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Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders
Abstract
A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.
... Despite the advancements made by our society, gender role stereotypes are still prevalent and continue to influence people's ideologies and their gender-specific expectations mostly targeted at female employees (Eagly & Karau, 2002;Rudman, 1998;Valian, 1999). These expectations, in turn, influence the self-efficacy and behavior of negotiators as well as how they are judged and looked upon by their counterparts. ...
Organisations are composed of diverse stakeholders with varying interests in the wake of the current global business scenario, causing conflicts in work place to have become ubiquitous and inevitable issue. The right approach towards dealing with conflict is by managing the conflict effectively and ahead of time. In this regard, the awareness of personal negotiation style is considered to be a prerequisite that helps the negotiator to learn, develop and conduct successful negotiation process. Negotiating styles, as distinct patterns of behaviour, are critical for understanding effective negotiations. However, one predominant query that scholars have addressed over the past several years is: are women the same or different from men when it comes to negotiating and what explains these differences? In this backdrop various negotiation styles have been identified and attributed to men and women during last three decades in the field of negotiations. The purpose of this article is to bring forth the gender differences in negotiation styles adopted by the firm owners of Kashmir handicrafts sector and provide a structured overview of the considerable literature.
... Estudos clássicos sobre gênero, como os de Acker (1990) e Butler (1990), mostraram que as organizações e instituições tendem a reforçar normas de gênero que favorecem os homens, criando ambientes estruturados para perpetuar desigualdades. Essas normas geram crenças de que homens são mais competentes, mesmo quando critérios objetivos indicam desempenho equivalente entre os gêneros (Eagly & Karau, 2002). ...
Objetivo: Este estudo buscou compreender como são percebidos os vieses de gênero e seu reflexo na carreira acadêmica de professoras de Programas de Pós-Graduação (PPG) em contabilidade. Metodologia: Foram conduzidas entrevistas semiestruturadas com nove docentes de diferentes PPGs, e foram analisadas com base na análise textual discursiva. Resultados: As entrevistas permitiram revelar vieses de gênero que influenciam as atuações acadêmicas, algumas vezes de forma sutil. Foram percebidos vieses em relação às docentes, que foram subestimadas por pares homens, mesmo quando mais produtivas ou com maiores contribuições para o programa. Ademais, também foram relatadas discriminações relacionadas à maternidade, seja por serem mães ou por desejarem ser. Esses vieses, uma vez identificados, impactam(ram) a carreira das docentes, tornando-se explícitos em seus discursos. No entanto, não houve convergência nas percepções, pois cinco respondentes reconheceram claramente a presença de vieses de gênero, enquanto quatro não os identificaram de forma evidente. Contribuições: Revela-se que o ambiente e a cultura dos PPGs, assim como a história de vida, trajetória de formação e tempo de atuação, influenciam as percepções dos vieses de gênero. Os resultados sugerem a necessidade de mudanças sistêmicas para promover a igualdade de gênero, incluindo a adoção de políticas institucionais que ofereçam suporte às mulheres na academia e incentivem a representatividade feminina em cargos de liderança. A pesquisa também aponta para a importância de novos estudos sobre o impacto da maternidade e responsabilidades familiares na progressão de carreira das mulheres.
Bien qu’un nombre important de personnes immigrantes, y compris des femmes noires, aient intégré le marché du travail au Québec au cours des dernières décennies, les réalités sur leurs expériences de carrière au sein des organisations sont peu connues. S’appuyant sur des données provenant d’entrevues de fond, cet article examine la réussite professionnelle des immigrantes noires sur le marché du travail québécois, et plus particulièrement les perceptions à l’égard de cette réussite professionnelle. Les résultats suggèrent que les perceptions de réussite professionnelle de ces femmes sont largement influencées par des facteurs liés à leur identité sociale. En vue d’améliorer les chances de réussite professionnelle des immigrantes noires au Québec, il convient de faire davantage, aux niveaux méso et macro, afin de minimiser les nombreux obstacles auxquels elles sont actuellement confrontées. Cette étude contribue à l’étude critique des relations industrielles et de la réussite professionnelle. Elle met en avant les voix et les expériences d’individus qui, jusqu’à présent, ont été englobées dans la catégorie dite du travailleur idéal abstrait, qui n’a pas d’identité sociale.
This review proposes future directions for gender and negotiation research in light of two important labor market trends: workforces that are increasingly diverse and career advancement that is more often required to be self‐directed. I argue that these two trends have implications for research, both in terms of places where the field seems to be moving and new areas that could be ripe for exploration. I begin by underscoring the importance of context when making claims about gender and negotiation. Then, using two broad banners, diversity and careers, I review discussions that are arising from novel intersections as well as the ways that the changing workplace is shaping future research directions.
This study explores gender disparities and challenges faced by women in leadership positions in the academic sectors of developing and developed countries, which is a pressing and practical concern. Academic organizations have historically marginalized women in leadership roles. This meta-analysis provides a comprehensive overview of the ways women have experienced gender inequality in countries around the world e.g., Pakistan as a developing country, and the USA as a developed country. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews PRISMA served as a guide for a formal systematic review of the literature. Findings were drawn from research studies over the period 2003–2024 in both developed and developing countries. The three databases, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar yielded a total of 89 papers. Leadership in higher education and organizational improvement were key to choosing research for analysis. The findings illuminate the prevalent silent barriers and discriminatory dynamics that women leaders encounter, both in developed and developing countries. Insights from developed countries, such as the USA, reveal progress in promoting gender equality but acknowledge the existing gaps in top-tier leadership roles. Conversely, the challenges faced in academia by women in developing countries, exemplified by Pakistan, are rooted in educational gaps, cultural norms, and economic disparities. The implications of the current findings applied to developed and developing nations, provide a foundation for understanding the global landscape of Women's Leadership in Higher Education.
Understanding the effects of physical activity on the life skills of university students and how exercise shapes their eating habits is critical for the development of healthy lifestyles. This study aimed to examine the relationships between life skills, exercise habits, and nutritional behaviors of students enrolled in the Faculty of Sport Sciences, involving the participation of 222 male and 143 female students. This study utilized a correlational survey model to examine the relationships between life skills, exercise habits, and nutritional behaviors. The research data were collected with the Personal Information Form, the Life Skills Scale for Sport and the Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors Scale. The findings revealed that female students had higher scores in life skills areas such as communication, leadership and teamwork compared to male students, while male students had higher exercise scores. In addition, a moderate positive relationship was found between exercise and nutrition and exercise had a significant predictive power on dietary habits. These results emphasize the important role of exercise in supporting life skills and healthy lifestyles of university students.
In contemporary society, the underestimation of female leaderships within organizations and the concerning gender inequality gap in workplaces remain as significant issues. This study delves into the intricate web of factors leading to the underestimation of female leadership, examining both external factors, including the Role Congruity Theory, the Glass Cliff phenomenon and the “Think crisis – Think Female” Model, and internal factors including internalization of gender stereotypes by females. The research methodology used is primarily analyzing existing articles and literature. This study offers valuable suggestions for addressing these challenges, suggesting actions by multiple stakeholders including companies, women workers, and society as a whole. In conclusion, the research has illuminated that there are three crucial theoretical factors interplaying and ultimately contributing to the underestimation of female leadership, including external influences like the Role Congruity Theory, the Glass Cliff phenomenon and the “Think crisis – Think Female” Model, as well as internal factors such as gender stereotype internalization.
