, while the ambient environmental parameters were maintained using a wireless monitoring and control network system. After specific periods of transplantation, samples were collected for growth evaluation and glucosinolate estimation. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s multiple mean range test were conducted to compare the means and determine statistical significance. Better leaf growth rate was observed under the R:B light source. Total glucosinolates were greater under R:B (63.38 µmol g−1 DW) and R:B:W (118.51 µmol g−1 DW) LED combinations at first and second samplings, respectively. A cyclic photoperiod of 16/8 and 18/6 h fostered optimal growth, but greater glucosinolate content was observed under 18/6 and 14/10 photoperiods at the first and second sampling times, respectively. Although light intensities of 160 and 220 µmol m−2 s−1 were good for physical growth, 160 and 130 µmol m−2 s−1 were better for glucosinolate accumulation at the first and second sampling times, respectively. The current findings may be of use for cultivating high quantities of nutrient-rich Chinese kale in protected crop cultivation facilities using artificial lighting.
... Because SCN À outcompetes Cl À and Br À ions for oxidation by peroxidase enzymes (36), it is likely that wherever SCN À is found during inflammation, there will be a considerable amount of HOSCN produced, although the in vivo concentration of HOSCN has not been directly measured in any mammalian tissue or fluid due to its reactivity. In the lungs and oral cavity, SCN À concentrations are as high as 3 mM, while the concentration of SCN À has not, to our knowledge, been measured in the gut (9,14,15,27,38,43,51,52). Notably, we exposed bacteria to a bolus addition of HOSCN, rather than attempting to simulate the steady-state production of HOSCN that cells would likely encounter in a host. ...
Hypothiocyanite and hypothiocyanous acid (OSCN ⁻ /HOSCN) are pseudohypohalous acids released by the innate immune system which are capable of rapidly oxidizing sulfur-containing amino acids, causing significant protein aggregation and damage to invading bacteria. HOSCN is abundant in saliva and airway secretions and has long been considered a highly specific antimicrobial that is nearly harmless to mammalian cells. However, certain bacteria, commensal and pathogenic, are able to escape damage by HOSCN and other harmful antimicrobials during inflammation, which allows them to continue to grow and, in some cases, cause severe disease. The exact genes or mechanisms by which bacteria respond to HOSCN have not yet been elucidated. We have found, in Escherichia coli , that the flavoprotein RclA, previously implicated in reactive chlorine resistance, reduces HOSCN to thiocyanate with near-perfect catalytic efficiency and strongly protects E. coli against HOSCN toxicity. This is notable in E. coli because this species thrives in the chronically inflamed environment found in patients with inflammatory bowel disease and is able to compete with and outgrow other important commensal organisms, suggesting that HOSCN may be a relevant antimicrobial in the gut, which has not previously been explored. RclA is conserved in a variety of epithelium-colonizing bacteria, implicating its HOSCN reductase activity in a variety of host–microbe interactions. We show that an rclA mutant of the probiotic Limosilactobacillus reuteri is sensitive to HOSCN and that RclA homologs from Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus pneumoniae , and Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron all have potent protective activity against HOSCN when expressed in E. coli .
... A metabolite called 2-(2 -Methylthio)ethylmalic acid from the glucosinolate biosynthetic pathway, was also highlighted in the leaves and mature internode ( Figure 5, Table S16) It has been shown that glucosinolates have herbivore deterrent [67], fungicidal [68], bactericidal [69], nematocidal [70], and allelopathic properties in plants [71]. In the industry, these glucosinolates from plants have also been greatly explored and exploited for their roles in cancer treatment and the regulation of blood glucose levels in humans [72,73], as biopesticides in crop plants [74] and flavor compounds [71]. It has been described that glucosinolate distribution in plants vary under different environmental conditions [75] and depending on the different plant organs and tissues [71], as was the case here seeing they were higher in the leaves and mature internodes. ...
To reduce the potentially irreversible environmental impacts caused by fossil fuels, the use of renewable energy sources must be increased on a global scale. One promising source of biomass and bioenergy is sugarcane. The study of this crop’s development in different planting seasons can aid in successfully cultivating it in global climate change scenarios. The sugarcane variety SP80-3280 was field grown under two planting seasons with different climatic conditions. A systems biology approach was taken to study the changes on physiological, morphological, agrotechnological, transcriptomics, and metabolomics levels in the leaf +1, and immature, intermediate and mature internodes. Most of the variation found within the transcriptomics and metabolomics profiles is attributed to the differences among the distinct tissues. However, the integration of both transcriptomics and metabolomics data highlighted three main metabolic categories as the principal sources of variation across tissues: amino acid metabolism, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, and xenobiotics biodegradation and metabolism. Differences in ripening and metabolite levels mainly in leaves and mature internodes may reflect the impact of contrasting environmental conditions on sugarcane development. In general, the same metabolites are found in mature internodes from both “one-year” and “one-and-a-half-year sugarcane”, however, some metabolites (i.e., phenylpropanoids with economic value) and natural antisense transcript expression are only detected in the leaves of “one-year” sugarcane.
... After processing the vegetables, such as by cooking, the myrosinase enzyme is inactivated and glucosinolates are broken down by the enzyme of microbiota in the colon to other compounds such as isothiocyanates and glucose. Isothiocyanates are absorbed from the colon and small bowel and can hinder apoptosis and mitosis in human cancer cells especially lung cancers and the alimentary tract (Barba et al., 2016;Horbowicz, 2003;Johnson, 2002;Saladino et al., 2017). Verhoeven et al. (1996) concluded from a meta-analysis study that brassica vegetables can protect against different cancers such as lung, rectum, stomach, and colon. ...
Emerging viruses are known to pose a threat to humans in the world. COVID-19, a newly emerging viral respiratory disease, can spread quickly from people to people via respiratory droplets, cough, sneeze, or exhale. Up to now, there are no specific therapies found for the treatment of COVID-19. In this sense, the rising demand for effective antiviral drugs is stressed. The main goal of the present study is to cover the current literature about bioactive compounds (e.g., polyphenols, glucosinolates, carotenoids, minerals, vitamins, oligosaccharides, bioactive peptides, essential oils, and probiotics) with potential efficiency against COVID-19, showing antiviral activities via the inhibition of coronavirus entry into the host cell, coronavirus enzymes, as well as the virus replication in human cells. In turn, these compounds can boost the immune system, helping fight against COVID-19. Overall, it can be concluded that bioactives and the functional foods containing these compounds can be natural alternatives for boosting the immune system and defeating coronavirus.
... Compared to the carotenoids and polyphenols discussed, the knowledge of OCS bioavailability, from food matrix release to their metabolization and distribution within human tissues, is relatively limited. Reviews such as those Angelino and Jeffery (2014), Putnik et al. (2019), and Johnson (2002) summarize the current knowledge of OSC formation, bioavailability and metabolism, discussing also the bioactivity of their metabolites. They conclude that there remains a significant shortage in the scientific understanding of factors influencing OSC bioavailability, however there is a general consensus that controlling the enzyme-substrate interactions and the conversion of the OSCs to their bioactive hydrolysis products greatly influence the bioavailability of these compounds. ...
There is a growing body of evidence supporting the role that phytochemicals play in reducing the risk of various chronic diseases. Although there has been a rise in health products marketed as being “supergrains,” “superfood,” or advertising their abundance in antioxidants, these food items are often limited to powdered blends, dried fruit, nuts, or seeds, rarely intercepting the market of baked snacks. This is in part due to the still limited understanding of the impact that different industrial processes have on phytochemicals in a complex food matrix and their corresponding bioavailability. This review brings together the current data on how various industrial dehydration processes influence the retention and bioaccessibility of phytochemicals in baked snacks. It considers the interplay of molecules in an intricate snack matrix, limitations of conventional technologies, and constraints with consumer acceptance preventing wider utilization of novel technologies. Furthermore, the review takes a holistic approach, encompassing each stage of production—discussing the potential for inclusion of by-products to promote a circular economy and the proposal for a shift in agriculture toward biofortification or tailored growing of crops for their nutritional and post-harvest attributes.
... Glucosinolates are composed of relatively few amino acids and chain-elongated homologs through an independent metabolic pathway ( Figure 1) and are available in all parts of almost all varieties of plants of the Brassicales order; however, the content is higher in the reproductive tissues (i.e., flowers and seeds) than in vegetative tissues [8]. The breakdown products of glucosinolates have a significant amount of anticarcinogenic activity for decreasing the risk of developing lung, stomach, colon, and rectum cancers; helping to maintain low blood pressure and reducing the risk of developing type 2 diabetes [6,9,10]. [11]. ...
The growth of plants and their glucosinolate content largely depend on the cultivation environment; however, there are limited reports on the optimization of ambient environmental factors for kale grown in plant factories. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of temperature, relative humidity, and the carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration on kale growth and glucosinolate content in different growth stages of cultivation in a plant factory. Kale was grown under different temperatures (14, 17, 20, 23, and 26 °C), relative humidities (45, 55, 65, 75, and 85%), and CO2 concentrations (400, 700, 1000, 1300, and 1600 ppm) in a plant factory. Two and four weeks after transplantation, leaf samples were collected to evaluate the physical growth and glucosinolate contents. The statistical significance of the treatment effects was determined by two-way analysis of variance, and Duncan's multiple range test was used to compare the means. A correlation matrix was constructed to show possible linear trends among the dependent variables. The observed optimal temperature, relative humidity, and CO2 range for growth (20-23 °C, 85%, and 700-1000 ppm) and total glucosinolate content (14-17 °C, 55-75%, and 1300-1600 ppm) were different. Furthermore, the glucosinolate content in kale decreased with the increase of temperature and relative humidity levels, and increased with the increase of CO2 concentration. Most of the physical growth variables showed strong positive correlations with each other but negative correlations with glucosinolate components. The findings of this study could be used by growers to maintain optimum environmental conditions for the better growth and production of glucosinolate-rich kale leaves in protected cultivation facilities.
