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A Survey of U.S. Atlanta and Nagano Olympians: Variables Perceived to Influence Performance
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency and magnitude of specific variables perceived to have affected U.S. Olympic athlete performance. Participants included 296 Atlanta Olympians and 83 Nagano Olympians. Olympians rated how they perceived specific variables influenced their Olympic performance. Results revealed that numerous variables, including performance influences, such as preparation for distractions and loss of composure; team variables, such as strong cohesion and positive coach-athlete relationships; coaching variables, including coach's ability to deal with crises and coaching expectations; family-friend variables, including general social support and getting event tickets for family and friends; and environmental concerns, such as venue transportation difficulties and Olympic village distractions; were perceived to influence performance. Findings verified the results of qualitative interviews conducted with Olympic athletes and coaches.
... The fact that training is essential (Baker & Horton, 2004;Bullock et al., 2009;Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, & Chung, 2002;Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach, 2001) in Olympic preparation was well summed up by this athlete: ...
... Once coaches scheduled training sessions, this determined the remaining time available for other factors. As with training, physical preparation (Franchini et al., 2011;Gould et al., 2002;Yoon, 2002) was fully integrated in the preparation of the 28 athletes surveyed. As stated by this athlete, physical preparation is seen as a decisive element to maintain the performance throughout the competitions: ...
... Mental preparation is a factor of performance optimization that had been implemented by 16 of the 28 athletes interviewed. For these athletes, mental preparation was as important (Gould et al., 2002;Taylor, Gould, & Rolo, 2008) as training and physical preparation. In this sense, this factor has a primary influence (Baker & Horton, 2004) in optimizing performance. ...
This article presents the performance factors identified by Olympic athletes and analyzes how they were prioritized and implemented during the 2012–2016 Olympiad. To address this issue, 28 semistructured interviews were conducted with French athletes who participated in the Olympic Games in 2016. The analysis shows that to achieve performance, only two factors were implemented by all the athletes: training and physical preparation. The other factors, namely, mental preparation, nutrition, and recovery care, were not implemented by all athletes. In addition, two main types of configurations have been identified: a minority of athletes ( n = 4) for whom the choice of performance factors and their implementation are controlled by the coach and a majority ( n = 24) who adopts secondary adjustments by relying on a parallel network.
... For example, Feltz and Lirgg (1988) found that the collective efficacy of hockey teams could predict team performance better than the combined scores of individual players' efficacy. According to Gould et al. (2002), team self-confidence and collective efficacy are better predictors of team success than the sum of the individual confidence levels of all team members. McEwan and Beauchamp (2020) provided evidence of the importance of teamwork in youth sports. ...
... They indicated that losing teams had a higher level of collective efficacy. According to Gould et al. (2002), team self-confidence is a better predictor of team success than the sum of individual levels of confidence of all team members. Systematic and regular measurement of collective efficacy following crucial matches of the season could be beneficial in a long-term context, especially when monitoring the development of a team that has been playing together for a long time and in which the players know each other well. ...
... Particularly at the latter phases of growth, a strong "coach-athlete" connection should be created. A real coach-athlete connection is built on (a) reciprocal belief and honour; (b) appreciating an athlete's desires; and (c) providing adequate care and warmth for the person as opposed to merely considering or focusing on their performance (Gould et al., 2002). ...
... Coaches who over-coach and set unreasonable goals for their athletes might have a detrimental impact on their performance (Gould et al., 2002). Trainers are equally important in the development of athletes (Johnson et al., 2008). ...