La igualdad de género es un objetivo mundial que está recogido en las políticas nacionales e internacionales, pero en la sociedad perviven determinadas creencias que se oponen a la misma. El objetivo de la investigación ha sido diseñar y validar la Escala de Actitudes Contra la Igualdad de Género (EACIG) en estudiantes universitarios. Se utiliza un diseño metodológico cuantitativo y transeccional. La muestra está formada por 404 docentes en formación (83,4 % mujeres y 16.1% hombres), con una edad media de 21.36 años (SD=4,37). El juicio de expertas apoyó la validez de contenido de los ítems, que estuvieron bien puntuados en claridad, relevancia y pertinencia. Los análisis factoriales evidenciaron que los ítems de la EACIG se agrupaban en una única dimensión. La validez convergente y discriminante muestran que las mediciones de la escala están relacionadas el constructo teórico. Por lo tanto, la EACIG es una escala válida y fiable para analizar actitudes contrarias a los avances feministas. Disponer de una herramienta como esta proporciona la oportunidad de explorar creencias culturales que frenan la igualdad de género, contribuyendo así a la promoción de la justicia social.
The impact of cognitive biases on decision-making in the digital world remains under-explored despite its well-documented effects in physical contexts. This paper addresses this gap by investigating the attractiveness halo effect using AI-based beauty filters. We conduct a large-scale online user study involving 2748 participants who rated facial images from a diverse set of 462 distinct individuals in two conditions: original and attractive after applying a beauty filter. Our study reveals that the same individuals receive statistically significantly higher ratings of attractiveness and other traits, such as intelligence and trustworthiness, in the attractive condition. We also study the impact of age, gender and ethnicity and identify a weakening of the halo effect in the beautified condition, resolving conflicting findings from the literature and suggesting that filters could mitigate this cognitive bias. Finally, our findings raise ethical concerns regarding the use of beauty filters.
Purpose
Although situational crisis communication theory (SCCT) is centered on rationality and cognitive information processing, it ignores that people are also driven by irrationality and non-cognitive information processing. The purpose of this study aims to fill this gap by examining how gender stereotypes, based on perceived spokesperson sex influence the public’s perceptions of crisis response messages.
Design/methodology/approach
A 2 (industry type: automotive vs daycare industry) × 2 (spokesperson’s sex: male vs female) × 2 (crisis response appeal: rational vs emotional) between-subject online experiment was conducted to examine the effect of gender stereotype in crisis communication.
Findings
Results showed that either matching spokesperson sex with sex differed industry or matching sex differed industry with appropriate crisis response appeal can generate a more positive evaluation of the spokesperson and the organization. The results also revealed under which circumstances, the attractiveness of different sex of the spokesperson can either promote or mitigate people’s perceptions of the organization. Furthermore, when people are aware of a spokesperson’s sex, in a female-associated industry, a mismatching effect of a positive violation of a male-related stereotype overrides a matching effect of a female-related stereotype in crisis communication.
Originality/value
This study is among the first to identify how the gender of a spokesperson and industry type affect publics’ crisis response.
Objective The digital divide is increasingly becoming a source of social and economic inequality, as access to digital technologies remains limited for many populations. In response, digital inclusion initiatives have emerged to bridge this gap and provide more equal access to digital resources. These initiatives have gained significant traction in the corporate world, as companies recognise the importance of digital inclusion in expanding their customer base and fulfilling their corporate social responsibilities. However, there is limited research on the company-specific factors that influence the adoption of digital inclusion policies in companies. Methodology Using data from the ISS ESG dataset, we apply panel data methods to analyse more than a hundred technology and media companies between 2016 and 2021. Results Our findings reveal that minority CEOs and Presidents and higher representation of women on the board of directors are positively associated with increased adoption of digital inclusion policies. The results of our study extend previous research on digital inclusion/divide and determinants of ESG scored. We provide valuable insights on the role of board diversity in the adoption of digital inclusion policies and underscores the importance of diversity and inclusion in shaping equitable technology access. Limitations and Implications While this is the first study to address the determinants of corporate digital inclusion policies, its limitations are the use of a single dataset (ISS) measuring the ESG scores and the relatively low number of observations. Originality / Contribution This paper addresses this gap by exploring the impact of corporate board diversity (in particular, gender and racial/ethnic diversity) on the adoption of digital inclusion policies by US companies. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to investigate this relationship.
Unser Beitrag fragt nach unterschiedlichen Rollenerwartungen, die innerhalb des StartupÖkosystems an Gründerinnen und Gründer gestellt werden, und verknüpft dafür die Role Congruity Theory (RCT) mit der Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT). Über 12 leitfadengestützte Interviews mit Investor*innen und Medienschaffenden erheben wir geschlechtsspezifische Rollenerwartungen, prüfen dann, ob diese von den Gründerinnen erfüllt werden und schließlich, inwieweit rollen(in)kongruentes Verhalten belohnt oder sanktioniert wird. Entlang von vier Szenarien zeigen wir, dass Gründerinnen keinesfalls „nur“ die Wahl zwischen Belohnung für Rollenkongruenz oder Sanktion für Rolleninkongruenz haben.
Research Summary
We examine a critical yet underexplored aspect of human resource management in nascent technology ventures: employee recruitment. Applying theories of gender stereotyping, we contend that female‐led technology startups face greater obstacles in attracting job applicants than their male counterparts. Evidence from a randomized online experiment conducted in 2020/2021 with 777 US job seekers substantiates this barrier, indicating that the disparities are partly rooted in gender‐stereotypical perceptions of female technology entrepreneurs as less competent, agentic, and warm, which contribute to less favorable assessments of their ventures' economic potential and employee empowerment potential. Startups with gender‐diverse leadership teams appear to overcome these biases. Confirmatory evidence comes from a 2024 replication study with 455 US job seekers, underscoring the need to address gender biases in the technological ecosystem.
Managerial Summary
In the competitive landscape of technology startups, attracting talent is key. Our study reveals that startups with female leaders face gender biases during recruitment, with job candidates perceiving female technology entrepreneurs as less competent, agentic, and warm—and their startup ventures as less likely to have what it takes to grow and to empower employees. Analysis from a randomized online experiment involving 777 US job seekers in 2020/2021 and a follow‐up study with 455 US job seekers in 2024 confirm such biases. Crucially, a gender‐balanced leadership team significantly counters such biases, enhancing the venture's appeal to potential hires. These insights highlight the need for technology startups to promote gender diversity within their leadership to dismantle stereotypes and attract a broader talent pool.
Araştırmanın amacı öğretmen adaylarının proaktif kişilik düzeyleri ile liderlik yönelimleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesidir. Araştırma ilişkisel tarama modelinde tasarlanmıştır. Çalışma grubunu Erzurum Atatürk Üniversitesi Kazım Karabekir Eğitim Fakültesinde öğrenim gören 298 öğrenci oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak “Kişisel Bilgi Formu”, Seibert, Crant ve Kaimer (1999) tarafından geliştirilen Akın, Abacı, Kaya ve Arıcı (2011) tarafından Türkçeye uyarlanan “Proaktif Kişilik Ölçeği” ve Dursun, Günay ve Yenel (2019) tarafından geliştirilen “Çok Yönlü Liderlik Yönelimleri Ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde öncelikli normallik analizi yapılmış ve verilerin normal dağılım gösterdiği tespit edilmiştir. Normal dağılım sergilemesinden dolayı parametrik testlerden t-testi ve pearson korelasyon analizleri uygulanmıştır. Sonuçlar p
Purpose
Our study draws on gender role congruity theory to theorize and test an integrative conceptual model outlining how motives for entrepreneurial action explain the relationship between female entrepreneurship and innovation in nascent ventures.
Design/methodology/approach
To test our hypotheses, we employed structural equation modeling (SEM) in a sample of early-stage entrepreneurs ( N = 533).
Findings
We found a positive relationship between nascent female entrepreneurs and innovation, and that this relationship is mediated by motives for recognition, respect, and autonomy.
Originality/value
By revealing a positive relationship between female entrepreneurship and innovation, our work provides a complementary perspective to the literature, which suggests that there are limits to innovation potential for female entrepreneurs. Further, we find that this relationship is explained by motives for recognition, respect, and autonomy, but not financial security. Finally, most empirical research focuses on the innovative outputs of established new ventures, while our work leverages a sample of early-stage entrepreneurs.