... Isothiocyanates are highly reactive compounds that inhibit mitosis and stimulate apoptosis in human tumour cells, in vitro, and in vivo. [40] High concentration of Cl in dandelion bee pollen can be attributed to the fact that dandelion commonly grows on pastures and ruderal habitats with intensive agricultural production that is accompanied by intense use of manure (as a source of Cl from animal urine), artificial fertilisers, and pesticides. [41] Halogenated species are commonly found in organochlorine insecticides (DDT-type compounds) [42] and are known to accumulate in pollen causing bee death. ...
Bee pollen contains proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, fats, fatty acids, vitamins, polyphenols, and mineral nutrients that make it useful as a good nutritional supplement in the human diet. It has the richest elemental composition among bee products which is not uniform and consequently varies greatly depending on botanical and geographical origin. In polyfloral and selected monofloral bee pollen samples: sweet chestnut, maple, dandelion, rapeseed, flowering ash, buckwheat, common ivy, and plantain, the concentrations of P, S, Cl, K, Ca, Mn, Fe, Zn, Br, Rb, and Sr were determined. A non‐destructive energy dispersive X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry was used for elemental fingerprinting. The most abundant elements in Slovenian bee pollen are K, P, S, Ca, and Cl followed by Fe, Mn, Zn, Rb, Br, and Sr. Several statistically significant differences in the content of analysed elements were found between studied groups according to the botanical and geographical origin which can be related to soil and plant elemental composition and plant metabolism. The obtained data extend our previous chemical profiling of Slovenian bee pollen and contribute to a more precise evaluation of some essential mineral nutrients in bee pollen to cover recommended dietary allowances in human nutrition. Additionally, this work contributes to a better understanding of mineral nutrient requirements in honey bee nutrition and of the environmental and agricultural impact of this product.
... Considering that the consumption of uncooked Brassicaceae products resulted up to 17-77% of isothiocyanates (Johnson, 2002;Traka, 2016), 21-99 mg glucosinolates g − 1 dw, or which is the same, 197-976 mg glucosinolates g − 1 fresh kale sprouts could be converted into isothiocyanates, which have demonstrated their anticancer properties. In fact, following the recommendations of 100 μM isothiocyanates daily dose for healthy consumers provided by Egner et al. (2014) and Riedl et al. (2009), an intake of 18 g of fresh UVB10 or UVB15 kale sprouts per day can be proposed to enhance the detoxication of some airborne pollutants (Egner et al., 2014) and to potent an increase in antioxidant Phase II enzymes in airway cells (Riedl et al., 2009). ...
The objective of the present study was to evaluate the periodical UV-B radiation hormesis during kale seeds germination in their main content of secondary metabolite compounds (phenols; glucosinolates; total antioxidant capacity – TAC–) and their changes during a refrigerated shelf-life. The total UV-B doses received were 0, 5, 10, and 15 kJ m⁻² (CTRL, UVB5, UVB10, and UVB15) in where the 25 % was applied on the 3rd, 5th, 7th, and 10th sprouting day. UV radiation did not affect the morphological development of the sprouts. UVB10 and UVB15 treatments increased their phenolic content (>30 %). Likewise, TAC was increased by UV-B lighting ∼10 % (DPPH) and ∼20 % (FRAP). The hydroxycinnamic acid content in UVB15-treated sprouts increased by 52 %, while UVB5 reported an increase of 34 % in the kaempferol-3,7-di-O-glucoside concentration, compared to CTRL. After 10 d at 4ºC of shelf-life, content of gallic acid hexoside I and gallic acid increased by 55 and 78 % compared to UV-untreated kale sprouts, respectively. Glucoraphanin was the main glucosinolate found in kale sprouts and seeds, followed by 4-hydroxy-glucobrassicin, whose biosynthesis was enhanced by UVB10 (∼24 and ∼27 %) and UVB15 (∼36 and ∼30 %), respectively, compared to CTRL. In conclusion, periodical low UV-B illumination represents a useful tool to stimulate phytochemicals biosynthesis in kale sprouts as an important source of bioactive compounds with potential health benefits.
... MO seed oil is highly edible and resembles olive oil in its fatty acid composition [2]. MO is known for its high antioxidant potential owing to its flavonoids and phenolic acids content [3], as well as possessing antimicrobial, hypotensive and anticancer effects due to its glucosinolates content [4]. Niazimicin (NZ), a thiocarbamate glycoside produced upon enzymatic hydrolysis of glucosinolates by myrosinase enzyme, is one of the mustard oil glycosides, which are very rare in nature. ...
Moringa oleifera (MO) is a highly nutritious plant, whose leaves and seed pods are consumed in Africa, Asia, sub-Himalayan regions and South America. A novel ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method for the standardization of the bioactive thiocarbamate compound from MO, niazimicin (NZ) in seeds and leaves, is developed, optimized and validated according to the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidelines, using desipramine as the internal standard. Multiple reaction monitoring detection of transitions 358.05>106.86 and 266.38 > 193.04 with collision energy of 25V and 40V, respectively were used. A gradient was optimized at 35-55%B in 7 min, where mobile phase A is aqueous 0.1% formic acid and B is 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile. The method proved to be linear in the range of 0.05-100 μg/mL, precise, robust and accurate, with LOD and LOQ of 0.02 and 0.05 μg/mL, respectively. MO seeds were found to contain double NZ content (620 mg% ±3.2%) compared to leaves, and the methylene chloride fraction of seeds comprised triple the amount in ethyl acetate fraction (450 mg% ± 2.4%). Results emphasize that seeds of MO are a much richer source for NZ than the most commonly edible and marketed leaves extracts. The reported method can be used for standardization and quality control of the seeds and leaves NZ content.
... Isothiocyanates and indoles, the hydrolysis products of glucosinolates, such as sulforaphane and indole-3-carbinol (I3C) [ 43 , 44 ]. These compounds are involved in the cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, inhibition of tumor invasion and angiogenesis, and inhibition of mitosis [256][257][258] . Selenium is present in relatively high amounts in these vegetables and possesses mechanisms to induce alteration in estrogen metabolism, inhibition of ROS accumulation, inhibition of phase I enzymes and histone deacetylase activity, slowed tumor growth and induction of apoptosis [ 259 , 260 ]. ...
Vegetables are essential protective diet ingredients that supply ample amounts of minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, dietary fiber, and various nutraceutical compounds for protection against various disease conditions. Color is the most important quality parameter for the farmers to access the harvest maturity while for the consumer's reliable indices to define acceptability or rejection. The colored vegetables contain functional compounds like chlorophylls, carotenoids, betalains, anthocyanins, etc. well recognized for their anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, hypolipidemic, neuroprotective, anti-aging, diuretic, and anti-diabetic properties. Recently, there has been a shift in food consumption patterns from processed to semi-processed or fresh fruits and vegetables to ensure a healthy disease-free life. This shifted the focus of agriculture scientists and food processors from food security to nutrition security. This has resulted in recent improvements to existing crops like blue tomato, orange cauliflower, colored/black carrots, with improved color, and thus enriched bioactive compounds. Exhaustive laboratory trials though are required to document and establish their minimum effective concentrations, bioavailability, and specific health benefits. Efforts should also be directed to breed color-rich cultivars or to improve the existing varieties through conventional and molecular breeding approaches. The present review has been devoted to a better understanding of vegetable colors with specific health benefits and to provide in-hand information about the effect of specific pigment on body organs, the effect of processing on their bioavailability, and recent improvements in colors to ensure a healthy lifestyle.
... Myrosinase enzyme catalyzes organic isothiocyanates to their alcohol and thiocyanate. These isothiocyantes act as signaling, anticarcinogenic, and detoxification molecules beside others biological actions (42,45,46,47,48,49) . Nitrogen organic and inorganic components may be presented in any plant parts that may converted to another different compounds causing various effects depending upon their chemical structures and other factors. ...
Due to their popular uses, Salvadora persica (Miswak) plant possesses several bioactive effects and it is important to focus on their valuable effectiveness, especially on dental and oral health. The present review deals with many sections to obtain suitable knowledge about miswak such as chemical compositions, bioactivity, partitioning of active materials, method of obtaining miswak extract and the potent of this plant on dental and oral health according to their antioxidant, antifungal, antibacterial, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antimycotic, anticarcinogenic, anticandidal, anti-inflammatory and anti-plaque properties.
... Myrosinase enzyme catalyzes organic isothiocyanates to their alcohol and thiocyanate. These isothiocyantes act as signaling, anticarcinogenic, and detoxification molecules beside others biological actions (42,45,46,47,48,49) . Nitrogen organic and inorganic components may be presented in any plant parts that may converted to another different compounds causing various effects depending upon their chemical structures and other factors. ...
Due to their popular uses, Salvadora persica (Miswak) plant possesses several bioactive effects and it is important to focus on their valuable effectiveness, especially on dental and oral health. The present review deals with many sections to obtain suitable knowledge about miswak such as chemical compositions, bioactivity, partitioning of active materials, method of obtaining miswak extract and the potent of this plant on dental and oral health according to their antioxidant, antifungal, antibacterial, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antimycotic, anticarcinogenic, anticandidal, anti-inflammatory and anti-plaque properties.1
... 34 After digestion of Brassica vegetables in humans, low-molecular weight ITCs are rapidly absorbed into the intestinal epithelium cell walls and pass into the bloodstream. 49 Once ITCs have entered systemic circulation, they are able to reach the target tissues and regulate gene expression associated with antioxidation, cell cycle regulation and apoptotic pathways to exert chemopreventive effects. 50 ITCs are detectable in urine within 2-3 h after food consumption. ...