Despite the increasing interest in examining predictors within sports talent development, there is a dearth of studies in the Ghanaian context. Yet, Senior High Schools (SHSs) in the Upper East Region of Ghana are expected to help talented student-athletes grow their potential. This necessitates empirical research on factors that predict sports talent development within the Ghanaian context. Against this background, this study examines factors influencing sports talent development in SHSs in the Upper East Region of Ghana. Using a questionnaire, data was collected from two hundred and three (203) sports coaches (123 male and 80 female) since the core responsibility of developing sports talents lies with them. Multiple regression analysis was calculated using SPSS version 25 to identify the factors that predict the development of talents in sports. It was found that adequate sports facilities significantly made the largest contribution (β = .300, p<.05), followed by expert coaching (β = .271, p<.05), regular training (β = .260, p<.05), and family support (β = .151, p<.05). However, genetics made only small and not significant contribution. Therefore, it was recommended that coaches should encourage and guide talented athletes to train regularly to develop their talents. Again, SHSs should provide talented student-athletes with adequate sports facilities and equipment, and qualified coaches to help them develop their sports talent. Also, parents, siblings, and friends should provide support to talented student-athletes in any way possible.
... The perspective used to explain three phenomena that seems paradoxical in the realm of social support: (1) the fact that support sometimes has a negative effect; (2) the fact that the stress itself can sometimes reduce the availability of supporting resources; and (3) the phenomenon that people believe that they provide more support than they receive, and that there is more support available to them than others [6,34], propose that social support can influence sports performance. Some researchers have noted social support as an important resource in the context of performance have used performance-related process measures [35,36]. ...
... Little research has been carried out on the relationship between body image and sports performance. However, some athletes have stated that concerns about their body appearance have an impact on their sporting performance [35] for positive body images, athletes who have a greater level of appreciation for their bodily functions can foster a greater level of trust in their bodies, and thus allows them to perform better in sports ...
... Many studies on the Olympic Games have been accumulated so far, focusing on athletes and spectators. Studies focusing on athletes include, for example, a study that examined the impact of Olympic performance on athletes' well-being (Bennie et al., 2021) and a study that discussed the impact of the surrounding environment on the performance of Olympic athletes (Gould et al., 2002). And studies focusing on spectators include a study that clarified people's interest in the Olympics, their expectations and concerns, and their demands for broadcasting services (NHK, 2020), as well as a study on the media covering the Olympics (Geurin et al., 2020). ...
This study aimed to clarify what expectations tennis officials, as natural persons, held regarding their officiating roles in the 32nd Olympic Games. The participants were 1,580 JTA-certified officials affiliated with prefectural tennis associations who agreed to participate in the survey. They were asked to describe their expectations for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. A qualitative inductive analysis of their responses was conducted, and their expectations were divided into five categories: (1) willingness to participate and contribute, (2) difficulties in participation, (3) efforts towards participation, (4) interaction with the world’s top players and officials, and (5) future expectations. While no previous studies have focused on officials in the context of the Olympics, it became clear that the Olympic stage is a rare opportunity for officials, as well as players, engendering high motivation and strong expectations for participation. On the other hand, it also became evident that the officials have their own challenges and demands.
... Conversely, factors such as perceived ability, self-esteem, and coping skills have shown potential in enhancing athletes' psychological wellbeing (e.g., Gould et al., 2002). One construct that is crucial in promoting wellbeing is social support. ...
Coaches are recognized as key support providers, although there is limited understanding of how coach support relates to athletes' self‐confidence and psychological wellbeing. This study examined relationships among perceived coach support, received coach support, coach–athlete relationship, self‐confidence, and psychological wellbeing. A further aim was to identify mechanisms through which coach–athlete relationship influences self‐confidence and psychological wellbeing. A total of 537 athletes (Mage = 21.83 and SD = 3.67) from a range of sports completed measures of perceived coach support, received coach support, coach–athlete relationship, self‐confidence, and psychological wellbeing. Mediation analysis revealed a significant direct effect of coach–athlete relationship on perceived coach support (b = 1.44 and p = 0.04) and received coach support on psychological wellbeing (b = 1.94 and p = <0.05). Coach–athlete relationship was associated with a significant indirect effect on psychological wellbeing via received coach support (ab = 0.82 and 95% CI [0.40 and 1.26*]) but not perceived coach support. In contrast, coach–athlete relationship was associated with a significant indirect effect on self‐confidence via perceived coach support (ab = 0.16 and 95% CI [0.10 and 0.22*]) but not received coach support. These findings demonstrate the significant role perceived coach support and received coach support plays in potentially explaining the relationship between the coach–athlete relationship with self‐confidence and psychological wellbeing. Additionally, the results highlight that different forms of social support uniquely mediate the relationship among the coach–athlete relationship, confidence, and wellbeing. These results have implications for coaching practices, as coaches can use their relationships with athletes to provide optimal support and thereby enhance the athletes' self‐confidence and wellbeing.