Objective: This study aimed to explore the challenges women face when exercising leadership in the political and business spheres in the department of Cauca, Colombia. Design/Methodology: The methodology included a phenomenological analysis and in-depth interviews with ten women in management positions. The goal was to understand how these women experience, interpret, and express the challenges they encounter in their leadership roles. Findings: The findings reveal that, despite breaking the glass ceiling, women leaders continue to perceive gender stereotypes in their immediate environments, particularly those related to reproduction, family care, and appearance. Additionally, they face apathy and resistance from other women while leading. Conclusions: Although women have made significant gains in political and corporate scenarios, these achievements remain constrained by the cultural weight of machismo. It is therefore essential to foster androgynous leadership environments based on competencies and to advocate for the equitable distribution of family and social responsibilities between men and women. Originality: This study contributes to the field of leadership by examining how women navigate management roles in the corporate and political arenas in the department of Cauca.
Matematiğe yönelik olumsuz deneyimlerin arkasında yatan önemli nedenlerden birisi de matematik kaygısıdır. Matematik gibi bilimsel alanlarda kadın ve erkeklerin başarısını etkileyen temel faktörler arasında matematik kaygısı ve performansı önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Yüksek matematik kaygısı ve düşük matematik performansının kökeninde ise toplumsal cinsiyet kalıp yargılarının önemli bir rol oynadığı bilinmektedir. Bu makalede, toplumsal cinsiyet kalıp yargılarının matematik performansı üzerindeki etkileri, matematik kaygısının cinsiyet farklılıkları ile ilişkisi ele alınmıştır. Sonuç olarak, toplumsal cinsiyet kalıp yargılarının gelişmesinde görünür (ebeveyn ve öğretmen davranışları gibi) ve görünür olmayan (medya ve ders kitapları gibi) birçok değişkenin etki yaptığı görülmektedir. Eğitimciler, ebeveynler, medya ve politikacılar, toplumsal kalıp yargı tehditlerine yönelik farkındalığı artırmak ve matematiğe yönelik cinsiyet kalıp yargılarını kırmak için birlikte çalışmalıdır.
This study investigates the influence of gender on communication styles and dynamics through a thematic analysis of interviews conducted with diverse participants. Employing a qualitative methodology, the research identifies key themes such as Adaptation Strategies, Navigating Power Dynamics, Gender Norms, Intersectionality, and Emotional Expression. Findings reveal that individuals exhibit flexibility in their communication, often adopting softer tones and employing hesitation markers to foster connections and navigate social interactions. Notably, power dynamics manifest through interruptions, predominantly by male participants, which assert dominance and marginalize women's contributions. The study further explores how societal expectations shape communication behaviors, illustrating the constraints imposed by gender stereotypes. Intersectionality emerges as a critical factor, demonstrating that race and class significantly impact communication strategies. The role of vulnerability and emotional expression is highlighted, indicating a tension between authenticity and societal expectations. Overall, this analysis underscores the complexities of gendered communication, suggesting the need for a nuanced understanding of how various identities intersect in shaping communicative practices.
As more women enter politics, public and scholarly narratives about the extent and nature of gender bias in mediated campaigning environments diversify. Yet there is still little understanding of how voters substantively think about gender in their evaluations of women and men candidates and how voters' thoughts are affected by different types of media coverage. Drawing on literature on gender stereotyping and rationalization, this paper distinguishes two roles in which gender manifests in the candidate evaluation process—as a heuristic and as a rationalization. We empirically investigate these different ways in which gender affects voters' thoughts following neutral and contextually rich candidate stimuli by means of a mixed methods think aloud study. The results show that voters think less—but more positively—about substantive aspects of women's political profiles. These favorable thoughts include heuristic inferences of communal traits for women but not men candidates. Moreover, we find that voter rationalizations involve gender as ex post vote justifications and socially desirable drivers of candidate evaluations. Together, the findings not only showcase the complex roles of gender in voters' candidate evaluations but also the importance of considering the normative context in which vote decisions take place.
Political leaders play a crucial role in shaping societal perceptions and citizens’ expectations of gender roles. Through their self-presentation on social media, political leaders have the power to either reinforce or challenge existing gender stereotypes, thereby influencing how citizens perceive and interpret gender norms. However, research on how women and men politicians present themselves on social media is scarce. This comparative study contributes to remedying this research gap by content analysing the official Facebook and Instagram pages of 18 political leaders during the 2021 national election campaigns in Germany and Norway. In contrast to earlier research on gendered presentations of politicians in the news, we did not find strong evidence of gendered self-presentations in either country, neither in terms of personalisation nor in terms of gender issue ownership. This could be because gender roles in Germany and Norway have become more fluid, or because the successful politicians we have analysed have been successful due to their ability to “walk the double bind” of needing to conform to both masculine and feminine gender expectations. Our study calls for more comparative research into this field, including studies of lower profile politicians and politicians in countries with lower degrees of gender equality.
This study explored the challenges faced by female headteachers in managing schools in the Tamale Metropolis in the Northern Region of Ghana, grounded in the role congruity theory (2002). The target population comprised all headteachers in the Tamale Metropolis, while the accessible population comprised all female headteachers in the district. A cross-sectional research design and quantitative approach were employed, with a census method used to recruit 67 female headteachers who participated in the study. Data collection involved a closed-ended questionnaire developed by the researchers. The findings revealed that sociocultural barriers, including gender bias, stereotyping, resistance from teachers, and the balancing act of familial and professional responsibilities, significantly hindered female leadership roles in schools. However, female headteachers exhibited resilience by employing coping strategies such as assertiveness, cultivating interpersonal relationships, and embracing diverse leadership styles. Given this, the following recommendations are made, female headteachers should adopt a participative leadership style that fosters inclusivity and collaboration, and educational stakeholders should organize empowerment programs, including seminars, workshops, and mentorship schemes, to bridge the gender equality leadership gap and support aspiring female leaders, ultimately creating a more equitable and inclusive educational environment.
Introducción: Actualmente se reconocen otras formas de identidad de género, precisamente, en línea con la visión del género como una construcción social, psicológica y cultural propugnada por entidades como la Organización Mundial de la Salud o el Consejo de Europa. Sin embargo, siguen conviviendo visiones dispares sobre estos términos, en función del área desde la que se estudien. Así, el objetivo del presente estudio es conocer cuáles son las tendencias más habituales en los estudios sobre identidad de género. Metodología: Se presenta un análisis bibliométrico con apoyo de la herramienta VOSviewer, tomando como base los 1649 estudios obtenidos en la busqueda realizada a través de la Web of Science. Resultados: El término con mayor volumen de coocurrencias es gender, junto con identity. Sin embargo, gender indentity presenta un volumen de coocurrencias claramente inferior. A su vez, el término gender identityaparece asociado a aspectos tales como trangender o mental-health. Discusión: La identidad de género sigue necesitando una mayor apertura y profundización en áreas no clínicas. Conclusiones: El término gender identity o identidad de género” parece estudiarse desde un punto de vista distinto al género, asociándose al contexto de la salud; frente al género, que se asocia al contexto sociolaboral.
This study highlights gender-based disparities in perceived barriers to female career advancement in decision-making. Despite more women entering the workforce, their leadership representation remains low, partly due to differing perceptions of barriers by gender (van’t Foort-Diepeveen et al., 2021). Involving 236 executives and utilizing social identity and homosocial theories, the study employs a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and qualitative comments from voluntary respondents. The findings reveal that while both genders acknowledge corporate barriers, they interpret education, experience, and personal life barriers differently. Women often view these as interconnected with corporate challenges, reflecting broader systemic issues (Taparia & Lenka, 2022). The study also highlights the persistence of traditional male networks in corporations, which maintain existing leadership models and hinder change. This insight enhances our understanding of gender disparities in the workplace, particularly in Spanish-listed companies. Academically, it enriches gender studies and corporate leadership discourse by revealing the subtleties in barrier perception and their implications. Practically, it suggests that recognizing and addressing these differences can lead to more effective interventions to promote gender equality in leadership positions. This research urges a reevaluation of barrier perceptions and emphasizes the importance of inclusive strategies to bridge the gender gap in leadership
Individuals who have more ambition—a persistent striving for success, attainment, and accomplishment—are more likely to become leaders. But are these ambitious individuals also more effective in leadership roles? We hypothesize that leader ambition is related to positive self-views of leader effectiveness that remain uncorroborated by relevant third-party actors. In a multiwave, preregistered study, we find evidence for this hypothesis using a sample of executives (N = 3,830 ratings of 472 leaders) who were rated by peers, subordinates, managers, and themselves on ten leadership competencies, including their ability to motivate others, manage collaborative work, coach and develop people, and present and communicate ideas. We consider the implications of our findings for both scholars and practitioners interested in leadership selection and development.
