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The impact of gender, body dimension and body composition on hand-grip strength in healthy children
Abstract
Maximum hand-grip (HG) strength, body composition and main anthropometric variables were evaluated in 278 children with normal weight and growth, aged 5–15 yr divided into 3 age groups: group 1, age±SD: 7.6±0.9 yr 7.6 ±0.9 SD (Tanner stage 1); group 2, age: 10.8±0.7 yr (Tanner stage: 2-3); group 3, age: 13.2±0.9 yr (Tanner stage: 4-5). Weight, height, body surface area (BSA), BMI, percent body fat (BF) and fat free mass (FFM) increased progressively and significantly from the younger to the older age group. A significant difference between genders was detected only for BF and FFM, females having a higher fat mass and a lower FFM compared to males. Most children were right-handed (91%). In either genders, a curvilinear relation was detected between HG strength and age, with best fit for the dominant (d) hand given by the equations: dHG=5.891 *100.051 age, r2=0.986, pdHG=6.163 *100.045 age, r2=0.973, pd and non-dominant (nd) hand, a significant difference in HG strength was detected between males and females, the average difference being about 10% at all ages. For both genders, nd hand was significantly weaker than d hand in the older age groups (2 and 3), but not in the younger group 1. Age and gender-dependent differences in HG strength (but not differences between d and nd hand) disappear if HG strength is normalized for FFM. Thus, in general, dHG strength normalized for FFM resulted on average to be 0.67±0.11 kg/kg. A multiple linear regression analysis indicated that HG was positively correlated with BMI, BSA, stature, stature2 and FFM (pd hand was: dHG strength= 2.32+0.63 FFM, r2=0.72, p
... Sex differences in body composition likely contribute to sex differences in grip strength because fat-free mass and muscle mass correlate positively with grip strength (Sartorio et al. 2002). ...
... In addition, sex differences in grip strength are reduced or eliminated when muscle strength is normalized to fat-free mass (Sartorio et al. 2002). Regarding muscle mass of the forearm, Abe et al. (2023) found that forearm muscle thickness correlates positively with grip strength in 5-6-year-olds, though thicknesses did not differ between boys and girls. ...
In 1985, Thomas and French published results of a meta‐analysis that examined sex differences in grip strength in children 5 years of age and older. Their analysis included results from only four studies, and no update has been published. The purpose of the current study was to use meta‐analysis to examine sex differences in grip strength from birth to age 16. The analysis included 808 effects from 169 studies conducted in 45 countries between 1961 and 2023. The total sample was 353,676 (178,588 boys, 175,088 girls). From birth to 16 years of age, grip strength was consistently greater in boys than girls. Between 3 and 10 years old, the effect size was small‐to‐moderate, with female grip strength equaling 90% of male grip strength (Hedges g = 0.33–0.46). At age 11, the effect size decreased slightly, likely due to girls reaching puberty before boys (g = 0.29, 95% confidence intervals (CI) [0.22, 0.35]). At age 13, the effect size increased markedly likely due to male puberty (g = 0.63, 95% CIs [0.55, 0.70]). By age 16, the sex difference in grip strength was substantial, with female grip strength equaling 65% of male grip strength (g = 2.07, 95% CIs [1.86, 2.27]). Secondary analyses revealed that the sex difference in grip strength is broadly similar between countries and has been mostly stable since the 1960s, except for a narrowing of the difference among 5–10‐year‐olds after 2010. Various biological factors explain why, on average, boys are stronger than girls from birth onward.
... Kim et al. found that the HGS of Korean Children Who Are Aged 10-14 was higher in males than in females 11 . In a similar study, Sartorio et al., in 2002, examined the HGS values of Italian children and found that the HGS values for the hand were higher in males than in females in a similar age group 18 . As a result of another study, a correlation was reported between hand sizes and HGS values 21 . ...
... Kim et al. found that the HGS of Korean Children Who Are Aged 10-14 was higher in males than in females 11 . In a similar study, Sartorio et al., in 2002, examined the HGS values of Italian children and found that the HGS values for the hand were higher in males than in females in a similar age group 18 . As a result of another study, a correlation was reported between hand sizes and HGS values 21 . ...
Earthquakes cause severe destruction in the region where they occur. Children and adolescents are the group most affected group by earthquakes, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is most common in this group. The age-related increase in Grip Strength varies between childhood and early adolescence. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and Hand Grip and Hand Measurements of children exposed to the Kahramanmaraş-centered earthquake on February 6, 2023. The “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Response Scale for Children” was administered to 116 children who in children between the ages of 8 and 12 groups, and consent was obtained from the participants. Morphometric measurements of the hands of the children were measured with a digital caliper. Children’s hand Grip Strength measurements were made by using a digital hand dynamometer. The analysis of study data was performed with the SPSS (Statistical Program in Social Sciences) 25 software. Positive and statistically significant relationships were detected between right and left-hand Grip Strength and right and left-hand measurements of females and males (p < 0.05). Statistically significant and negative relationships were detected between PTSD and right and left-hand Grip Strength and right and left-hand measurements in females and males (p < 0.05).In the present study, it was detected that as post-traumatic stress disorder increases, hand Grip Strength decreases. We think that these findings will guide future prospective studies.