... pre-performance, overall performance, distraction, mental, or routines for competition. 1,2,8,15,23 Some of these plans, such as the overall performance plan 23 aligned with the segment timeline-scope, sequence and duration-found in this study. Other plans, such as the distraction plan, seemed to align behavior variations to overcome changes in the environment. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine adaptations within competition day routines of female US Olympic medalists in differently formatted competitions in order to locate changes based on the organizations of the swimming competitions and differentiate the inflexible from the flexible parts of the routines. A purposeful sample of six elite swimmers participated in two 1-hour interviews with an observation at a national-level competition. A mixed-methods analysis protocol helped locate adaptions within the routine. Four results of note were reported. First, adaptations outside venue depended on format and/or individual schedule; adaptations inside the venue were in response to how they felt and their surroundings. Second, participants adapted their competition-day routines at different levels, i.e., segment and behavior levels, depending on being outside or inside the venue, respectively. Third, the competition-day routine of the participants followed similar competition-day routine segments at the venue that matched in scope and sequence for both the prelims and finals sessions. Fourth, once at the venue, adaptation of behaviors changed in order to accomplish the necessary active or passive preparations without changing the scope, sequence and duration of the segments. These findings deepen the understanding of competition-day routines by locating flexible and inflexible parts of the routines and showing greater variance when athletes adapt their routines.
... The perceived quality of support by the athlete may underpin the stress-resilience-performance relationship by facilitating situational control leading to higher levels of challenge appraisals in competition which are associated with better performance. 4,[7][8][9][10][11][12] To better understand the interpersonal relationships between performance support staff and athletes, we look to the literature on the therapeutic or working alliance which has emerged as a consistent predictor of positive therapy outcomes. 13 Baldwin et al. demonstrated that therapists' abilities to consistently create a working alliance across all patients predicted patient outcomes. ...
Objectives
Athletes and coaches rely on their performance support team to optimise training and competition. The specific characteristics of performance support teams that contribute to success in competition from the perspective of athletes and coaches have not been examined. Olympic gold medal winning athletes and coaches were asked about the characteristics they valued in the performance support team members who were with them at the Olympic Games. The insights shared provide important context to the role of the performance support team member, beyond technical skills, in the high-stress environment of elite sporting competition.
Methods
Concept mapping was completed online to collect, analyse, and visually represent insights from 30 Olympic gold medal winning athletes and coaches. The concept mapping focus prompt used to generate insights from participants was ‘When I reflect on my gold medal winning performance, a characteristic that I really valued within my support team was….’. Athletes then brainstormed, sorted, and rated relevant statements.
Results
Multidimensional scaling and hierarchical cluster analysis produced an 8-cluster map – Way of Working, Communication Style, Emotional Management in Competition, Teamwork, Commitment to Athlete Preparation, Professionalism, Embracing the Experience, and Equality – as the best visual representation of the way participants sorted the 49 unique brainstormed statements.
Conclusions
Olympic gold medal winning athletes and coaches prioritised ways of working, communication style, emotional management, and teamwork as the characteristics they valued most in their performance support team. These constructs, when further examined by item, encourage performance support staff to develop emotional management skills to (a) strengthen interpersonal relationships within the team, (b) enhance the working alliance with athletes and coaches, and (c) contribute to team performance overall. Concept mapping provided a structured way of collecting lived experience insights that may compliment other qualitative approaches such as structured interviews.