BACKGROUND
Raphanus sativus var. caudatus or Thai rat‐tailed radish (RTR) contains glucosinolates and isothiocyanates with chemopreventive effects; however, only mature plants have been studied to date. Thus, this work aimed to determine isothiocyanates, phenolic compounds and flavonoid compounds, antioxidant activity, cytotoxicity and antiproliferative activity of RTR microgreens grown from seeds treated with cold plasma (21 kV for 5 min), organic elicitor (160 mM NaCl, 10 mM CaCl2 or 176 mM sucrose) or both in combination. Seeds were germinated on vermiculite and sprayed with deionized water or elicitor for 7 days before harvest.
RESULTS
Cold plasma had no effect on growth, while NaCl and CaCl2 increased fresh weight. Plasma with CaCl2 led to the highest total isothiocyanate (ITC) content (1.99 g kg‐1 DW) in RTR microgreens containing raphasatin as the only ITC detected. Plasma treatment gave the highest total phenolic content (7.56 mg GAE g‐1 DW), antioxidant activity from DPPH assay (7.70 mg TE g‐1 DW) and FRAP assay (21.72 mg Fe2+ g‐1 DW). Microgreen extracts from plasma showed IC50 value of 29.28 μg·mL‐1 and 13.83 μg·mL‐1 towards MCF‐7 and HepG2, respectively with inhibitory property on MMP‐2 and MMP‐9 proteins. Plasma enhanced Bax and Caspase‐3 gene expressions but reduced Bcl‐2 and MMP‐9 expressions indicating activation of apoptosis.
CONCLUSION
Cold plasma showed promise as an innovative tool to enhance bioactive compounds with chemopreventive benefits in microgreens.
... Glucosinolates remain intact unless brought in contact with the enzyme myrosinase by insects, food processing or chewing. Myrosinase release glucose and isothiocynate which inhibit mitosis and stimulate apoptosis in human tumor cells (Johnson 2002). Glucoraphanin (glucosinolates of sulforaphane) prevents cancer activity and is present in all cruciferous vegetables like broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower (Singh et al. 2017a;Traka and Mithen 2009). ...
Food nutrients play a vital role in the existence, sustenance, and evolution of all forms of life including human, and their adequacy largely depends on their chemical type, intake, and bioavailability. While knowledge on the bioavailability of ingested components is essential to estimate the quantity of nutrient that must be supplied to meet the minimum daily requirements, safety and bio–efficacy is critical for nutrient acceptability. Safety limits are imposed by regulatory agencies to restrict and regulate intake of nutrients to avoid possible adverse effects. With increased enforcement of regulations, the food industry is subjected to stringent scrutiny to ensure food quality and safety. Worldwide, viz. FAO/WHO, FDA, CFDA, EFSA and other regulatory agencies, and FSSAI in India aims at protecting the health of the public through strengthening the measures for assurance of food safety. Aspects relating to essential nutrients and their health effects, bioavailability, safety and regulations are discussed in this chapter.
... Cabbage is formed of clusters of thick leaves that come in green, white and purple colors. Vegetables in Brassica family contain glucosinolates may have cancerprotective properties against lung and esophageal cancer (Johnson 2002). Cabbage can be fermented and turned into a sauerkraut, which improves digestion, boosts the immune system and aids weight loss (Gupta and Garg 2009). ...
Recent studies have focused on the significance of bioactive compounds of living resources in alleviating deteriorative mechanisms and their influence to prevent or reduce the occurrence of degenerative diseases. The new compounds with specific roles in human metabolism have been noticed to encourage food technologists to develop new processes and technologies for preserving the beneficial characteristics of these compounds. The benefits of consuming fruits and vegetables are attributed to their nutrients, vitamin content and variety of natural health-promoting bioactive polyphenolic compounds. These polyphenolic compounds include non-flavonoids (phenolic acids and stilbenes) and flavonoids (flavonols, flavanones, flavones, isoflavones and anthocyanidins). Polyphenolic compounds have been documented to possess a wide range of biological and pharmacological activities in the prevention of common diseases and illnesses including cardiovascular diseases, neurological diseases, cancer and gastrointestinal disorders. In the form of functional foods, fruits and vegetables provide health benefits beyond the provision of essential nutrients. Some fruits and vegetables are marketed as super foods as they offer important nutrients which can power pack meals and enhance healthy eating pattern. The health benefits of some fruits and vegetables were discussed in this chapter.
... I3C is a breakdown product of the naturally occurring dietary sulfurcontaining compound glucobrassicin (3-indolylmethyl glucosinolate), which is found in cruciferous vegetables such as Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbage and cauliflower. When these cruciferous vegetables are chopped or chewed, the plant enzyme myrosinase, which is normally separated from glucobrassicin in intact plant cells, is liberated and quickly converts glucobrassicin into I3C (Johnson, 2002). ...
The objective of the study was to investigate the (anti)estrogenic, (anti)androgenic and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonistic activities of a mixture of acid condensation products of indole-3-carbinol, termed RXM, and to identify the compounds most responsible for the observed effects, using in vitro receptor-reporter gene transcriptional activation bioassays. For this, HPLC-fractions of RXM were prepared and tested. LC-MS/MS analysis was carried out for the identification of some of the acid condensation products. The RXM displayed weak estrogenic and anti-androgenic, and strong AhR agonistic properties. The fraction containing 3,3-diindolylmethane (DIM) displayed a weak estrogenic and relatively strong anti-androgenic activity. DIM was confirmed to be an androgen receptor (hAR) antagonist and a partial estrogen receptor (hERα) agonist. Also the fraction containing the trimer [2-(indol-3-ylmethyl)indol-3-yl]indol-3-ylmethane (LTr1) showed anti-androgenic activities. It was shown for the first time that DIM is not only estrogenic and anti-androgenic, but also possesses anti-estrogenic properties. Though indolo[3,2-b]carbazole (ICZ) is a potent AhR activator and was detected in the RXM, it did not contribute to AhR-agonist activity. Instead, fractions containing the trimers LTr1 and 5,6,11,12,17,18-hexahydrocyclonona[1,2-b:4,5-b’:7,8-b’’]tri-indole (CTr), as well as some unidentified compounds showed the highest AhR activation. The fraction, containing the linear trimer LTr1, showed a weak anti-androgenic activity which has not been reported before. The study demonstrates the importance of a bioassay directed approach for identifying compounds that contribute most to the effects of mixtures.
... However its highest concentration is present in seeds [4][5], which may also act to attract some of the insects or repel the others [6]. Brassica family, if used as vegetables can inhibit the cancer growth [7][8]. The initial content of the GSL in the seed and vegetative parts can be influenced and modified by a number of factors such is moisture [9], temperature [10], air composition [11], and light [12] also in different growing seasons [13]. ...
The present study were conducted in the crop breeding division, nuclear institute of food and agriculture (NIFA) to evaluate the glucosinolate contents in Brassica Juncea L. (Mustard). Therefore, the effect of different concentrations of MgSO 4 (Basal Salt) were studied on the total glucosinolate content in seed and leaves of hypocotyls and cotedonary regenerated plant of B. juncea L. For the callus induction and plant regeneration, the explants were harvested on MS synthetic media, containing modified two and four folds of the basal salt of MgSO 4 concentrations. The total glucosinolate contents in both the seed and leaves of mature regenerated plant were determined using UV-Visible spectroscopy. The higher concentrations of MgSO 4 were observed for the increase of glucosinolate content in the seed as well in the leaves of B. juncea L. Therefore, we concluded that the soil with higher concentration of sulfur in any form specifically in their salts like MgSO 4 or other will increase the glucosinolate contents in the B. juncea L. KEY WORDS: Mustard,Brassica juncea L., Glucosinolate, Sulfur, Basal Salt., 1. INTRODUCTION Brassica juncea L. (Mustard) belongs to the families of brassicaceae that is a famous crops for the production of vegetable oil and meal (protein-rich)throughout the world [1]. Glucosinolate and erucic acid are the two important secondary metabolites of all the species of Brassica. Glucosinolate in the plants are responsible for the pungent flavor and the high concentration of erucic acid in oil may increase health risks [2]. Glucosinolate is a group of sulfur containing compounds [3]which occurs in all parts of the plant including root, stem, leaf and seeds. However its highest concentration is present in seeds [4-5], which may also act to attract some of the insects or repel the others [6]. Brassica family, if used as vegetables can inhibit the cancer growth [7-8]. The initial content of the GSL in the seed and vegetative parts can be influenced and modified by a number of factors such is moisture [9], temperature [10], air composition [11], and light [12] also in different growing seasons [13]. The content of GSL in Brassica plant is also be affected by the use of fertilizer and pesticides [12, 14]. The emergence of the advance biotechnological techniques, for example gene cloning, genetic engineering, molecular breeding and tissue culture have improved the quality of the seed of edible oil [15]. However the achievements will depend careful application and combination of techniques for the production of good quality and yielding genotype for sustained production[16]. Tissue culture technique has provided a new pathway for inducing variation and therefore, significant improvements have been achieved [17-18]. Therefore, in the present study, the concentration of sulfur was changed in the MS medium [19] to evaluate its effect on the total GSL content in the regenerates derived from canola or rapeseed (Brassica juncea L.) plant. The aim of the preset study was to develop an approach for the reduction of GSL content in oil seed Brassica for its utilization as rich source of nutrition for animal, whereas; to increase of glucosinolate content in the leaves and stem as insect and pest repellent and the effect of different concentrations of sulfur in MS medium on total glucosinolate content. 89
... In the light of the new findings on plant secondary metabolism being modulated by AMF, the concept of efficiency should be expanded to take into consideration the production of healthpromoting compounds, a theme of the highest concern not only to scientists but also to consumers and producers as phytochemicals may reduce oxidative damages, prevent chronic and heart diseases, and decrease the risk of mortality from cancer [65][66][67]. The levels of such compounds, mainly represented by carotenoids, glucosinolates, polyphenols, including flavonoids, isoflavones and anthocyanins, are affected by different variables such as plant genotype, agronomic techniques, soil characteristics, and also by mycorrhizal symbioses [6]. ...