... It is considered that the most important factor influencing hand grip strength is the body mass index, and this may be due to the increasing muscle mass of athletes in this age group. In contrast to our study, Sartorio et al. (2002) reported hand grip strength was positively correlated to age in children (Sartorio et al., 2002). This difference could be due to the limited age range of the athletes participating in the study. ...
... It is considered that the most important factor influencing hand grip strength is the body mass index, and this may be due to the increasing muscle mass of athletes in this age group. In contrast to our study, Sartorio et al. (2002) reported hand grip strength was positively correlated to age in children (Sartorio et al., 2002). This difference could be due to the limited age range of the athletes participating in the study. ...
This study aimed to investigate hand grip and rope-pulling strength and endurance in laser-class sailors. Seventeen laser class sailors, 15 males and two females
participated in this study voluntarily. Hand grip and sheet rope-pulling tests were performed on the hiking bench. To determine the hand grip and the sheet
rope-pulling strength, the loadcell and Strength Sensor Platform software were used. No significant correlation was observed between the hand grip and sheet
rope-pulling strength (p > .05). A positive correlation was observed between the strengths of two hands in hand grip and sheet rope pulling (p < .01). According to endurance levels, the main effect of Force × Side interaction was significant (p=.038). For post hoc tests, sheet rope-pulling endurance was higher than
the hand grip and the left was higher than the right hand grip. In conclusion, a significant correlation was observed between right and left hand grip strength.
Anthropometric parameters, particularly body mass index, have a significant relationship with hand grip strength, probably due to increased muscle mass. Furthermore, significant differences in endurance levels were observed in hand grip and rope-pulling, as well as between the right and left hands. These findings
highlight the importance of integrating hand grip endurance activities into training to reduce asymmetric endurance levels.
Keywords: Hand grip, hiking bench, laser-class sailors, sheet rope pulling, strength and endurance
... Men also possess nearly twice the lean mass and half the fat mass in the right upper extremity compared to women, primarily due to distinct morphological and physiological variations 43,44 . Sartorio et al. 45 identified sex and sex hormones as the primary factors influencing HGS. Furthermore, women's strength in the upper limbs is equivalent to 40% of that of men 46 . ...
[Purpose] Sex strongly influences physical performance throughout adolescence, and excess fat mass is associated with several health and performance impairments. This study aimed to evaluate whether variations in strength between men and women dependent on lean mass and body fat content.[Methods] This cross-sectional, quasi-experimental, non-probabilistic study involved 44 university students (22 men and 22 women, aged 19–29). Handgrip strength (HGS) was measured using an adjustable handgrip dynamometer, body composition was assessed using bioimpedance, and countermovement jumps (CMJ) were measured using a force platform. Data were analyzed using ANOVA to compare HGS and CMJ based on body mass, and the Pearson correlation coefficient was applied to examine the relationships between grip strength, body composition, and jump test performance.[Results] Strength is significantly higher in men compared to women, as is countermovement jump. The strength of women corresponded to over 50% of that of men, whereas the quantity of lean mass in women corresponded to 55% of that of men. We found a significant relationship between strength and lean mass.[Conclusion] This study supports the idea that both upper- and lower-body strengths are strongly influenced by lean mass, thereby contributing to sex differences. The primary factor in body composition that explains the disparities in HGS and CMJ between sexes is the proportion of fat mass to lean mass. Finally, the sex disparities observed between body composition and strength depend on lean mass content.
... First, within the first few months of life, human infants experience a transient increase in sex hormones called 'minipuberty', and evidence supports that the transient surge of testosterone in male infants is linked to increased growth velocity (20) and reduced adipose accumulation (21) among male infants compared to female infants. Additionally, there is evidence of a relationship between endogenous testosterone concentration and increased muscle mass (6) and strength (22). ...
Purpose
To understand athletic performance before and after puberty, this study determined: 1) the age at which the sex difference increases among elite youth track and field athletes for running and jumping events; and 2) whether there is a sex difference in performance prior to ages associated with puberty among elite youth athletes.
Methods
Track and field records of elite USA male and female youth (7-18 years) across three years (2019, 2021, and 2022) were collected from an online database (athletic.net). The top 50 performances were recorded for 100 m, 200 m, 400 m, and 800 m track running, long jump, and high jump.