Background and objectives:
Gender disparities have been demonstrated across several medical specialties, including neurology. Although women have comprised most of the child neurology trainees since 2007, it is not apparent whether this demographic shift is reflected in the Child Neurology Society (CNS) awards and leadership. This study aimed to evaluate the differences in gender representation among leadership positions and award recipients within the CNS. The primary outcome measure was the total number of board of director (BOD) positions or awards given by gender each year.
Methods:
A retrospective review of publicly available data was conducted on CNS members, post-training award recipients, and BOD positions, including nomination records, from 1972 to 2023. Data abstracted were restricted to gender to preserve member and nominee anonymity. Gender identification and consensus were determined through a combination of strategies and study members. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, Pearson χ2 test, and the exact binomial test to compare gender proportions and the probability of being underrepresented in awards, leadership, and nominations over time. Data are presented according to the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology guidelines.
Results:
From 1972 to 2023, women represented 29% (44/152) of the BOD positions and 26% (61/236) of post-training award recipients presented by the CNS. Despite the increase in the proportion of women in child neurology, the overall gap in gender representation in leadership positions remains broadly stable. Only 13% (4/32) of CNS presidents have been women, a significant underrepresentation (95% CI 2.3%-52%, p < 0.004), although the representation of women in nonpresidential positions increased from 2003 to 2023. Women are also underrepresented as overall awardees (95% CI 12%-38%, p < 0.00001) except for the Philip R. Dodge Young Investigator Award, which is an investigator-initiated application.
Discussion:
Women remain underrepresented at the highest levels of recognition in child neurology despite representing most of the field. Reasons for disparities are known to be multifactorial and likely include gender bias and structural sexism. We present several discussion topics that seek to rationalize this disparity and provide suggestions for improving diversity, equity, and inclusion for leadership roles and awards.
Obtaining and retaining women in leadership positions is an ongoing challenge for scholars and practitioners in Human Resource Management (HRM). Research on the role of organisational context factors in supporting women who either are already in leadership roles or aspire to obtain them is fragmented and spread across multiple disciplines. In this systematic literature review, we identified 87 articles related to organisational context factors and female leadership. We mapped these articles onto the stages of the employee lifecycle: (1) Recruitment and Selection, (2) Learning and Development, (3) Performance Appraisal, and (4) Reward and Retention. Additionally, we introduced the category (5) Organisational Setting to encompass overarching context factors such as industry. For each article, we assessed the underlying assumptions concerning the gender‐neutrality or gender‐sensitivity in the practical implications. Our analysis revealed that some stages of the employee lifecycle received more attention than others and that the derived practical implications often go far beyond what can be concluded based on the study findings. We discuss theoretical implications and outline future research opportunities, such as the potential for HRM scholars to integrate an intersectionality lens into research along the employee lifecycle. We end with practical implications for HRM practitioners who wish to implement evidence‐based insights from our review.
This study examined women's challenges in assuming managerial positions within the Maltese public Vocational Education and Training (VET) institutions. Through the semi-structured interviews using a feminist approach, this research acquired data from managerial women within the local, public VET institutions, i.e., MCAST and ITS. The data acquired revealed that the challenges women face in navigating managerial positions are perceived through the themes of 'Sociocultural factors', 'Gender roles', 'Perceived discrimination', 'Insufficient positive representation', and 'Lack of flexibility'. From this research, it transpired that flexibility encourages women to take managerial roles, and the solution towards gender parity in top positions lies within a change of perspective on a macro and micro level, as opposed to a few measures. The measures implied in this article refer to flexibility in hours and location of work, alongside a clear organisational structure allowing them to benefit from such resources. Furthermore, this research suggests a reform exercise on a national level, targeting parental, maternity, and paternal leave. Consequently, it is recommended that parental leave in Malta is increased drastically and made available to split evenly amongst both parents. Additionally, aiming to change societal expectations and stereotypes based on gender, this article points towards an educational campaign targeting different age brackets within the local population, starting from children up to the elderly.
Purpose
This paper examines an identified but unexplored career gap evidenced at a mid-level classification in the academic career path for women in Australia. This career-stalling effect or holding pattern, is examined to determine underlying causes of career trajectory interruption.
Design/methodology/approach
Guided by the epistemological stance of standpoint theory, this exploratory abductive study employs a novel arts-based method, draw, write, reflect, to access experiences that may be difficult to convey verbally. The obtained drawings and reflections were thematically analysed.
Findings
Drawing on Bourdieu’s concept of illusio this article finds support for female academics’ bifurcated consciousness. Results demonstrate how opposing social role prescriptions result in the deliberate avoidance of work-life conflict, a nuanced lack of confidence in work tasks in combination with other, often competing responsibilities, and the uneven distribution of administrative duties known as “academic housework”, which combine to stall careers. Female academics feel pressure to prioritise their domestic role and eschew career progression.
Research limitations/implications
Despite the small sample size, the findings provide rich career narratives and experiences of female academics in Australia providing additional impetus for increased gender equity efforts.
Originality/value
This study is the first to explore the previously unidentified holding pattern for female academics in Australia. Findings suggest there is a range of previously unexplored impediments resulting in a gendered stalling at a mid-level classification interrupting female academic career progression.
Sexism is a social phenomenon rooted in culture and associated with beliefs and stereotypes about ascribed gender roles in the society. Sexism at its core rests on perceptions of arbitrary discrimination against women and is manifested either consciously (hostile sexism) or unconsciously (benevolent sexism). According to Schoon and Eccles (2014), sexism is embedded in the culture of society, reinforcing the division of sexes and reproducing beliefs of women's inferiority.
Addressing difficult, controversial, or sensitive issues with employees is a critical component of effective leadership, but discussing uncomfortable topics with subordinates can be daunting, even for those with structural power. Distinguishing between the structural power that supervisors hold, and their situationally felt personal sense of power, we consider here how a supervisor's personal sense of power relates to his or her inclination to confront, or to avoid, difficult conversations, as well as to offer social support in such contexts. Integrating a social role theory perspective, we further consider the role of gender. Across an initial study ( N = 588), and a follow‐up replication study ( N = 567), we show that personal sense of power predicts supervisor's inclination to confront (and not to avoid) difficult issues in the workplace, as well as to offer social support to the target of conversation. We also consider whether such effects vary across male and female supervisors, finding inconsistent results across studies. In Study 1a, we found that power had less of an effect on the avoidance and support intentions of women than men, such that women (but not men) were more likely to constructively confront the difficult issue head on as well as to offer support, even when they felt low in personal power. These effects did not emerge in Study 1b. However, in both studies, we find a main effect of gender on social support such that women were more likely to provide social support when confronting difficult issues. We speculate about reasons for this inconsistency, and further theorize about the role of personal sense of power and gender in explaining supervisor's engagement in difficult conversations.