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are beneficial soil microorganisms establishing mutualistic symbioses with the roots of the most important food crops and playing key roles in the maintenance of long-term soil fertility and health. The great inter- and intra-specific AMF diversity can be fully exploited by selecting AMF inocula on the basis of their colonization ability and efficiency, which are affected by fungal and plant genotypes and diverse environmental variables. The multiple services provided by AMF are the result of the synergistic activities of the bacterial communities living in the mycorrhizosphere, encompassing nitrogen fixation, P solubilization, and the production of phytohormones, siderophores, and antibiotics. The tripartite association among host plants, mycorrhizal symbionts, and associated bacteria show beneficial emerging properties which could be efficiently exploited in sustainable agriculture. Further in-depth studies, both in microcosms and in the field, performed on different AMF species and isolates, should evaluate their colonization ability, efficiency, and resilience. Transcriptomic studies can reveal the expression levels of nutrient transporter genes in fungal absorbing hyphae in the presence of selected bacterial strains. Eventually, newly designed multifunctional microbial consortia can be utilized as biofertilizers and biostimulants in sustainable and innovative production systems.
... The metabolism of these compounds is the one that has been studied the most. Isothiocyanates are absorbed in the small bowel and colon and are detectable in human urine 2e3 h after consumption of cruciferous vegetables (Johnson, 2002). ...
... Until now, several mechanisms have been proposed to underlie the anticarcinogenic benefits of ITCs. The most frequently mentioned include (1) inhibition of phase I enzymes (e.g., certain isoforms of cytochrome P450); (2) induction of phase II enzymes (e.g., quinone reductase, glutathione Stransferases, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases), responsible for the detoxification of potential carcinogens (Fahey et al., 1997;Singh et al., 2007); and (3) inhibition of the rate of mitosis and stimulation of apoptosis in human tumor cells (Johnson, 2002). On the other hand, it has been realized that other GL degradation products, for example, nitriles and EPTs, not only do not exhibit such health beneficial properties but may even exert some harmful as well as antinutritional effects. ...
... Its origin is from an interspecific hybridization between Brassica oleracea (CC,2n=18) and Brassica rapa (AA, 2n=20) (CHALHOUB et al. 2014, LOGANES et al. 2016, resulting in an allotetraploid species (AACC, 2n=38) (MISRA 2016). Due to its erucic acid and glucosinate levels, canola oil is neither recommended for human nor animal consumption (JOHNSON 2013). This scenario led to the need of a new genotype with low level of these compounds in the oil, reached by plant breeding efforts as Canola (short for Canadian Oilseed Low Acid). ...
Canola (Brassica napus L. var. oleifera) is cultivated in the Southern Brazil as an alternative winter crop in the rotation system. No-tillage and hydromorphic soils favor the formation of aliphatic organic acids with short chain and low molecular weight, as acetic, butyric, and propionic acids. These acids may cause negative effects on the canola production. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the response of five canola hybrid genotypes under the effect of acetic, butyric and propionic acids on the germination and initial phase of seedling growth. The results showed the characters evaluated respond differently to treatments applied within the same genotype. Therefore, the selection of a genotype with a resilient performance for the characters evaluated under stress is complex. Nevertheless, a sensitive profile response was observed in Hyola 433 genotype under different organic acids. Furthermore, acetic acid showed no negative impact on germination and initial growth of the genotypes.
... Bioavailability of glucosinolates highly depends on the presence and activity of myrosinase which is, according to Martinez-Ballesta and Carvajal (2015), the most important issue for glucosinolate turnover. Consequently, method of preparation can make a large difference, both to the intake of glucosinolates and to the bioavailability of their breakdown products (Johnson, 2002). Maskell and Smithard (1994) suggested that about 60% of glucosinolates reach the colon unmodified where they may be hydrolyzed by colonic microflora (Verkerk et al., 2009). ...
... For cooked vegetables, plant myrosinase is inactivated before ingestion; therefore, glucosinolates may be absorbed as intact glucosinolates in the stomach or absorbed in the form of hydrolysed products of bacterial myrosinase in the colon, but conversion of glucosinolate into hydrolysed products is apparently very small [175]. Bacteria in colon may also metabolize isothiocyanates (the hydrolysed product of glucosinolates) further before absorption [176]. ...
Information on food composition including types and contents of nutrients and anti-nutrients is important for food and nutrition research. There is satisfactory information on established nutritive elements for various food groups. However, literature on anti-nutrient component generally scattered and scanty on few major food groups and commonly consumed plant parts. A better understanding of both the positive and negative qualities of vegetable component would help develop better evidence-based promotion and appropriate dietary strategies. This paper reviews seven types of anti-nutrient elements in vegetables: oxalates, phytates, nitrates, tannins, glucosinolates, saponins and alkaloids and their effects, mechanisms, content and processing methods. A total of 360 research papers were systematically identified and 123 were selected with acceptable anti-nutrient data. Vegetable families and plant parts with highest content of each anti-nutrient were identified, with the Leguiminosae family having highest content of phytate, tannins and saponins, and leafy vegetables having high oxalate. The simplest food processing methods to reduce anti-nutrients in vegetables are boiling and removal of certain plant parts. While consumption of vegetables with anti-nutrients do not normally cause adverse effects in the general population, future research to determine nutrient bioavailability based on diets will help increase awareness and improve recommendations on plant food intake.
... For cooked vegetables, plant myrosinase is inactivated before ingestion; therefore, glucosinolates may be absorbed as intact glucosinolates in the stomach or absorbed in the form of hydrolysed products of bacterial myrosinase in the colon, but conversion of glucosinolate into hydrolysed products is apparently very small [175]. Bacteria in colon may also metabolize isothiocyanates (the hydrolysed product of glucosinolates) further before absorption [176]. ...
Information on food composition including types and contents of nutrients and anti-nutrients is important for food and nutrition research. There is satisfactory information on established nutritive elements for various food groups. However, literature on anti-nutrient component generally scattered and scanty on few major food groups and commonly consumed plant parts. A better understanding of both the positive and negative qualities of vegetable component would help develop better evidence-based promotion and appropriate dietary strategies. This paper reviews seven types of anti-nutrient elements in vegetables: oxalates, phytates, nitrates, tannins, glucosinolates, saponins and alkaloids and their effects, mechanisms, content and processing methods. A total of 360 research papers were systematically identified and 123 were selected with acceptable anti-nutrient data. Vegetable families and plant parts with highest content of each anti-nutrient were identified, with the Leguiminosae family having highest content of phytate, tannins and saponins, and leafy vegetables having high oxalate. The simplest food processing methods to reduce anti-nutrients in vegetables are boiling and removal of certain plant parts. While consumption of vegetables with anti-nutrients do not normally cause adverse effects in the general population, future research to determine nutrient bioavailability based on diets will help increase awareness and improve recommendations on plant food intake.
... Such findings are very important, as worldwide both consumers and producers are increasingly interested in the health-promoting properties of plant-derived foods. Indeed a number of epidemiological studies reported the role played by some plant secondary metabolites, including polyphenols, glucosinolates, flavonoids and carotenoids in the prevention of chronic diseases, arteriosclerosis, heart diseases and cancer (Duthie, 2000;Johnson, 2002;Lund, 2003). For example, theaflavins and thearubigins from black teas showed antiproliferative action (Bhattacharya et al., 2009), grape seed extract exerted preventive effects against human colon carcinoma and lung epithelial cancer (Wang et al., 2007;Lazzè et al., 2009), luteolin, kaempherol, apigenin and myricetin from diverse fruits and vegetables possessed anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities (Dillard and German, 2000) and essential oils from myrtle displayed antimutagenic and antigenotoxic properties (Mimica-Dukić et al., 2010). ...
The new paradigm in agriculture, sustainable intensification, is focusing back onto beneficial soil microorganisms, for the role played in reducing the input of chemical fertilizers and pesticides and improving plant nutrition and health. Worldwide, more and more attention is deserved to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), which establish symbioses with the roots of most land plants and facilitate plant nutrient uptake, by means of a large network of extraradical hyphae spreading from colonized roots to the surrounding soil and functioning as a supplementary absorbing system. AMF protect plants from biotic and abiotic stresses and are able to modulate the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites (phytochemicals), such as polyphenols, anthocyanins, phytoestrogens and carotenoids, that play a fundamental role in promoting human health. An increasing number of studies focused on the use of AMF symbionts for the production of functional food, with enhanced nutritional and nutraceutical value. Yet, while several plant species were investigated, only few AMF were utilized, thus limiting the full exploitation of their wide physiological and genetic diversity. Here, we will focus on AMF effects on the biosynthesis of plant secondary metabolites with health-promoting activity, and on the criteria for a finely tuned, targeted selection of the best performing symbionts, to be utilized as sustainable biotechnological tools for the production of safe and healthy plant foods.