... Until now, issues and conditioning related to overseas travel of top athletes have been examined for various athletic events. For example, Gould et al. (2002) reported that travel to the venue, availability of sponsors, relationship with sponsors, schedule during the tournament, and time difference affected the performance of athletes who participated in the Olympic Games. Greenleaf et al. (2001) conducted an interview survey of athletes who participated in the Olympic Games and reported that psychological and physical preparation including sleep and motivation, support from surroundings, and adaptability to the Olympic environment were important factors for their performance. ...
In 2019, the International Tennis Federation implemented major changes to the men's professional tennis tour system in order to (1) reduce the number of professional players who cannot make a living, and (2) create a system that allows talented junior players to quickly transition to the professional level. These changes in the tour system are considered to have had a significant impact on the players' environment and psychological aspects. The purpose of this study was to exploratively examine the impact of the tour system changes on Japanese male tennis players. The subjects of the study were four Japanese male tennis players who participated in the ITF World Tennis Tour held in Japan. They were interviewed one-on-one for approximately 40 minutes using a semi-structured interview method. The interview was centered on the question “How did the change in the tour system affect you?” and the interviewees were asked to give specific reasons for their answers. Following a qualitative inductive analysis of the verbatim transcripts of the interviews, five areas of impact were identified: feeling, game plan, status, environment, and requests.
... In the results of studies conducted in recent years, scientists have not agreed on the conceptual framework of mental toughness (Clough et al., 2002;Gould et al., 2002;Gucciardi et al., 2009;Thelwell et al., 2005). The necessity of embodying the conceptual framework more effectively and accurately emerges (Gucciardi et al., 2015). ...
Scientific realities show that mental toughness and psychological skills are very important for athletes to be psychologically well not only before the competition but also during and after the competition. Being able to continue the sports life at the same time while carrying out educational activities requires more mental toughness and psychological skills than usual. From this point of view, the research aims to determine the role of psychological skills in sports in the mental resilience of athletes who actively do sports and to analyse their relations with each other and with some variables. The study group of the research consists of 420 student-athletes (Avgage=21.96±3.20), 130 of them are females (31.0%) and 290 of them are males (69.0%), studying in the faculties of sports sciences. In the current study, “the Athletes' Psychological Skills Assessment Scale” and “The Mental Toughness Scale” was used. Descriptive statistics, T-Test, ANOVA and Multiple Linear Regression analysis were used for data analysis. In the research findings, it was detected that male athletes have a better ability to perform well under pressure and income status has an effect on getting rid of worries, goal setting and mental preparation. The mental toughness and psychological skills of those who slept 8 hours or less a day were higher than those who slept 8 hours or more. Similarly, it was concluded that athletes who have reading habits have higher mental toughness and psychological skills. Additionally, one of the important results of the research is also that improving concentration, being open to learning, the ability to cope with difficulties, confidence and success motivation, targeting and mental preparation skills, which
are among the psychological skills of athletes, explain 44% of the total variance in mental toughness. It can be said that psychological skills have an important role in determining mental toughness.
... Both the athlete-coach defined temperature thresholds and those used to operationalize the wet snow indicator are further supported by the scientific literature on temperature impacts on snow conditions (Guisado, 2017), ski boot stiffness (Colonna et al., 2015), snow sport athlete physical performance (Buhl et al., 2001;Gould et al., 2002;Sandsund et al., 2012), and ski-snow friction and waxing (Wagner & Horel, 2011). Some conditions identified by survey respondents could not be operationalized due to climate data limitations near OWG snow sport competition venues (e.g. ...
The International Olympic Committee recognizes the risks climate change pose to the Games and its responsibility to lead on climate action. Winter is changing at the past Olympic Winter Games (OWG) locations and an important perspective to understand climate change risk is that of the athletes who put themselves at risk during these mega-sport events. A survey of 339 elite athletes and coaches from 20 countries was used to define fair and safe conditions for snow sports competitions. The frequency of unfair-unsafe conditions has increased over the last 50 years across the 21 OWG host locations. The probability of unfair-unsafe conditions increases under all future climate change scenarios. In a low emission scenario aligned to the Paris Climate Agreement, the number of climate reliable hosts remains almost unchanged throughout the twenty-first century (nine in mid-century, eight in late century). The geography of the OWG changes radically if global emissions remain on the trajectory of the last two decades, leaving only one reliable host city by the end of the century. Athletes expressed trepidation over the future of their sport and the need for the sporting world to be a powerful force to inspire and accelerate climate action.