Extant research suggests that women ask more parliamentary questions (PQs) on soft policy domains while
their male peers focus on hard domains, which are arguably more relevant. This study contributes to this
body of research by examining how electoral incentives shape intraparty politics, and specifically the
substantive focus of PQs. It argues that women’s focus on soft policy domains is not constant, with
variations found in situations where intraparty competition is high. Female MPs will have fewer incentives to
focus on soft policy domains if they are electorally vulnerable and as elections draw closer. The mechanism
is clear: Women face strong bias in parliament, which means they need to work harder to stand on an equal
footing with their male counterparts. As a result, rather than shying away from competition, they will try to
maximize their career prospects by shifting their attention to (hard) policy domains that are considered more
important to both parties and voters. These claims are tested in the case of South Africa, drawing upon a
novel dataset of PQs from 2006 to 2023. South Africa is an interesting case study as it is one of the most
feminized parliaments in Africa and has strong electoral incentives for intraparty competition. The findings
confirm most theoretical expectations and clarify the electoral and gender‐related predispositions that drive
the substantive focus of questions.
Purpose
The present study examines head of state gender and national collectivism to explain how some leaders have been able to manage a pandemic better than others.
Design/methodology/approach
We measure pandemic deaths per million using objective numbers for each country. Country collectivism is measured using the GLOBE study. Qualitative analyses of world leader speeches are used to examine how health-focused leaders’ language is. Media attention with sentiment analysis about each leader’s handling of the pandemic is also used to show how others reacted to leaders.
Findings
Countries with female leaders showed fewer pandemic deaths than those led by male leaders. The interaction between leader gender and country collectivism predicted death. Media sentiment was more favorable for women leaders than men leaders.
Practical implications
During times of crises, women’s more careful tendencies keep their constituents safer than their male counterparts. Country collectivism also aids male leaders in keeping constituents safe.
Social implications
The present study helps unpack when women leaders thrive and outperform their male counterparts. This furthers United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5: gender equality.
Originality/value
The study examines leader gender and national collectivism to predict pandemic deaths.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between work-life balance and the mental health of Indian managers and to explore the moderating role of emotional intelligence (EI) and gender.
Design/methodology/approach
Work-life balance scale (Hayman 2005), Mental Health Inventory (Viet and Ware, 1983) and EI scale (Wong and Law, 2002) were administered to 202 (102 males and 100 females) Indian managers. Based on the Conservation of Resource theory, a theoretical model has been designed and hypotheses were tested by descriptive, correlation and moderation analysis.
Findings
The results of this study indicated that work-life balance is positively correlated with psychological well-being and mental health, while negatively correlated with the psychological distress of managers. EI has emerged as a potential moderator that positively influences the relationship between work-life balance and the mental health of managers. At the same time, gender did not show any moderating effect.
Research limitations/implications
This research has theoretical, practical as well as social implications.
Practical implications
This study is aligned with SDG 3 and SDG 5 of the UN Sustainable Development Goals 2023. This paper provides valuable inputs in promoting mental health at the workplace and formulating gender-neutral work-life balance policies and programs in Indian organizations.
Social implications
This study is aligned with SDG 3 (Health and well-being) and SDG 5 (Gender equality) of the UN Sustainable Development Goals 2023.
Originality/value
This study is an empirical research paper backed by a sound theoretical framework, which addresses the work-life balance and mental health issues of managers and highlights the positive role of EI in managing their personal and professional lives in a low gender-egalitarian Indian work–family culture.
Does a leader's gender affect a country's performance during a health crisis, and through what mechanisms? This study finds a clear, substantial negative correlation between having a female leader in democracies and their COVID‐19 infections and mortality rates, rejecting multiple spurious claims. The research is the first to analyse four pandemic waves covering 2 years while performing inter‐wave analysis. The gendered performance gap continuously grew during the first three waves, moderated by vaccinations in the fourth wave. We found that trust and effectiveness mechanisms impacted the growth of the performance gap. As new variants of COVID‐19 continue to spread and new threats related to the climate crisis are threatening globally, understanding the impact of gender in leadership roles, particularly during global crises, can provide valuable insights for policy makers and national leaders.
A healthy workplace is an environment where everyone can work peacefully with both sexes, regardless of their roles as leaders, subordinates, or colleagues. Unfortunately, achieving this ideal remains elusive, and the situation is more challenging for women, due to their underrepresentation in many industries. Studies have revealed that especially women in management positions are subject to biased evaluations by their subordinates, colleagues, and managers. A deep understanding of the cultural underpinnings is essential to fully grasp the existence, prevalence and influence of gender bias in the workplace. Thus, this study aims to impartially investigate the cultural factors that may shape employees' preferences for the gender of their managers, alongside exploring potential biases towards managerial gender from a cultural standpoint. To achieve the research goals, an open-ended survey was administered to 302 professionals in Istanbul. The results indicate a prevalent bias against female managers by individuals of both genders. Moreover, the study uncovers that women are prone to harboring more prejudiced views towards their female peers and superiors. These insights are analyzed through a cultural lens, and recommendations for management are proposed.
Este artículo estudia los estereotipos de género sobre las competencias de liderazgo entre hombres y mujeres, y el efecto del pensamiento estereotipado sobre la autoestima de dichas competencias. Nos basamos en datos de encuestas originales que miden tanto el pensamiento estereotipado de género como la autoestima, sobre una extensa lista de 25 competencias de liderazgo. Nuestro principal hallazgo es que las actitudes estereotipadas de género tienen un efecto sustancial en la autoestima y que este efecto es mayor para las mujeres que para los hombres. También encontramos que los estereotipos más fuertes existen para las competencias en las que se considera que las mujeres son mejores (como empatizar); que tanto los hombres como las mujeres tienen estereotipos, aunque los estereotipos son más fuertes entre los hombres (especialmente para las competencias que están más estrechamente relacionadas con el liderazgo); que existen diferencias sustanciales de género en la autoestima sobre ciertas competencias específicas de liderazgo, pero no sobre la competencia general para liderar; y que las teorías implícitas del liderazgo están fuertemente relacionadas con los estereotipos de género (competencias que están más fuertemente relacionadas con el liderazgo, son también competencias de las que los encuestados consideran que los hombres son mejores en ello).
This study aims to provide an insight into the factors that affect workplace experiences and opportunities for career progression of female employees in the Indian hotel industry. It provides a much-needed perspective on the work-life of women in the Indian hotel industry. The study had two phases: a systematic literature review was conducted for the first phase and the second phase included conducting semi-structured in-depth interviews. The findings of this study reveal that working in the hotel industry remains an ultimate choice for women where they have the opportunities to connect and socialize, enjoy and learn amidst the various challenges and barriers faced. The issue of gender is irrelevant for the women who set their standards and want to achieve their goals. Women show resilience and work against all odds with self-motivation to reach these goals.
Impression management (IM) is a process where individuals consciously or unconsciously control the information, behaviors, and expressions they present to others. Studies on IM that are based on social role theory have mostly focused on gender roles. However, there is a growing recognition of the need to expand social role research beyond traditional gender roles (Anglin et al., 2022). This study aims to investigate the influence of various societal roles, including gender, age, occupation, and education, on IM strategies among Jordanian public sector employees within organizational contexts. Drawing upon social role theory and existing literature, this research seeks to explore how different social roles intersect and shape IM behaviors. Data were collected from 927 participants via an online questionnaire distributed through convenience sampling. Nonparametric analysis was employed, utilizing the Mann–Whitney U test and Kruskal–Wallis H test to analyze gender-based and other variables with three or more groups, respectively. The findings suggest that while gender, occupation, and educational background can impact IM, their influence is often overshadowed by the broader organizational context. This study contributes to the literature by expanding our understanding of IM beyond traditional gender roles and elucidating the complex interplay between societal roles and IM strategies.
Last decade’s ethical leadership failures in business across the globe had severe ramifications, including bankruptcy for corporations that had previously been viewed as exemplary. Hence, ethical leadership has gained increased attention from both practitioners and researchers. In particular, the increased focus has been placed on ethical leadership perceptions in management settings. This paper presents empirical findings from a three-country experiment (N = 538) on the perceptions of ethical and unethical leadership, and how they interact with gender. Building on role congruity theory, we posit that female leaders encounter more severe criticism for unethical leadership compared to male leaders, but they also garner greater positive reactions for ethical leadership. We also hypothesize the existence of national differences in ethical leadership perceptions. Our results indicate that the rater’s perceptions are influenced by the gender of the leader they are rating and by ethical leadership. The rater’s gender, however, does not affect the evaluation of male and female leaders in the cultures examined. We have also found national differences among perceptions of ethical leadership, in line with the Corruption Perception Index. We further explore the consequences of these results for theoretical and practical applications in this paper and propose directions for future research.