Results
Males ran faster than females at every age in the 100, 200, 400 and 800 m ( P < 0.001). When combining all running events, the sex difference (%) was 4.0 ± 1.7% between 7-12 years and increased to 6.3 ± 1.1% at 13 years, and 12.6 ± 1.8% at 18 years ( P < 0.001). Similarly, males jumped higher and farther than females at every age ( P < 0.001). For long jump, the sex difference was 6.8 ± 2.8% between 7-12 years, increasing to 8.5 ± 1.7% at 13 years, and 22.7 ± 1.4% at 18 years ( P < 0.001). For high jump, the sex difference was 5.3 ± 5.2% between 7-12 years, increasing to 12.4 ± 2.9% at 15 years, and 18.4 ± 2.04% at 18 years ( P < 0.001).
Conclusions
Prior to 12 years of age in elite youth track and field athletes, there was a consistent and significant sex difference of ~5%, such that males ran faster and jumped higher and farther than females. The magnitude of the sex difference in performance increased markedly at 12-13 years for running and long jump and 14 years for high jump and thus was more pronounced after ages associated with puberty.
... First, within the first few months of life, human infants experience a transient increase in sex hormones called 'minipuberty', and evidence supports that the transient surge of testosterone in male infants is linked to increased growth velocity (17) and reduced adipose accumulation (18) among male infants compared to female infants. Additionally, there is evidence of a relationship between endogenous testosterone concentration and increased muscle mass (6) and strength (19). ...
Background
This study aimed to investigate and understand predictor variables and isolate the exact roles of anthropometric and demographic variables in the hand grip strength of young children.
Material and methods
In total, 315 male and female children participated in the study and 11 participants were excluded, therefore, 304 participants completed the assessments. Anthropometric measurements were collected at the time of study, along with age, height, weight, circumference of the hand, hand span, hand length, palm length, and hand grip strength (HGS) was measured. Both decision tree and regression machine learning analyses were used to isolate the relative contribution of independent features in predicting the targeted grip strength of children.
Results
Two predictive models were developed to understand the role of predictor variables in dominant hand HGS for both boys and girls. For boys, the decision tree was found to be the best model with the lowest error in predicting HGS. The respondents’ age, hand span, and weight were the most significant contributors to male hand grip strength. For the boys under 9.5 years of age, based on the decision tree analysis, weight (split at 27.5 kg) was found to be the most significant predictor. Furthermore, for the boys under 14.5 years of age, weight (split at 46.7 kg) remained the most important predictor. For boys 14.5 years and older, hand span was important in predicting handgrip strength. Backward regression was found to be the best model for predicting female hand grip strength. The R ² value for the model was 0.6646 and the significant variables were body mass index (BMI), hand length, hand span, and palm length, showing significance at a p -value of ≤0.05. This model predicted 66.46% of the variance in handgrip strength among the girls.
Conclusion
Anthropometric factors played a significant role in hand grip strength. Age, weight, and a larger hand span were found to be significant in impacting male HGS, while BMI, hand length, and palm length contributed to higher grip strength among the girls.
Sex differences in sports performances continue to attract considerable scientific and public attention, driven in part by high profile cases of: 1) biological male (XY) athletes who seek to compete in the female category after gender transition, and 2) XY athletes with medical syndromes collectively known as disorders or differences of sex development (DSD). In this perspective we highlight scientific evidence that informs eligibility criteria and applicable regulations for sex categories in sport. There are profound sex differences in human performance in athletic events determined by strength, speed, power, endurance, and body size such that males outperform females. These sex differences in athletic performance exist before puberty and increase dramatically as puberty progresses. The profound sex differences in sports performance are primarily attributable to the direct and indirect effects of sex-steroid hormones and provide a compelling framework to consider for policy decisions to safeguard fairness and inclusion in sports.
Handgrip strength (HGS) is a simple measurement of maximum voluntary muscle strength and is widely used as a single indicator of overall muscle strength. This systematic review summarized the evidence about the relation between HGS and health outcomes in hospitalized children or chronically ill children. The primary outcome was the number of hospital days in a 2‐month period for outpatients and the length of hospital stay for inpatients. After a systematic search in PubMed, Embase, Lilacs, and the Cochrane Library, 9282 unique papers were screened, 24 included. Studies assessed HGS in children with cystic fibrosis, neuromuscular disease, chronic kidney disease, type 1 diabetes mellitus, asthma, cardiac disease, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, intestinal failure, surgical patients, and a mixed hospitalized population. One study reported that children experienced a decline in HGS during hospitalization which was associated with prolonged hospital stay. Another reported no relation with the number of hospital days in 5 years. No studies reported on the association between HGS and infectious complications or antibiotic use. We did find a positive correlation between HGS and quality of life, different nutritional parameters and inflammatory biochemical markers. We concluded that the relation between HGS and hospital stay in children is poorly studied. HGS showed promise as a functional biomarker for children with chronic health conditions when inflammation is involved, but more attention should be paid to the methodological aspects of assessing HGS.