... As the main topic in sport management, many types of research is oriented towards identifying the "right" leadership style in the sport. Research has shown that leadership style affects satisfaction of employees (Burton and Peachey, 2009;Judge and Piccolo, 2004;Yusof, 1998) and achieved results (Ghezelsefloo and Ashouri, 2017;Gould, Greenleaf, Chung and Guinan, 2002;Rowold, 2006). In majority of research transformational style of leadership has been connected with effective managers and higher job satisfaction. ...
The topic of leadership has always attracted the attention of researchers from management, as well as other points of view. Leadership is one of the management functions, which means that every manager conducts this function. However, not every manager is a good (successful) leader implying that there are some characteristics that distinguish between two types of managers-those exhibiting these characteristics opposed to ones that do not. The role of leaders and their characteristics in achieving (sport) organizations goals, and satisfaction of employees has been confirmed in number of research. Transformational style of leadership has been found to be best suited for 21 st century business characterized by constant changes. Students studying at kinesiology faculties are future employees and potential managers and leaders of sport organizations, making them a relevant sample for research. The sample consisted of 272 students from Croatia (121) and Serbia (151). Their vision of managers does not necessarily include managers with emphasized leader characteristics, and preferred leadership style is transactional.
... In Japan, Japan Sport Council (JSC) acknowledged the im portance of developing the "intelligent-athlete" enhancing the athlete's competency to self-regulate in making analyses, reflections, taking decisions and act in order to improve performance. The aim of the current paper is to explore the concept o (Ericsson et al., 1993;Ertmer and Newby, 1996;Fletche r and Sarkar, 2012;Gould et al., 2002;Hambrick et al., 2014;Blijlevens, 2019). ...
In recent years, a number of international and national organizations have started to optimize their coach development programs to align with current trends and specific circumstances. In Japan, the Japan Sport Council (JSC) has acknowledged the importance of developing “intelligent” athletes with enhanced competency to self-regulate their analyses, reflections, and decision-making in order to improve their performance. The aim of the present study was to explore the concept of performance behaviour, as developed by TeamNL (NOC∗NSF, Olympic Committee of the Netherlands), integrating the development of athletes’ cognitive readiness as part of coaching in high performance sport, as a basis for the development of “intelligent” athletes and subsequently creating a possible legacy to Tokyo 2020 in the domain of coaching.
... The event service environment can also produce various stressors, which can influence the athletes' cognitive disposition and general attitude (Kristiansen, MacIntosh, Parent, & Houlihan, 2018). For instance, Gould, Greenleaf, Chung, and Guinan (2002) suggested that excessive distraction within the Olympic village could negatively influence the athletes' readiness to perform at their best. Furthermore, the lack of adequate training facilities can hinder preparation for competition and has been associated with poor performance (Pain & Harwood, 2008). ...
Competing at major sport events represents a significant experience for elite athletes. Research has determined that event services can affect athlete satisfaction, yet little is known about any influence on athlete performances. This study adapted the lens of transformative service research to examine, through survey research, the athletes’ perceptions of the impact that the service environment of the Commonwealth Games 2018 on the Gold Coast in Australia had on their satisfaction and subsequent performance. The results from 430 athlete surveys showed the significant relationships between service environment factors and athlete satisfaction and the indirect effects of the service environment on performance, through satisfaction. Thus, satisfaction acts as a mediator between the service environment and athlete performance. The effects of the service environment on athlete satisfaction and performance highlight the areas for future development across the athletes’ experience, from accommodations to social activities, that managers and event planners can enhance.
... Mental toughness enhances research and psychological research, after capturing the imagination of the general sports community and the academic community. In fact, since Fourie and Potgieter [15] pioneered qualitative studies of mental resilience in South Africa, we have proven a growing series of investigations from various parts of the world including the United States [16], United Kingdom [17][18][19][20] India [21], and Australia [11]. This research focuses on understanding the phenomenon of mental toughness from the perspective of athletes and coaches and has identified a myriad of characteristics that are ascribed to mental toughness. ...