... This indicates that sulforaphene exhibits similar cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells to the extensively studied sulforaphane and many other isothiocyanates. The parent compound, GRE, did not display cytotoxicity in these cells even following a 72 h incubation in concordance with previous studies [9,11,[37][38][39][40][41][42][43]. ...
Glucoraphenin, a glucosinolate present in large quantities in radish is hydrolysed by myrosinase to form the isothiocyanate sulforaphene, which is believed to be responsible for its chemopreventive activity; however, the underlying mechanisms of action have not been investigated, particularly in human cell lines. The aim of the study is to assess the cytotoxicity of sulforaphene in HepG2 cells and evaluate its potential to enhance apoptosis. The cytotoxicity of sulforaphene in HepG2 cells was carried out ensuing an initial screening with two other cell lines, MFC-7 and HT-29, where sulforaphene displayed highest toxicity in HepG2 cells following incubation at 24, 48 and 72 h. In contrast, the intact glucosinolate showed no cytotoxicity. Morphological studies indicated that sulforaphene stimulated apoptosis as exemplified by cell shrinkage, blebbing, chromatin condensation, and nuclear fragmentation. The Annexin V assay revealed significant increases in apoptosis and the same treatment increased the activity of caspases -3/7 and -9, whereas a decline in caspase-8 was observed. Impairment of cell proliferation was indicated by cell cycle arrest at the Sub G₀/G₁ phase as compared to the other phases. It may be concluded that sulforaphene, but not its parent glucosinolate, glucoraphenin, causes cytotoxicity and stimulates apoptosis in HepG2 cells.
... Recent societal health awareness among populations globally has stimulated research efforts to venture into plant-based fortification strategies resulting in products (functional foods) with improved health benefits. Although mature Brassica species (broccoli, kale, and brussel sprouts among others) has been well described to accumulate a diverse array of phytochemicals (and potentially play a role in the prevention of non-communicable diseases), a sustained diet (Brassica-enriched) is required for health beneficial effects [29,30]. In contrast, immature plants (grown to micro-green stage, with 2-4 true leaves) accumulate significantly higher amounts of phytochemicals (up to 10 times more than plants grown to maturity), which are required as part of defense mechanisms enabling young plants to survive, mature and defend against potential environmental stresses [23]. ...
... 3,3'-Diindolylmethane (DIM) is a well-documented bioactive constituent present in cruciferous vegetables which are known for various health benefits [34,35]. A plethora of research has demonstrated the role of DIM in abrogating breast and prostate cancer through several mechanisms, including induction of apoptosis, execution of oxidative stress responses, balancing estrogen metabolism, cell cycle arrest, and other anti-proliferative mechanisms [36][37][38][39][40][41][42]. ...
Epithelial‐mesenchymal transition (EMT), a critical event that occurs during invasion and metastatic spread of cancer cells. Here, we conceive a dual mechanism of Par‐4‐mediated inhibition of EMT and induction of MET in metastatic pancreatic cancer cells. First, we demonstrate that 1,1'‐β‐D‐glucopyranosyl‐3,3'‐bis(5‐bromoindolyl)‐octyl methane (NGD16), an N‐glycosylated derivative of medicinally important phytochemical 3,3'‐diindolylmethane (DIM) abrogates EMT by inducing pro‐apoptotic protein Par‐4. Induction of Par‐4 (by NGD16 or ectopic overexpression) strongly impedes invasion with inhibition of major mesenchymal markers viz. Vimentin, Twist‐1 and induction of epithelial marker‐ E‐cadherin. Further, NGD16 triggers MET phenotypes in pancreatic cancer cells by augmenting ALK2/Smad4 signaling in a Par‐4‐dependent manner. Conversely, siRNA‐mediated silencing of endogenous Par‐4 unveil reversal of MET with diminished E‐cadherin expression and invasive phenotypes. Additionally, we demonstrate that intact Smad4 is essential for Par‐4‐mediated maintenance of E‐cadherin level in MET induced cells. Notably, we implie that Par‐4 induction regulates E‐cadherin levels in the pancreatic cancer cells via modulating Twist‐1 promoter activity. Finally, in vivo studies with syngenic mouse metastatic pancreatic cancer model reveal that NGD16 strongly suppresses metastatic burden, ascites formation, and prolongs the overall survival of animals effectively. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
... In plants, glucosinolates play a key role in the plant's defense system, and in case of injury to the plant cell, glucosinolates are enzymatically decomposed by the endogenous enzyme myrosinase and various degradation products, such as nitriles, epithionitriles, and/or isothiocyanates, are released . Of note is that isothiocyanates are associated with the pungency of these vegetables and have been shown to confer anti-cancerogenic (Abdull Razis and Noor, 2013;Avato and Argentieri, 2015;Dinkova-Kostova and Kostov, 2012;Hayes et al., 2008;Hecht, 2000;Higdon et al., 2007;Johnson, 2002;Kumar et al., 2015;Lippmann et al., 2014;Mithen, 2001;Traka and Mithen, 2009;Veeranki et al., 2015), anti-inflammatory (Bentley-Hewitt et al., 2014;Herz et al., 2016), as well as anti-diabetogenic (Guzmán-Pérez et al., 2016;Waterman et al., 2015) effects. In this regard, broccoli is the best studied species of Brassica vegetables to date ( Table 1 Names of glucosinolates. ...
From the order Brassicales, different plant organs, such as inflorescences (e.g. broccoli and cauliflower), leaves (e.g. kale and pak choi), heads (e.g. white and red cabbage), as well as roots and bulbs (e.g. radish and turnip), are frequently consumed brassicaceaous vegetables. The order Brassicales is characterized by a specific group of secondary plant metabolites, namely the glucosinolates. Glucosinolates and their breakdown products the isothiocyanates are linked to conferring beneficial health effects. In addition, some studies have also highlighted the
beneficial health effects of phenolic compounds and carotenoids, both well-known as antioxidants. Of interest is that the profiles and concentrations of secondary plant metabolites vary enormously between the species, and genetic factors are thought to affect this the most. Further, environmental and agronomical factors are also known to change concentrations of secondary plant metabolites enormously. The main physiological mechanism to produce secondary plant metabolites is defense. Thus, the intrinsic quality, including color, aroma, taste, and beneficial health properties of brassicaceous vegetables, is remarkably affected by secondary plant metabolite profiles and concentrations.
... Recent societal health awareness among populations globally has stimulated research efforts to venture into plant-based fortification strategies resulting in products (functional foods) with improved health benefits. Although mature Brassica species (broccoli, kale, and brussel sprouts among others) has been well described to accumulate a diverse array of phytochemicals (and potentially play a role in the prevention of non-communicable diseases), a sustained diet (Brassica-enriched) is required for health beneficial effects [29,30]. In contrast, immature plants (grown to micro-green stage, with 2-4 true leaves) accumulate significantly higher amounts of phytochemicals (up to 10 times more than plants grown to maturity), which are required as part of defense mechanisms enabling young plants to survive, mature and defend against potential environmental stresses [23]. ...
Background: Brassica vegetables and leafy greens are consumed globally due to their health promoting phytochemicals. Diplotaxis tenuifolia (wild rocket or arugula) is a popular Brassica leafy green, with a diverse range of phytochemicals (in mature plants). Immature plants (micro-greens, 2-4 true leaves) accumulate phytochemicals up to 10 times more than plants grown to maturity. Although plants accumulate phytochemicals ubiquitously, environmental stimuli can further enhance this phenomenon of accumulation, which is part of a global stress mechanism in plants. In this study, we describe a simple method toward the bio-fortification of a wild rocket micro-green system, via environmental manipulation (using high light).
Objective: To establish a high light-induced bio-fortification strategy to augment the accumulation of bio-active compounds in Brassica micro-greens (wild rocket), with the purpose of developing a ‘designer’ micro-green melange (functional food product) containing a diverse range of bio-active (disease preventative) compounds.
Results: High light stimulated wild rocket micro-greens to achieve a significant increase of known phytochemicals (documented in relevant Brassica leafy greens). Furthermore, undocumented phytochemicals (resveratrol, catechin, epicatechin, and kaempferol, among others) also accumulated to adequate concentrations. Plant extracts from bio-fortified micro-greens displayed increased anti-oxidant capacity (up to 3-fold, when compared to control), a key component in future cancer cell research.
Conclusion: The use of high light resulted in successful bio-fortification of wild rocket micro-greens, evidenced by the accumulation of previously undocumented polyphenols (such as resveratrol, catechin and epicatechin) and improved anti-oxidant capacity.
... Many studies have shown that the synthesis of these compounds in Brassicaceae can be influenced by environmental factors, such as salinity, drought, temperature, deficiency of nutrients and soil acidity (low pH), beyond the biotic factors (Steinbrenner et al. 2012). The glucosinolates are a class of SMs that gained a particular interest due to its biological activity, mainly in the prevention of cancer (Johnson 2002;Finley 2005). These compounds are very studied in vegetables and its consumption has been recommended for the treatment of some diseases. ...
Current research in secondary metabolites from medicinal plants should take into account the prevalence and the healing properties of which plant. These compounds have been provided opportunities to development of new drugs leads against several diseases. However, to obtain compounds from edible medicinal plants as well as that used to prepare infusions, numerous challenges are encountered including the environment and stressing factors to which the plants are submitted. Extensive phytochemicals analysis has lead to the identification of biotic and abiotic stress factors that directly influence in the metabolism of plant. This chapter provide an overview of some environmental and stressing factors that may direct the secondary metabolism in medicinal plants.