Despite some progress towards gender equality in Western societies, traditional gender norms still shape career choices, perpetuating a gender gap where girls are more likely to pursue traditionally feminine fields like healthcare, elementary education, and domestic roles (HEED), while boys are drawn to masculine domains such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). This research investigates whether, and under which conditions, the perception that gender norms are progressively changing towards less gender dichotomy can reduce this gender gap in academic fields. We recruited a sample of 642 high-school students (394 women and 248 men), and experimentally manipulated both the salience of changes in gender norm (stability vs change) and participants’ gender prototypicality. The main dependent variable was participants’ interest in stereotypically feminine (HEED) and masculine (STEM) academic fields. The results indicated a slight decrease in the gender gap for stereotypically feminine fields (HEED) among participants who saw themselves as typical members of their gender group, but no significant change was observed for stereotypically masculine fields (STEM). These findings suggest that shifting perceptions of gender norms may have a limited effect on modifying traditional educational and career choices, underscoring the resilience of entrenched gender stereotypes.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11218-024-09909-z.
Modern societies strive for greater gender equality and inclusivity, so it is crucial to study the impact of gender on career guidance in order to develop more effective interventions and support systems. Recognizing the uniqueness of the problem and experience faced by people of different genders can increase the effectiveness and relevance of career guidance activities. By studying various aspects of career growth through a gender lens, science contributes to a better understanding of how gender shapes career choices, experiences, and counseling needs of individuals. The article examines the features of professional choice and career building from the perspective of gender theories. It is concluded that they help to explain the formation and strengthening of gender stereotypes, the impact of discrimination on psychological well–being, choice of profession and career trajectory, as well as the interaction of gender with other social identities.
We show that people’s perceptions of public figures’ personalities can be accurately predicted from their names’ location in GPT-3’s semantic space. We collected Big Five personality perceptions of 226 public figures from 600 human raters. Cross-validated linear regression was used to predict human perceptions from public figures’ name embeddings extracted from GPT-3. The models’ accuracy ranged from r = .78 to .88 without controls and from r = .53 to .70 when controlling for public figures’ likability and demographics, after correcting for attenuation. Prediction models showed high face validity as revealed by the personality-descriptive adjectives occupying their extremes. Our findings reveal that GPT-3 word embeddings capture signals pertaining to individual differences and intimate traits.
Research on the backlash effect predominantly investigated penalties men and women incurred when they violate gender norms in the domain of achievement‐oriented aggressiveness. We investigated backlash reactions towards female versus male leaders' attempts to manage follower emotions using one of two gender‐stereotypic interpersonal emotion management strategies, cognitive change or expression suppression, in a 2×2 vignette experiment in which undergraduate students as participants acted as followers ( N = 206). We hypothesized that followers high in explicit or implicit prejudice towards female leadership would be motivated to show backlash in the form of negative attitudes and anger when female leaders use an expression suppression strategy and when male leaders use a cognitive change strategy, violating gender norms. We also explored the role of followers' gender as a boundary condition of backlash reactions towards leaders of the same versus opposite sex. Male participants with negative explicit attitudes towards women leaders in general expressed higher levels of anger towards a female leader who utilized a suppression strategy. Female participants holding implicit stereotypes reported negative attitudes for both female and male leaders who utilized a gender‐incongruent emotion management strategy. We discuss the implications of our findings for theory and research on the backlash effect.
The relationship between online self-disclosure and self-concept clarity has been previously examined through cross-sectional studies. This study examined causal connections between online self-disclosure and self-concept clarity among Chinese middle school students using longitudinal data collected over 18 months. Participants were 535 seventh-grade students aged 12–14 years (Mage = 12.93, SD = 0.54, 43.18% girls), assessed four times, six months apart. In a random intercept cross-lagged panel model, self-concept clarity significantly predicted online self-disclosure. Latent growth mixture modeling identified two distinct growth trajectories for both online self-disclosure (Rapid change, 7%; Slow change, 93%) and self-concept clarity (Rapid change, 8%; No change, 92%). Multiple logistic regression analysis suggested that changes in self-concept clarity influenced the developmental trajectory profile of online self-disclosure. Although male and female students differed in online self-disclosure and self-concept clarity, gender differences in the developmental trajectory profiles of online self-disclosure and self-concept clarity were not significant. Supporting adolescents in developing a clear self-concept to mitigate risks associated with excessive online self-disclosure is important.
Contact experiences with women in senior leadership roles are important for creating acceptance of women in organizations dominated by men, such as the military, as leadership roles are considered demanding, requiring numerous agentic qualities that are often ascribed to men. The military lacks women in leadership levels within its organization. We wished to determine whether quality and quantity contact with women in leadership positions reduces intergroup anxiety, increases empathy and perspective-taking, and subsequently creates more favorable attitudes toward women in the military. This was examined in three studies, one with a military sample consisting of men (n = 95), another with a civilian sample of men (n = 367), and a third study with a civilian sample of women (n = 374). Our findings revealed that quality contact was related to attitudes toward women in the military for all three samples. Results from the indirect effects tests conducted for the civilian male and female samples revealed that for civilian men, intergroup anxiety demonstrated a significant indirect effect between quantity contact and attitudes toward women in the military, while both intergroup anxiety and perspective-taking demonstrated significant indirect effects between quality contact and attitudes toward women in the military. Furthermore, both quantity and quality contact demonstrated significant direct effects. On the other hand, results revealed that for civilian women the only significant relation was the direct effect between quality contact and attitudes toward women in the military. Intergroup anxiety, perspective-taking, and empathy did not demonstrate any indirect effects for the civilian women sample. Thus, given that interactions with women in leadership positions are related to views of women in the military, research should further explore the role of contact for women in non-traditional work roles.
Despite the introduction of anti-discrimination legislation and significant changes in the nature of gender relations throughout the 20th century, men and women continue to be segregated into different kinds of jobs within the UK labour market. This book provides a theoretical and empirical analysis of the ways in which sex discrimination can be reproduced within the recruitment process. It also examines the rationalization provided by those who perpetrate these unlawful practices and some of the forms of resistance which can be mobilized in order to challenge and even eliminate sex discrimination. "Managing to Discriminate" is a theoretical development of a research project sponsored by the Equal Opportunities Commission designed to examine whether, and if so, how, the recruitment process can contribute to the continuation of gender divisions and inequalities in employment. The EOC was acutely aware of the absence of evidence concerning the specific methods and procedures or organizational recruitment and of the particular ways in which sex discrimination could characterize this process. The recruitment process is especially vague, nebulous, and indeterminate and can be shrouded in secrecy. Equally, since sex discrimination is illegal, its observation can be very difficult. By examining particular recruitment exercises as they actually happened, and at every stage of their process, this book presents rich, detailed qualitative material that makes it a landmark in the
research of the recruitment process and sex discrimination in employment.
(21) Managing to Discriminate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318430718_Managing_to_Discriminate [accessed Feb 17 2018].
In this article, we review evidence showing that both the activation and the application of stereotypes may be influenced by motivation. When an applicable stereotype supports their desired impression of an individual, motivation can lead people to activate this stereotype, if they have not already activated it spontaneously. Motivation can also lead people to apply this stereotype to individuals to whom they might not have applied it otherwise. On the other hand, when an applicable stereotype casts doubt over their desired impression of an individual, motivation can lead people to inhibit the activation of this stereotype. Even if people are unable to inhibit its activation, motivation may still lead them to inhibit its application to this individual. People pick and choose among the many stereotypes applicable to an individual, activating those that support their desired impression of this individual and inhibiting those that interfere with it.