... There is an abundance of evidence demonstrating the beneficial effects of socially supportive relationships in sport (Holt and Hoar, 2006;Lu et al., 2016). Social support has been positively associated with objective performance outcome Rees, 2008, 2009;Freeman, 2009, 2010), Olympic performance (Gould et al., 2002), challenge appraisals , flow (Bakker et al., 2011), and self-confidence (Holt and Hoar, 2006;Freeman et al., 2011), as well as lower risks for injury (Carson and Polman, 2012) and burnout (Freeman et al., 2011;Smith, 2013, 2014;Lu et al., 2016). Social support encompasses both structural (i.e., number and type of relationships) and functional components of interpersonal relationships (Cohen et al., 2000;Vangelisti, 2009). ...
Social support is an adaptive resource associated with lower levels of burnout in sport. The effects of social support on burnout have typically been demonstrated through (1) a main effects model (direct negative associations between social support and burnout) and (2) a stress-buffering model (social support buffering the negative effects of stress on burnout). While both models provide insights into functional adaptations to burnout and stress in sport, evidence for significant main and stress-buffering effects are inconsistent. Reasons for this is include: (1) testing of a singular perspective of support in empirical research, and (2) a lack of specificity when analyzing social support and burnout (e.g., adoption of global-level analyses). To address this, the purpose of the study was to test differing perspectives of social support (perceived availability of support and received support) in regards to the main and stress-buffering effects of dimensions of social support (emotional, esteem, informational, and tangible) on dimensions of burnout (reduced sense of accomplishment, devaluation, emotional and physical exhaustion). Cross-sectional data were collected from 222 athletes. Moderated hierarchical regression analyses revealed that: (1) higher levels of stress were associated with higher levels of burnout (all dimensions); (2) higher levels of perceived availability of support were associated with lower levels of reduced sense of accomplishment and devaluation (with the exception of perceived availability of emotional support upon devaluation), and (3) perceived availability of emotional support buffered the negative effects of high stress upon devaluation. There were no significant main or interactive effects for any dimensions of received support. The significant interaction suggests that higher levels of perceived availability of emotional support may result in a functional adaptation to higher stress such that individuals may be protected from higher levels of devaluation of sport.
... Later, in the multidimensional model [1] of the leadership, team members' satisfaction and team effort were determinants of the relationship among three states of leader behaviours namely; the actual coach behaviour, preferred coach behaviour by the athletes, and required leader behaviour by the situation [7]. Therefore, the type of leadership behaviours displayed by the coach plays an important role in successful sporting performance [8]. In this premise, transformational leadership has been shown to impact a wide range of outcomes in sport [9][10][11][12]. ...
Transformational leadership has been
shown to impact a wide range of outcomes in sport.
Previously, researchers have begun to examine the
mechanisms by which transformational leadership exerts
its impact on followers. However, there is still little
known about the mediating variables between
transformational leadership and followers’ performance.
Therefore, the aim of the current study was to examine the
relationship between transformational leadership and the
leader-inspired extra effort with the potential mediating
role of the coach-athlete relationship in college basketball
players. The differentiated transformational leadership
inventory (DTLI) was used to assess college coaches’
leadership behaviours and the coach-athlete relationship
questionnaire (CART-Q) was used to examine the athletes’
perceptions of the relationship with their current coach.
Accordingly, the leader-inspired extra effort scale (LIEE)
was used to investigate the college basketball players’
perception of their effort. The sample comprised 78 college
basketball players (43 men, 35 women; Mage = 21.60, SD =
3.05). Results did not provide support for full mediation
except the direct effects between individual consideration
and leader-inspired extra effort had a significant
relationship (β = .491; SE = .143, p ˂ 0.01) as well as the
individual consideration and the closeness (β = .069; SE
= .101, p ˂ 0.01). The results highlight that coaches and
educators should endeavour to display transformational
leadership behaviours as they are related to coach and
athlete relationship on the athletic effort.