... Food Research International xxx (xxxx) xxx-xxx endogenous enzyme myrosinase catalyses the hydrolysis of glycosidic bond releasing glucose (sugar part) and bioactive breakdown compounds (non-sugar part or aglycone). Myrosinase (EC 3.2.3.1) is activated upon plant tissue disruption, caused by harvest, pests, processing or consumption (Johnson, 2002;Petropoulos, Gioia, & Ntatsi, 2017). The biological properties of glucosinolate breakdown products, especially isothiocyanates, are related to their ability to block the cell cycle and induce apoptosis in several types of cancer cells, exerting thus anticarcinogenic effects. ...
Nutritional recommendations emphasize fruit and vegetable consumption. This is related to health-benefits associated with bioactive nutritive molecules (nutrients, vitamins, minerals, fibers, ...) as well as non-nutritive phytochemicals (phenolic compounds, flavonoids, bioactive peptides, ...) content of these types of foods. Fermented fruit or vegetable products are part of various diets worldwide. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) fermentation is common among the various fermentation processes used. It produces changes in both profile and types of bioactive compounds. Molecules such as bioactive peptides, short chain fatty acids or polysaccharides are generated while sugar content or anti-nutritional compounds are decreased and phenolic compounds are converted to molecules with added biological value. These transformations, associated with prebiotic and/or probiotic potential supply as well as improvement of food components bioaccessibility and bioavailability, result in modifications of health-related properties. Lastly, interactions between ingested fermented food, intestinal microbiota and their correlations to metabolomics profiles and health represent an important perspective deserving to be further explored.
Esta obra constituiu-se a partir de um processo colaborativo entre professores, estudantes e pesquisadores, dedicados ao estudo da Zootecnia e suas diferentes áreas. Resulta, também, de movimentos interinstitucionais e de ações de incentivo à pesquisa que congregam pesquisadores de diferentes Instituições de Educação Superior públicas e privadas de abrangência nacional e internacional. Tem como objetivo integrar ações interinstitucionais nacionais e internacionais com redes de pesquisa que tenham a finalidade de fomentar a formação continuada dos profissionais da educação, por meio da produção e socialização de conhecimentos das diversas áreas de pesquisas e práticas relacionadas a Zootecnia. Agradecemos aos autores pelo empenho, disponibilidade e dedicação para o desenvolvimento e conclusão dessa obra. Esperamos também que esta obra sirva de instrumento didático-pedagógico para estudantes, professores dos diversos níveis de ensino em seus trabalhos.
Isothiocyanates are the highly reactive organo-sulphur phytochemicals and are product of hydrolysis of glucosinolates which are present mainly in the cruciferous vegetables. These compounds due to their unique chemical reactivity possess anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. Epidemiological and experimental evidences suggest that isothiocyanates reduce oxidative stress and act as indirect antioxidants as well as antimicrobials, therefore, have received attention from the researchers for their possible application in pharmacological and food industry. However, due to high volatility and heat sensitivity of these bioactive compounds, their extraction is very challenging and requires the application of various innovative technologies. In addition to that, their fate during the processing conditions also needs to be considered as these processes tend to affect their bioavailability. Isothiocyanates exhibit wide range of antimicrobial activity due to their ability of reducing oxygen consumption and depolarizing the mitochondrial membrane in bacterial cells. They are generally regarded as safe (GRAS) compounds and hence are allowed to be added to the food as preservatives. Due to their antimicrobial properties, isothiocyanates incorporated food packaging films have become popular in the last decade. They are known to act as substrates to activate lactoperoxidases (LPO) for extension of shelf life of dairy products due to its bactericidal and bacteriostatic properties. This review addresses the detailed evidences supporting the biological activities, bioavailability and stability, methods of extraction, and explanation for their taste perception, as well as utilization of these isothiocyanates in food packaging as natural antimicrobials or natural preservatives to improve shelf life of foodstuffs.
To date, the impacts of agriphotovoltaic (APV) condition on the production yield of crop have been studied; however, the effect of APV production on the sensorial quality and consumer acceptability of the produce remains unexplored. Therefore, to address this knowledge gap, we cultivated "Winter Storm" cabbage under solar panels (20.16 kW) and in open field in 2020. The weight and diameter reduction rate of fresh cabbage grown under APV condition compared to open-field conditions were 9.7% and 1.2%, respectively. The levels of glucosinolates and their hydrolysis products were not significantly different in the fresh cabbage between the two conditions. The amount of volatile organic compounds, which may affect the perception of smell, were significantly higher in the cabbage juice prepared from the ones grown in open-field conditions than in the juice prepared from cabbages grown under APV conditions (n = 3, p < 0.01). However, untrained subjects could not distinguish the difference in the quality of the 2 sets of cabbage juices in the triangle test (n = 70, p = 0.724). Regardless of the distinguishing features of color, aroma, and taste, the subjects did not have any preference between the two different cabbage juices.
Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) play a vital role in traditional as well as modern medicine. According to World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 80% of total world’s population still relies on ancient and traditional medicine for healthcare needs and MAPs serve as the backbone of traditional medicine. These MAPs synthesize various bioactive secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, resins, saponins, terpenes, volatile oils, etc., which have been eventually utilized by humans for their valuable role in treating wide array of disease. The structural diversity of these secondary metabolites is responsible for broad range of medicinal properties exhibited by them. The chapter will focus on various types of secondary metabolites inherited by MAPs and their role in traditional and modern healthcare system against various ailments.
Dagnachew Eyachew Amare Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, EthiopiaCorrespondence: Dagnachew Eyachew AmareDepartment of Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, P.O. Box 196, Gondar, EthiopiaTel +251-939406194Email dagnachew.eyachew@gmail.comObjective: To systematically review the human clinical trial published studies regarding a dietary compound 3,3ʹ-diindolylmethane (DIM) clinical efficacy towards the prevention and treatment of cancer and other diseases, its bioavailability, safety, and consistency of the results.Methods: An electronic literature search of PubMed database (14), Cochrane Clinical Trials library (3), and Google Scholar (5) from inception to Feb 2020 was conducted. All the in vitro, animal, epidemiological, and review studies of DIM were excluded. Twenty-two randomized or controlled human clinical trials with prospective/retrospective studies published in the English language and that involved DIM intervention on human participants were extracted.Results: DIM has increased estrogen metabolism, decreased androgen-specific antigen, up-regulated BRCA1 expression, and increased androgen hormone-binding globulin. This suggests that DIM may have a promising beneficial role as a chemo-preventive supplement for breast and prostate cancers. DIM has shown some clinical efficacy to treat cervical/prostate dysplasia, human papilloma-virus, and warts.Conclusion: The absence of clinical evidence about DIM efficacy to treat prostate or breast cancer patients is the concern as this dietary compound is being advocated as a supplement in the market to treat these disease conditions. The maximum DIM intervention time for breast and prostate cancer patients was 28 days and 12 months, respectively, and most of the prospective trials were targeting DIM biological fate, than adequately addressing DIM efficacy in treating breast or prostate cancer.Keywords: 3,3ʹ-diindolylmethane, cancer, cruciferous vegetables, human clinical trials, indole-3-carbinol, supplementation
Vegetables are the major protective food in our diet, and besides providing essential nutrients, they are also the reservoirs of bioactive compounds. Bioactive compounds are the secondary metabolites that have an effect on living organisms and impart many health benefits. Most prominent bioactive compounds present in vegetables are terpenoids, carotenoids, phenolics, phytosterols, and glucosinolates. Many of these bioactive compounds are reported to possess antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-osteoporotic, antihypertensive, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and anticancer properties, and are said to be effective as the reducers of cardiovascular complications. These bioactives can be extracted by various extraction techniques, and the extracted bioactives are evaluated using multiple in vitro and in vivo methods to ascertain their health benefits. This book chapter summarizes the literature available on bioactive compounds present in vegetables along with their health benefits, their extraction methods and effect of storage and processing on bioactive constituent retention.
Intake of isothiocyanates (ITCs), naturally occurring as hydrolization products from glucosinolates (GLSs) in brassicaceae, has, in epidemiological studies, been weakly to moderately inversely correlated with the risk of colorectal cancer, prostate cancer and lung cancer. Numerous preclinical studies demonstrate chemopreventive mode of actions of ITCs, mainly related to a.) detoxification (induction of phase II enzymes), b.) anti-inflammatory properties by down-regulation of NFkappaB activity, c.) cyclin-mediated cell cycle arrest and d.) epigenetic modulation by inhibition of histone deacetylase activity. First prospective clinical trials were promising in patients with risk of prostate cancer recurrence. The glutathione-S-transferase gene expression seems to play a major role in the individual susceptibility towards ITCs. Safety issues are widely unclear and should be more addressed in future studies because ITCs can, in low concentrations, compromise the function of human immune cells and might impair genome stability.
This paper gives an overview of the epidemiological data concerning the cancer-preventive effect of brassica vegetables, including cabbage, kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower. The protective effect of brassicas against cancer may be due to their relatively high content of glucosinolates. Certain hydrolysis products of glucosinolates have shown anticarcinogenic properties. The results of 7 cohort studies and 87 case-control studies on the association between brassica consumption and cancer risk are summarized. The cohort studies showed inverse associations between the consumption of cabbage, cauliflower, and broccoli and risk of lung cancer; between the consumption of brassicas and risk of stomach cancer; between broccoli consumption and risk of all cancers taken together; and between brassica consumption and the occurrence of second primary cancers. Of the case-control studies, 67% showed an inverse association between consumption of total brassica vegetables and risk of cancer at various sites. For cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts, these percentages were 70, 56, 67, and 29%, respectively. Although the measured effects might have been distorted by various types of bias, it is concluded that a high consumption of brassica vegetables is associated with a decreased risk of cancer. This association appears to be most consistent for lung, stomach, colon, and rectal cancer and least consistent for prostatic, endometrial, and ovarian cancer. It is not yet possible to resolve whether associations are to be attributed to brassica vegetables per se or to vegetables in general. Further epidemiological research should separate the anticarcinogenic effect of brassica vegetables from the effect of vegetables in general.