Etude meta-analytique des recherches ayant utilise le paradigme experimental de Goldberg (1968), dans le but d'un examen critique des conclusions sur l'evaluation plus favorable, chez les femmes, des auteurs de sexe masculin
Each of 72 professional personnel consultants rated the suitability of one bogus applicant for selected masculine, feminine, and neuter jobs, and for alternatives to employment. Each resume was identical with the exception of the systematic variation of the applicant's sex and the omission or inclusion of a photo depicting the applicant as physically attractive or unattractive. As predicted, personnel decisions strongly reflected the operation of sex-role stereotypes as well as sex-relevant and sex-irrelevant attractiveness stereotypes. These factors similarly affected consultants' recommendations of alternatives to employment and consultants' causal attributions of applicants' projected occupational successes and failures. Sex-role typing provides a significant example of the powerful effects of stereotypes in the expansion and restriction of alternatives of expression and action available to men and to women in our society (Bern, 197S; Block, von der Lippe, & Block, 1973; Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz, 1972). The influence of sex-role stereotypes on both access and employee treatment is centrally important to sex discrimination in employment, a practice prohibited by Title VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964, The social sciences have begun to systematically examine sex discrimination in a number of settings, both naturalistic and experimental. The greatest amount of research has assessed discrimination against females in traditionally masculine, that is, male-dominated, occupations. Men have been evaluated more favorably than women for writing journal articles (Goldberg, 1968), for painting pictures (Pheterson, Kiesler, & Goldberg, 1971), and for
Only a small proportion of the leadership positions in society are held by women. This applies to women in academic careers at universities, in managerial and executive positions, and in professional fields, as well as in the political realm and in public service. Although women make up about 40% of the work force in countries like West Germany and more than 50% in the United States, they do not hold more than 2% to 4% of the top positions in management. Even in middle-management positions, one finds that no more than about 15% are women. In general, women in professional fields are still concentrated in lower job status categories. Women are consistently paid lower salaries than men, and despite a number of antidiscrimination laws presently in effect, the salary gap is widening rather than decreasing.
The concept of social power has, at its core, the ability of one person to influence one or more others or to control the outcomes of others (Ellyson & Dovidio, 1985). Social power may stem from the information a person possesses (informational power), the position that a person occupies (legitimate power), the ability to administer favorable outcomes (reward power) or unfavorable outcomes (coercive power), or from the perception of being knowledgeable in the topic at hand (expert power) (French & Raven, 1959; Raven, 1974). These sources of social power may also be referred to as structural power (see Molm & Hedley, Chapter 1 in this volume). Sex is a characteristic that has traditionally been related to actual and perceived social power. In the United States, men disproportionately occupy positions of social, political, and economic power relative to women (Basow, 1986). In addition, gender stereotypes, in the United States and cross-culturally, characterize men as having greater potency, competence, and strength and associate men with higher status and more instrumental roles (Deaux, 1984; Williams & Best, 1986). This chapter examines the relationships among social power, gender, and human nonverbal power displays, particularly involving visual behavior.
A learning organization is an organization skilled at creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behavior to reflect new knowledge and insights. This paper discusses the essentials of building a learning organization. It also suggests that beyond high philosophy and grand themes, building a learning organization requires the gritty details of practice.
The United States has a large number of well-educated, experienced professional women ready, willing, and able to move into the boardrooms and executive suites of corporate America. They represent a great, untapped economic resource and this book argues that this is America's competitive secret. Drawing on in-depth interviews with top executives and middle managers, and the latest research on working women and organizational change, the author describes the unique contribution of female professionals. Her profiles of top women managers reveal that they cope well with ambiguity, are comfortable sharing power, and tend to empower others' leadership traits that lead to increased employee productivity, innovation, and profits. The book offers evidence that the changes that help organizations more fully utilize the talents of women are the same changes that will give them an important edge in today's global workplace. The author explains why the glass ceiling still prevents many competent women from reaching the upper echelons of management. She analyses why women and men are perceived and evaluated differently at work, and provides new insight into the feelings of men who are asked to interact with women in new roles when there are few new rules. The book shows that removing the glass ceiling can no longer be viewed solely in terms of social equity-it is now an economic imperative.
Researchers have long acknowledged the multifaceted nature of intergroup attitudes. However, depending on the theoretical framework in which they were operating, they have tended to focus on either the affective or cognitive underpinnings of these attitudes, rather than on the joint role of affect and cognition. Disparities in the measurement of intergroup attitudes have contributed to this rift. This chapter discusses the problem by providing a framework for thinking about the contribution of both affect and cognition in determining attitudes toward groups. It discusses how previous findings fit within this framework and it describes the recent research designed to examine the interplay between affect and cognition. In parallel with societal trends, research in this area has progressed from a focus on attitudes toward social groups at the level of ethnic groups (especially attitudes toward blacks in the United States) to a broader scope including attitudes toward groups based on such varied characteristics as sex, sexual orientation, political affiliation, and age.
This study used both self-reported and group assessments of leader emergence in conjunction with descriptions of leader behavior to explore the relationship among gender, gender role, attitude, experience, and leader emergence. The results, as expected, indicated nonsignificant biological sex effects. Support was found for masculine and androgynous individuals emerging as leaders with greater frequency than feminine or undifferentiated individuals. Additionally, a masculine gender characteristics measure proved to be a significant predictor for self-reported leader emergence. Attitude toward leadership was a significant predictor for group-assessed leader emergence. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
People today live much of their lives in and through formal organizations. Worshipping, learning to add and subtract, having babies, fighting wars, and making laws are organizational activities. The thesis of this chapter is that formal organizations are highly gendered, in addition to being ubiquitous, and are excellent sites for studying gender interaction and inequality (cf. Acker, 1990; Burrell & Hearn, 1989).
Does gender bias cause differences in pay? The reply necessitates precise measures of pay based on specification of education, experience and occupation. The author presents original analyses of the female/male occupational wage gap in the diverse countries for which adequate data are available in the ILO's 1996 October Earnings Inquiry. Empirical findings cover occupational groups in medicine and in public service, banking and insurance. In addition, some national trends and international differences are indicated. Also presented are major research findings on the female/male wage gap and methodological issues, which advice on the pitfalls to avoid.
Two issues were explored: (a) which impression management (IM) tactics applicants use during actual interviews and (b) whether there is a relationship between applicants' IM tactics and their interview outcomes. The study also examined convergence across different methods and raters when measuring IM. Postinterview survey measures were obtained from applicants and interviewers regarding applicant IM behavior during a specific interview; in addition, a subset (n = 24) of interviews was audiotaped and analyzed for the presence of IM. Analyses revealed low to moderate convergence across methods and raters, suggesting that IM tactics may be multidimensional constructs. Across methods and raters, there was consistent evidence of greater applicant self-promotion than ingratiation. Similarly, IM tactics significantly predicted interviewers' evaluations and whether applicants later obtained site visits. Implications for future research are discussed.
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This chapter discusses the social psychologists study “top of the head” phenomena in their experimental investigations. Attention within the social environment is selective. It is drawn to particular features of the environment either as a function of qualities intrinsic to those features (such as light or movement) or as a function of the perceiver's own dispositions and temporary need states. These conditions are outlined in the chapter. As a result of differential attention to particular features, information about those features is more available to the perceiver. Relative to the quantity of information retained about other features, more is retained about the salient features. When the salient person is the self, the same effects occur, and the individual is also found to show more consistency in attitudes and behaviors. These processes may occur primarily in situations which are redundant, unsurprising, uninvolving, and unarousing. They seem to occur automatically and substantially without awareness, and as such, they differ qualitatively from the intentional, conscious, controlled kind of search which characterizes all the behavior.