... As a result, many consultants have made efforts to focus their attention on training and helping coaches. 10,11 One consultant who has done a significant body of work with coaches at all levels is Dr. Andy Gillham, owner of Ludus Consulting. Recently, Dr. Gillham was interviewed about his consulting experiences and discussed a number of themes relevant to the qualities and behaviors associated with more effective coaching as well as some important considerations for other consultants who find themselves in similar situations. ...
... An understanding of how a triadic relationship develops when the organisations form and function separately, yet the relationship exists between them is shown. The complexity of coaching literature discusses the importance of relationships and the issues maladaptive relationships can cause, however, these will be context specific (Gould et al. 2001, 2002, Fletcher and Wagstaff 2009, Cruickshank and Collins 2012, Cruickshank et al. 2013. The CNF story offers awareness of potential issues and implications the environment/organisation can have for those within a triadic relationship. ...
This paper explores coaches and athlete experiences of being part of a triadic coach–athlete–coach relationship spanning across two sporting organisations, namely a women’s international rugby union and premiership club. An interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) approach and a creative non-fiction (CNF) story representation is utilised to appropriately capture this triads lived experiences. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with each individual in the coach–athlete–coach triad. Interpretation of personal experiences occurred first at an individual level and then across the triad. To show the complexity of the organisational impact evident from the interviews, a CNF story on the triad’s relational experience was developed. A contribution to sport psychology research is made on numerous levels. First, the impact of this exploration is in providing a ‘relational’ focus, showing and then telling the reader of complexities present, within a triadic relationship context. This paper provides an avenue for relational conception in sport psychology that captures the past, present and future interactions of those that occupy sporting relationships. Second, it provides this avenue by interpreting the lived experiences of all relational members, providing an insight into the contextual and organisational factors influencing this sporting relationship. Finally, this papers originality is evident in its approach and representation, combining IPA and CNF to move the theoretical focus beyond replicating the current relationship research in sport.
... According to experienced coaches, learning from successful coaches is still considered to be an effective method of gaining feedback and developing expertise. 17 This practice is, however, not without fault. ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the feedback mechanisms that sport coaches utilized to enhance their coaching practice at various stages of their careers. Sport coaches (n = 21) were interviewed in-depth with the resulting information being analysed using HyperRESEARCH qualitative data analysis software package. Results suggested four distinct dimensions that characterized the sources of feedback used by coaches: networks, players/participants, critical thinking skills and support systems. Those more experienced coaches with established networks of like-minded coaches seemed to be more open to constructive feedback. Similarly, novice coaches appeared to accept feedback from non-reliable sources in lieu of more informed sources. A distinctive emerging feature was the lack of formal feedback mechanisms within groups of coaches at all levels of qualification.
... However, real-world environments vary in the glorification opportunities they afford. For example, training settings offer little chance for glory, yet are vital for performance (Gould, Greenleaf, Chung, & Guinan, 2002). As such, a vital issue is to uncover the factors via which narcissists might be drawn to perform as well in the training environment as they do in competitive settings (Roberts et al., 2013). ...
The performance arena provides a multitude of opportunities for lionizing the self. Narcissistic individuals crave admiration and glory, and thus the performance domain constitutes an ideal medium for researchers to explore narcissistic behavior. However, despite its potential relevance and substantial research history within mainstream psychology, narcissism is only now starting to receive interest from researchers in the sport and performance domain. In this article, we aim to raise the relevance of narcissism (and more generally personality) within performance settings and provide a platform for future research in the area. We review research on the relation between narcissism and performance and conclude that narcissists’ performance is contingent upon perceived opportunities for glory. We also offer suggestions for explanatory mechanisms. Further, we examine factors that may influence narcissistic behavior in environments that vary in their opportunity for glory. In addition, as leadership positions present opportunities for glory, we ask whether narcissists make effective leaders. We propose theoretical extensions of the narcissism literature to the performance domain, and we close with a call for greater consideration of the role of personality in performance contexts.