Glucosinolates are sulphur compounds that occur as glycosides in brassica vegetables. In response to tissue disruption they are degraded by thioglucosidase, releasing a range of highly reactive breakdown products, including the isothiocyanates, which we have previously shown to be selectively cytotoxic to undifferentiated colorectal tumour cells (HT29). In the present study we explored the effect of sinigrin on the intestinal mucosa of rats previously treated with dimethylhydrazine (DMH). In the first experiment, a semisynthetic feed containing sinigrin (400 microg/g diet) was provided 6 h after the second of two injections of DMH. The level of apoptosis was measured by morphological assessment of intact microdissected crypts obtained at 18, 24, 38, 48 and 72 h after injection, and compared with control groups given DMH only, or a sham-injection. Higher numbers of apoptotic nuclei were present in colonic tissue from both groups of DMH-treated rats compared with the controls, and the level was significantly higher in DMH-treated rats fed sinigrin compared with those given DMH only (P < 0.02). In a second experiment, rats were given sinigrin (400 microg/g diet) 22 h after the second of two injections of DMH; the level of apoptosis was measured after 48 h and the numbers of aberrant crypt foci (ACF) were measured after 42 days. The level of apoptosis was significantly higher in DMH-treated rats given sinigrin compared with controls (P < 0.05), and the numbers of ACF were significantly lower in sinigrin-treated rats (P < 0.001). There was no statistically significant induction of apoptosis in animals fed sinigrin alone. Sinigrin administered after DMH suppresses induction of ACF. This may be due to increased apoptotic deletion of damaged stem cells in the crypts of animals fed sinigrin.
The glucosinolates, sinigrin and progoitrin, are related to the bitterness observed in Brussels sprouts. The role of these glucosinolates in taste preference for Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var gemmifera) was studied with two different consumer taste panels and an analytical panel. Four different taste trials were conducted between 1989 and 1995 to study the role of sinigrin and progoitrin on taste preference and bitterness of sprouts. Sinigrin and progoitrin correlated negatively with taste preference of sprouts when their combined content was higher than 2·2 g kg−1. Under these conditions the overall preference for different Brussels sprouts cultivars, in two different trial designs, was accounted for, respectively, 64 (Novartis Seeds BV) and 86% (TNO) by the contents of the glucosinolates sinigrin and progoitrin. In two additional trials, in which the combined content of sinigrin and progoitrin of all cultivars was below 2·2 g kg−1, no relationship between taste preference and the content of both glucosinolates was observed. In the latter trials the content of sinigrin and progoitrin was found to be correlated with bitterness (r2multiple = 0·67 and 0·93, respectively) as assessed by an analytical panel. The results of the taste trials show that both bitterness and taste preference for sprouts are correlated with the content of sinigrin and progoitrin. Taste preference for sprouts is only correlated with sinigrin and progoitrin when their combined content exceeds 2·2 g kg−1, while bitterness is correlated with both glucosinolates for the whole studied content range. © 1998 Society of Chemical Industry.
The glucosinolates are a large group of sulphur-containing compounds which occur in all the economically important varieties of Brassica vegetable. Their common structure comprises a β-D-thioglucose group, a sulphonated oxime moiety and a variable side-chain derived from methionine, tryptophan or phenylalanine. When the plant tissue is damaged the glucosinolates are hydrolysed by the endogenous enzyme ‘myrosinase’ (thioglucoside glycohydrolase EC 3:2:3:1), to release a range of breakdown products including the bitter, biologically active isothiocyanates. Although these compounds exert antinutritional effects in animals there is also substantial evidence that they are the principal source of anticarcinogenic activity in Brassica vegetables, and this provides a strong motive for the manipulation of glucosinolate levels in vegetables for human consumption. This review provides an overview of the evidence for a beneficial role for glucosinolates in human health, and describes the current state of knowledge regarding the genetics and biosynthesis of glucosinolates, their chemical analysis, their behaviour during cooking and processing, and their bioavailability to humans. As the genetic basis of glucosinolate biosynthesis becomes more apparent, and tools for marker-assisted plant breeding become more available, the selective breeding of horticultural brassicas with different levels and types of glucosinolates, whether by conventional means or genetic manipulation, is becoming a practical possibility. However before this strategy becomes commercially viable, the health benefits of glucosinolates for human beings must be unequivocally established.© 2000 Society of Chemical Industry
In this paper, it is demonstrated that many steps in the food production chain of vegetable products can have large influence on the final intake of health protective phytochemicals. The wide variations in levels at each step in the production chain makes an experimental quantification of the dietary intake of phytochemical extremely difficult. We present a concept for predictive modelling of the effects of various processes in the production chain of vegetable products on the intake of phytochemicals with potential health benefits. This approach is intended to be used for the developments of tools to facilitate both product and process development for health products as well as epidemiological input data for bioactive substances in the diet. Protective glucosinolates present in Brassica vegetables are used to illustrate the value of such a predictive model. The described model provides a powerful tool for handling the variation of glucosinolate levels throughout the chain in a quantitative way. Product development, consumer advice and human intervention trials are important areas that could benefit enormously from this approach.
This review surveys the occurrence, analysis, and properties of glucosinolates and derived compounds in plants and products intended for humans and animal consumption. The paper, which includes references published in 1981, is also intended to compliment existing reviews on the chemistry of these sulfur‐containing natural products. Particular emphasis is placed upon members of the Brassica family because of their importance as vegetables, condiments, oilseeds, and animal feedingstuffs. Since much of the work considered here relates to glucosinolate decomposition products, biochemical information concerning the nature, occurrence, and properties of the glucosinolate‐degrading enzyme, myrosinase, is considered in Section III. The methods available for the chemical analysis of glucosinolates and their various breakdown products are discussed critically. Factors affecting the glucosinolate content of plants and plant products arc outlined in Section VII. Particular emphasis is placed upon the effect of processing on the concentration and nature of breakdown products and on the myrosinase activity. The role of glucosinolate breakdown products on flavor development is examined in Section VIII. The more general effects, both beneficial and adverse, of these compounds in food are discussed in Section X. Since such effects in animal feedingstuffs have been the subject of regular reviews, these are considered here only briefly. Contraindications in the literature are pointed out, areas which have been inadequately explored are highlighted, and suggestions are made for future research.
Evidence that the various common types of cancer are largely avoidable diseases is reviewed. Life-style and other environmental factors are divided into a dozen categories, and for each category the evidence relating those particular factors to cancer onset rates is summarized. Where possible, an estimate is made of the percentage of current U.S. cancer mortality that might have been caused or avoided by that category of factors. These estimates are based chiefly on evidence from epidemiology, as the available evidence from animal and other laboratory studies cannot provide reliable human risk assessments. By far the largest reliably known percentage is the 30% of current U.S. cancer deaths that are due to tobacco, although it is possible that some nutritional factor(s) may eventually be found to be of comparable importance. The percentage of U.S. cancer deaths that are due to tobacco is still increasing, and must be expected to continue to increase for some years yet due to the delayed effects of the adoption of cigarettes in earlier decades. Trends in mortality and in onset rates for many separate types of cancer are studied in detail in appendixes to this paper. Biases in the available data on registration of new cases produce apparent trends in cancer incidence which are spurious. Biases also produce spurious trends in cancer incidence which are spurious. Biases also produce spurious trends in cancer death certification rates, especially among old people. In (and before) middle age, where the biases are smaller, there appear to be a few real increases and a few real decreases in mortality from some particular types of cancer, but there is no evidence of any generalized increase other than that due to tobacco. Moderate increases or decreases due to some new agent(s) or habit(s) might of course be overlooked in such large-scale analyses. But, such analyses do suggest that, apart from cancer of the respiratory tract, the types of cancer that are currently common are not peculiarly modern diseases and are likely to depend chiefly on some long-established factor(s). (A prospective study utilizing both questionnaires and stored blood and other biological materials might help elucidate these factors.) The proportion of current U.S. cancer deaths attributed to occupational factors is provisionally estimated as 4% (lung cancer being the major contributor to this). This is far smaller than has recently been suggested by various U.S. Government agencies. The matter could be resolved directly by a "case-control" study of lung cancer two or three times larger than the recently completed U.S. National Bladder Cancer Study but similar to it in methodology and unit costs; there are also other reasons for such a study. A fuller summary of conclusions and recommendations comprises the final section of this report.
Cruciferous vegetables, especially broccoli, may prevent cancer through anticarcinogenic compounds. For example, broccoli contains isothiocyanates that induce carcinogen-detoxifying enzymes. Glutathione transferase enzymes conjugate isothiocyanates, leading to excretion. We hypothesized that broccoli consumption in combination with the glutathione transferase M1 (GSTM1) null genotype would be associated with a lower prevalence of colorectal adenomas because of higher isothiocyanate levels. We used a case-control study of mainly asymptomatic subjects aged 50-74 years who underwent a screening sigmoidoscopy at either of two Southern California Kaiser Permanente Medical Centers during 1991-1993. Cases (n = 459) had a first-time diagnosis of histologically confirmed adenomas detected by flexible sigmoidoscopy. Controls (n = 507) had no polyp detected. Subjects had a 45-min in-person interview for information on various risk factors and basic demographic data and completed a 126-item, semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. Blood samples were used for GSTM1 genotyping. Subjects with the highest quartile of broccoli intake (an average of 3.7 servings per week) had an odds ratio of 0.47 (95% confidence interval, 0.30-0.73) for colorectal adenomas, compared with subjects who reportedly never ate broccoli. When stratified by GSTM1 genotype, a protective effect of broccoli was observed only among subjects with the GSTM1 null genotype (P for trend, 0.001; P for interaction, 0.01). The observed broccoli-GSTM1 interaction is compatible with an isothiocyanate mechanism.