Biological sex is a primary determinant of athletic human performance involving strength, power, speed, and aerobic endurance and is more predictive of athletic performance than gender. This perspective article highlights 3 key medical and physiological insights related to recent evolving research into the sex differences in human physical performance: (1) sex and gender are not the same; (2) males and females exhibit profound differences in physical performance with males outperforming females in events and sports involving strength, power, speed, and aerobic endurance; (3) endogenous testosterone underpins sex differences in human physical performance with questions remaining on the roles of minipuberty in the sex differences in performance in prepubescent youth and the presence of the Y chromosome (SRY gene expression) in males, on athletic performance across all ages. Last, females are underrepresented as participants in biomedical research, which has led to a historical dearth of information on the mechanisms for sex differences in human physical performance and the capabilities of the female body. Collectively, greater effort and resources are needed to address the hormonal mechanisms for biological sex differences in human athletic performance before and after puberty.
Grip strength was compared to physical education achievement grades for 635 college men. The relationship was found to be significant and positive. Grip strength is directly related to and probably dependent upon body weight and only indirectly related to height in college men. A significantly larger proportion of left-handed men have a stronger right grip as compared to right-handed men with a stronger left grip.
The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) to investigate the relationship between strength and achievement in physical education among 200 college women by comparing grip strength with grades in the instructional physical education courses and (2) to compare the results obtained on college women with those of college men in the study by Tinkle and Montoye reported in this issue of the Research Quarterly. A table of random numbers was used to secure the sample. The results indicated that grip strength among college women was significantly related to achievement in physical education instructional courses as measured by grades. Also, grip strength was found to be directly related to and probably dependent upon body weight and only indirectly related to height in college women. The relationship between grades in physical education and grip strength among college women substantiates the results of the college men's study.
Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is small deviations from perfect symmetry in normally bilaterally symmetrical traits. We examined the relationship between FA of five body traits (ear height, length of three digits, and ankle circumference) and self-reported scores of physical and verbal aggression in a sample of 90 boys aged 10 to 15 years. The relationships between FA and scores of aggression (particularly physical aggression) were found to be negative; in other words, the most symmetrical boys showed highest aggression. One trait (ankle circumference) showed the characteristics of “ideal” FA—parametric mean of zero and a normal distribution. Mean asymmetries calculated from six repeated measures of ankle FA in 30 subjects taken over a period of five months showed strong negative associations with scores of physical aggression which were independent of age, height, and weight.
It is argued that soft tissue “cyclical” FA (as opposed to “fixed” bony FA) is dependent on the secretion of hormones: for example, cortisol. Causal associations between behavioral traits such as aggresion and hormones will lead to similar correlations between FA and behavior.
Thesis (M.A.)--Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science. Dept. of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1956. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 51-52).
Women athletes (N = 50), age 18 to 30 years, served as subjects for the study that investigated the relationship between static strength and relative endurance of the grip squeezing muscles. The relationship between maximal strength and endurance time was r = .00. A comparison of the endurance times of women athletes with previously reported scores for college-age males revealed that the mean endurance time for women athletes was significantly greater than that for men. These results were discussed in light of evidence that suggests possible sex differences in muscle hypertrophy, capillarization of muscle tissue, critical occluding tension level, and intramuscular occlusion.
Possible changes in muscle size and function due to resistance training were examined in prepubertal boys. Thirteen boys (9-11 yr) volunteered for each of the training and control groups. Progressive resistance training was performed three times weekly for 20 wk. Measurements consisted of the following: 1 repetition maximum (RM) bench press and leg press; maximal voluntary isometric and isokinetic elbow flexion and knee extension strength; evoked isometric contractile properties of the right elbow flexors and knee extensors; muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) by computerized tomography at the mid-right upper arm and thigh; and motor unit activation (MUA) by the interpolated twitch procedure. Training significantly increased 1 RM bench press (35%) and leg press (22%), isometric elbow flexion (37%) and knee extension strength (25% and 13% at 90 degrees and 120 degrees, respectively), isokinetic elbow flexion (26%) and knee extension (21%) strength, and evoked twitch torque of the elbow flexors (30%) and knee extensors (30%). There were no significant effects of training on the time-related contractile properties (time to peak torque, half-relaxation time), CSA, or %MUA of the elbow flexors or knee extensors. There was, however, a trend toward increased MUA for the elbow flexors and knee extensors in the trained group. Strength gains were independent of changes in muscle CSA, and the increases in twitch torque suggest possible adaptations in muscle excitation-contraction coupling. Improved motor skill coordination (especially during the early phase of training), a tendency toward increased MUA, and other undetermined neurological adaptations, including better coordination of the involved muscle groups, are likely the major determinants of the strength gains in this study.