This review article posits that the scarcity of women at the upper levels of organizations is a consequence of gender bias in evaluations. It is proposed that gender stereotypes and the expectations they produce about both what women are like (descriptive) and how they should behave (prescriptive) can result in devaluation of their performance, denial of credit to them for their successes, or their penalization for being competent. The processes giving rise to these outcomes are explored, and the procedures that are likely to encourage them are identified. Because of gender bias and the way in which it influences evaluations in work settings, it is argued that being competent does not ensure that a woman will advance to the same organizational level as an equivalently performing man.
In this article, research is reviewed on the emergence of male and female leaders in initially leaderless groups. In these laboratory and field studies, men emerged as leaders to a greater extent than did women. Male leadership was particularly likely in short-term groups and in groups carrying out tasks that did not require complex social interaction. In contrast, women emerged as social leaders slightly more than did men. These and other findings were interpreted in terms of gender role theory, which maintains that societal gender roles influence group behavior. According to this theory, sex differences in emergent leadership are due primarily to role-induced tendencies for men to specialize more than women in behaviors strictly oriented to their group's task and for women to specialize more than men in socially facilitative behaviors.
A general theory of domain identification is used to describe achievement barriers still faced by women in advanced quantitative areas and by African Americans in school. The theory assumes that sustained school success requires identification with school and its subdomains; that societal pressures on these groups (e.g., economic disadvantage, gender roles) can frustrate this identification; and that in school domains where these groups are negatively stereotyped, those who have become domain identified face the further barrier of stereotype threat, the threat that others' judgments or their own actions will negatively stereotype them in the domain. Research shows that this threat dramatically depresses the standardized test performance of women and African Americans who are in the academic vanguard of their groups (offering a new interpretation of group differences in standardized test performance), that it causes disidentification with school, and that practices that reduce this threat can reduce these negative effects.
Two experiments tested a form of automatic stereo-typing Subjects saw primes related to gender (e g, mother, father, nurse, doctor) or neutral with respect to gender (e g, parent, student, person) followed by target pronouns (stimulus onset asynchronv = 300 ms) that were gender related (e g, she, he) or neutral (it, me) or followed by nonpronouns (do, all, Experiment 2 only) In Experiment 1, subjects judged whether each pronoun was male or female Automatic gender beliefs (stereotypes) were observed in faster responses to pronouns consistent than inconsistent with the gender component of the prime regardless of subjects' awareness of the prime-target relation, and independently of subjects explicit beliefs about gender stereotypes and language reform In Experiment 2, automatic stereotyping was obtained even though a gender-irrelevant judgment task (pronoun/not pronoun) was used Together, these experiments demonstrate that gender information imparted by words can automatically influence judgment, although the strength of such effects may be moderated by judgment task and prime type
Controversy surrounds the selection of women and men for partnerships in law firms. Two structural theories explain the greater success of men in achieving partnership. Human capital theory emphasizes investment choices and productivity; gender stratification theory highlights institutional constraints and bias. We incorporate Bourdieu's (1984) cultural capital perspective, which emphasizes both tangible structural sources of social capital and less tangible cultural resources and dispositions. We find that measures of social capital and cultural dispositions favorable to a firm's monetary goals explain some of the preference given to men in partnership decisions. Even with these differences controlled, however, women have poorer prospects for partnership. We also consider whether there is a 'kind of woman lawyer,' one with exceptional structural and cultural characteristics, that is given preference relative to other women. While men are valued for traditional corporate family images, women are rewarded for breaking convention in giving priority to work outside the home, bringing in corporate clients, and endorsing the goals of the law-firm culture.
Although a ''glass ceiling'' is said to keep women from the top management levels of organizations, no research has investigated actual decisions about promotions to such positions. This study examined promotion decisions for U.S. federal government Senior Executive Service positions in a cabinet-level department. Contrary to hypotheses, the job-irrelevant variable of gender worked to women's advantage, both directly and indirectly, through job relevant variables. However, an applicant's employment in the hiring department had the greatest effect on promotion decisions.
This study examined how women's proportional representation in the upper echelons of organizations affects professional women's social constructions of gender difference and gender identity at work. qualitative and quantitative data were used. Results suggest that sex roles are more stereotypical and more problematic in firms with relatively low proportions of senior women, This research also found that women responded to these constraints in a range of ways and identifies five response profiles. The study challenges prevailing conceptions of gender as an objective property of individuals synonymous with biological sex and universal across organizational settings; instead, it supports a more complex view of gender as an ongoing social construction, the meaning, significance, and consequences of which vary as a function of the power differences reflected in the sex composition across levels of an organization's hierarchy.
A simulation of workplace conflict examined the effects of a manager's pregnancy on male and female subordinates. Study participants-40 women and 41 men from an MBA program-each took part in two ten-minute long, videotaped, interactive role plays with two women managers (research confederates), one apparently pregnant and the other not. The participants' impressions of the managers were tapped using an author-developed questionnaire and brief interviews. Interactive data were analyzed to determine the nature of the expression of emotion and ideas. The results show that participants had more negative impressions of and lower satisfaction with the pregnant manager than with the manager who was not pregnant, and initiated more social conversations with the former than with the latter. Interview data suggest that participants had expected the pregnant manager to be passive, nice, and giving, and were surprised by her authoritative behavior. Implications for pregnant managers and limitations of the study are discussed.
A new competitive landscape is developing largely based on the technological revolution and increasing globalization. The strategic discontinuities encountered by firms are transforming the nature of competition. To navigate effectively in this new competitive landscape, to build and maintain competitive advantage, requires a new type of organization. Success in the 21st century organization will depend first on building strategic flexibility. To develop strategic flexibility and competitive advantage, requires exercising strategic leadership, building dynamic core competences, focusing and developing human capital, effectively using new manufacturing and information technologies, employing valuable strategies (exploiting global markets and cooperative strategies) and implementing new organization structures and culture (horizontal organization, learning and innovative culture, managing firm as bundles of assets). Thus, the new competitive landscape will require new types of organization and leaders for survival and global market leadership.
Research demonstrates that sex or gender remains a powerful basis of inequality in the expectations and behavior of men and women in mixed-sex task groups. Drawing upon the work of Epstein (1970) and the theoretical apparatus of status characteristics theory (see Berger et al., 1977), we explore one means by which these inequalities may be reduced--the disconfirmation of established gender-based expectations. The results of two experiments--one involving females and one involving males--show that disconfirmation does in fact reduce tasks inequality for both women and men. The results also support predictions based on the combining and attenuation principles of status characteristics theory. We interpret these findings as demonstrating that sex role socialization is (1) a manifestation of a more general status organizing process and (2) more situationally specific than has previously been assumed.
This paper examines the impact of women's proportional representation in the upper echelons of organizations on hierarchical and peer relationships among professional women at work. I propose that social identity is the principal mechanism through which the representation of women influences their relationships. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses of interview and questionnaire data are used to compare women's same-sex relationships in firms with relatively low and high proportions of senior women. Compared with women in firms with many senior women, women in firms with few senior women were less likely to experience common gender as a positive basis for identification with women, less likely to perceive senior women as role models with legitimate authority, more likely to perceive competition in relationships with women peers, and less likely to find support in these relationships. These results challenge person-centered views about the psychology of women's same-sex work relationships and suggest that social identity may link an organization's demographic composition with individuals' workplace experiences.
The impact of conformity and nonconformity on influence in task groups is still uncertain. This paper presents a test of the author's recent theory (Ridgeway, 1978) which reconciles the conflicting findings in the area and contrasts it with a test of the currently accepted theory (Hollander, 1958, 1960). Hollander argues that prior conformity enhances status which allows greater influence and nonconformity. The author argues that status and influence result from external status characteristics, task competence, and perceived motivation towards the group. Conformity and nonconformity affect influence through the clues they offer to two of these, motivation and competence. Data from 96 experimental decision groups, each composed of three male subjects and a male or female confederate, failed to confirm Hollander's approach and largely supported the author's. Results indicate that nonconformity which accompanies a task contribution often enhances the influence of an external-status equal, but can have liabilities for members with low external status.