Isothiocyanates and their naturally occurring glucosinolate precursors are widely consumed as part of a diet rich in cruciferous vegetables. When plant cells are damaged, glucosinolates are released and converted to isothiocyanates by the enzyme myrosinase. Many isothiocyanates inhibit the neoplastic effects of various carcinogens at a number of organ sites. Consequently, these agents are attracting attention as potential chemoprotectors against cancer. As a prerequisite to understanding the mechanism of the protective effects of these compounds, which is thought to involve the modulation of carcinogen metabolism by the induction of phase 2 detoxication enzymes and the inhibition of phase 1 carcinogen-activating enzymes, we examined the fate of ingested isothiocyanates and glucosinolates in humans. Recently developed novel methods for quantifying isothiocyanates (and glucosinolates after their quantitative conversion to isothiocyanates by purified myrosinase) and their urinary metabolites (largely dithiocarbamates) have made possible a detailed examination of the fates of isothiocyanates and glucosinolates of dietary crucifers. In a series of studies in normal volunteers, we made these findings. First, in nonsmokers, urinary dithiocarbamates were detected only after the consumption of cruciferous vegetables and condiments rich in isothiocyanates and/or glucosinolates. In sharp contrast, the consumption of noncrucifers (corn, tomatoes, green beans, and carrots) did not lead to the excretion of dithiocarbamates. Moreover, the quantities of dithiocarbamates excreted were related to the glucosinolate/isothiocyanate profiles of the cruciferous vegetables administered (kale, broccoli, green cabbage, and turnip roots). Second, eating prepared horseradish containing graded doses of isothiocyanates (12.3-74 micromol; mostly allyl isothiocyanate) led to a rapid excretion of proportionate amounts (42-44%) of urinary dithiocarbamates with first-order kinetics. The ingestion of broccoli in which myrosinase had been heat-inactivated also led to proportionate but low (10-20%) recoveries of urinary dithiocarbamates. Broccoli samples subsequently treated with myrosinase to produce the cognate isothiocyanates were much more completely (47%) converted to dithiocarbamates. Finally, when bowel microflora were reduced by mechanical cleansing and antibiotics, the conversion of glucosinolates became negligible. These results establish that humans convert substantial amounts of isothiocyanates and glucosinolates to urinary dithiocarbamates that can be easily quantified, thus paving the way for meaningful studies of phase 2 enzyme induction in humans.
Substantial quantities of isothiocyanates are released upon consumption of normal amounts of a number of cruciferous vegetables. Some of these naturally occurring isothiocyanates such as phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC), benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC) and sulforaphane are effective inhibitors of cancer induction in rodents treated with carcinogens. A large amount of data demonstrate that isothiocyanates act as cancer chemopreventive agents by favorably modifying carcinogen metabolism via inhibition of Phase 1 enzymes and/or induction of Phase 2 enzymes. These effects are quite specific, depending on the structure of the isothiocyanate and carcinogen. One of the most thoroughly studied examples of isothiocyanate inhibition of rodent carcinogenesis is inhibition of 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK)-induced lung tumorigenesis by PEITC. This occurs because PEITC blocks the metabolic activation of NNK, resulting in increased urinary excretion of detoxified metabolites. Similar effects on NNK metabolism have been observed in smokers who consumed watercress, a source of PEITC. On the basis of these observations and knowledge of the carcinogenic constituents of cigarette smoke, a strategy for chemoprevention of lung cancer can be developed.
Isothiocyanates (ITCs), major constituents of cruciferous vegetables, can inhibit tumorigenesis in rodents by modulating the metabolism of carcinogens. ITCs that occur as glucosinolates are released by myrosinase-mediated hydrolysis when raw vegetables are chopped or chewed. However, because cruciferous vegetables are commonly consumed by humans after being cooked, it is important to examine whether dietary glucosinolates are converted to ITCs after cooked cruciferous vegetables in which myrosinase is deactivated have been consumed. This information is useful for evaluating the potential role of ITCs in cruciferous vegetables in the protection against human cancers. A urinary marker, based on a cyclocondensation product formed by the reaction of ITCs and their conjugates with 1,2-benzenedithiol, was used to quantify the uptake of dietary ITCs in humans. At breakfast and lunch, nine volunteers consumed a total of 350 g of cooked watercress in which the myrosinase activity was completely deactivated. On the basis of the analysis of ITCs in the cooked watercress upon adding exogenous myrosinase, the amount of glucosinolates ingested by each subject was estimated to be 475 micromol. The 24-h urine samples showed that the total urinary excretion of ITC conjugates in the subjects ranged from 5.6 to 34.8 micromol, corresponding to 1.2-7.3% of the total amount ingested. On the basis of our previous results that approximately 50% of dietary ITCs were excreted in the urine as conjugates, these values represent the minimal in vivo conversion of glucosinolates to ITCs. For purposes of comparison, we carried out a second experiment in which 150 g of uncooked watercress were consumed. The percentage of urinary ITC conjugates excreted in this study ranged from 17.2 to 77.7% of the total ingested ITCs. These results indicate that glucosinolates are converted to ITCs in humans after ingestion of cooked watercress, in which the myrosinase has been completely inactivated. The extent of conversion, however, is considerably less than that after ingesting uncooked vegetables. Furthermore, upon incubation of the cooked watercress juice with fresh human feces under anaerobic conditions, approximately 18% of glucosinolates was hydrolyzed to ITCs in 2 h. These results suggest that the microflora in the intestinal tract are a likely source for the hydrolysis of glucosinolates to ITCs in humans.
This paper first gives an overview of the epidemiological data concerning the cancer-preventive effect of brassica vegetables, including cabbages, kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower. A protective effect of brassicas against cancer may be plausible due to their relatively high content of glucosinolates. Certain hydrolysis products of glucosinolates have shown anticarcinogenic properties. The results of six cohort studies and 74 case-control studies on the association between brassica consumption and cancer risk are summarized. The cohort studies showed inverse associations between the consumption of brassica’s and risk of lung cancer, stomach cancer, all cancers taken together. Of the case-control studies 64% showed an inverse association between consumption of one or more brassica vegetables and risk of cancer at various sites. Although the measured effects might have been distorted by various types of bias, it is concluded that a high consumption of brassica vegetables is associated with a decreased risk of cancer. This association appears to be most consistent for lung, stomach, colon and rectal cancer, and least consistent for prostatic, endometrial and ovarian cancer. It is not yet possible to resolve whether associations are to be attributed to brassica vegetables per se or to vegetables in general. Further epidemiological research should separate the anticarcinogenic effect of brassica vegetables from the effect of vegetables in general.
Dietary isothiocyanates inhibit lung carcinogenesis in laboratory animals but human data are limited. Glutathione S-transferases M1 and T1 (GSTM1 and GSTT1) conjugate isothiocyanates leading to more rapid elimination. Common deletion polymorphisms of GSTM1 and GSTT1 abolish enzyme activity. We hypothesised that chemopreventive effects of isothiocyanates might be heightened when enzymes that enhance their elimination are lacking.
We examined the relation between total isothiocyanate concentrations in urine, collected before diagnosis, and the subsequent risk of lung cancer among 232 incident cases of lung cancer and 710 matched controls from a cohort of 18,244 men in Shanghai, China, followed from 1986 to 1997. Homozygous deletion of the GSTM1 and GSTT1 genes were determined by PCR.
Individuals with detectable isothiocyanates in the urine were at decreased risk of lung cancer (smoking-adjusted relative risk for lung cancer=0.65 [95% CI 0.43-0.97]). This protective effect of isothiocyanates was seen primarily among individuals with homozygous deletion of GSTM1 (0.36 [0.20-0.63]) and particularly with deletion of both GSTM1 and GSTT1 (0.28 [0.13-0.57]).
Isothiocyanates appeared to reduce lung-cancer risk in this cohort of Chinese men. Reduction in risk was strongest among persons genetically deficient in enzymes that rapidly eliminate these chemopreventive compounds.
A human digestive strain of Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron was tested for its ability to metabolise sinigrin, a glucosinolate commonly found in Brassica vegetables. Gnotobiotic rats harbouring the bacterial strain were orally dosed with 50 micromol sinigrin. HPLC analysis of the digestive contents showed that sinigrin was degraded in the large bowel, where B. thetaiotaomicron was established at a high level. Concurrently, a hydrolysis product of sinigrin, allyl isothiocyanate, was identified by GC-MS analysis, following headspace solid-phase microextraction of the digestive contents; its production peaked at ca. 200 nmol, 12 h after dosing. This is the first study to demonstrate in vivo the involvement of a human colonic predominant bacterium in the bioconversion of a dietary glucosinolate to a potentially anticarcinogenic isothiocyanate.
Beneath the complexity and idiopathy of every cancer lies a limited number of 'mission critical' events that have propelled the tumour cell and its progeny into uncontrolled expansion and invasion. One of these is deregulated cell proliferation, which, together with the obligate compensatory suppression of apoptosis needed to support it, provides a minimal 'platform' necessary to support further neoplastic progression. Adroit targeting of these critical events should have potent and specific therapeutic consequences.
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Ian. T. Johnson Institute of Food Research Norwich Research Park Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UA, UK Tel. +44 (0)1603 255330 ian.johnson@bbsrc.ac.uk Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res., 72 (1), 2002, © Hogrefe & Huber Publishers