... In addition to the interest in studying the transformational impact of these individuals, examining the influence of coaches is especially important due their role in successful sporting performance (Gould, Greenleaf, Chung, & Guinan, 2002). In fact, coaches represent a predominant source of transformational influence on athletes. ...
... This autonomy and the discouragement to Olympic athletes' study that a good expert coach is the factor for sporting success; Guinan (2002) provided that Olympic athletes perceive higher performance when the coach can demonstrate their knowledge and experience. ...
... In the field of sport, coaching is normally used synonymous with all the domains coaches have to fulfil in their roles (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980;Gould, et al., 2002;Jones, 2006;Jowett, 2007;Mallett & Côté, 2006). However, coaching as defined by the coaching profession, is at least one of several domains coaches in sport need to fulfil in order to be effective (Gordon, 2007;Jowett, 2005;Williams, et al., 2003). ...
This article looks at whether higher levels of perceived coaching competencies focusing on relational issues,
were associated with higher satisfaction among elite athletes with their progress in sport. In order to explore this,
we investigated elite athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ coaching competence (CCS) and how these
perceptions related to their own satisfaction with their progress in sport during the last year. The CCS measures
core competencies for coaches as defined by the coaching profession (Moen & Federici, 2011). Our hypothesis
was partly confirmed as the results revealed that higher perceived coach competencies were associated with
higher athlete satisfaction with their progress in sport. This result applies for all the five dimensions of the CCS.
However, the group of athletes who are most dissatisfied with their progress in sport do not follow this trend, as
they in general score higher on the different dimensions of the CCS compared to the nearby levels.
... In this article we suggest that it is crucial to know more about this process in order to optimize feedback and to specify a heuristic model of coaches' augmented feedback. In gymnastics, for instance, augmented feedback as part of the error-correction process is present during the entire training session and has an impact on the outcome, such as competition performance or self confidence [3,4]. This error-correction process has been divided into six steps in which the coach: 1) observes the movement, 2) perceives the movement, 3) does an actual-target comparison, 4) detects the error or errors, 5) detects the cause(s) of the error, and 6) gives feedback to one or several athletes [e.g., 5]. ...
The augmented feedback athletes receive from their coach is essential to improve performance. The aim of this exploratory study was to identify how coaches consider six feedback factors which might have an influence on the error-correction process. The six feedback factors were developed from a heuristic model of error correction, namely: a) visual perspective, b) visual experience, c) motor experience, d) personal relationship between coach and athlete, e) methodological knowledge, and f) biomechanical knowledge. Seventy-three active gymnastics coaches were asked to rank the importance and frequency of use of these six factors. In addition, we examined, in an exploratory way, if moderators can partly explain the weightings. Results show that the feedback factors can be ranked in importance and frequency of use, with methodological knowledge being the most essential in an error-correction situation. More studies are needed that explore if coaches should guide feedback according to their own motor experience. Gaze training for coaches is needed to improve the feedback and, ultimately, the movements.
La formation acrobatique des gymnastes place la problématique de la préservation de l’intégrité corporelle au cœur des pratiques des entraîneurs. L’étude porte sur l’activité réelle d’entraîneurs experts au cours de séquences d’interactions avec les gymnastes, destinées à perfectionner leur réalisation d’habiletés gymniques en vue de les préparer à la compétition de niveau national et international. Le dévoilement des connaissances d’expérience, qui se manifestent dans leur activité d’intervention, s’inscrit dans une démarche d’anthropologie cognitive située. Il prend appui sur la documentation conjointe des comportements qu’ils donnent à voir et des significations que ces comportements ont pour eux, en lien avec la dynamique de leurs préoccupations et de leurs perceptions des essais successifs des gymnastes. Les résultats révèlent des processus d’étayage de l’activité d’apprentissage des gymnastes qui reposent notamment sur des activités de manipulation corporelle. Les processus de désétayage qui suivent se caractérisent par une diminution des aides apportées par l’entraîneur au gymnaste et la construction par ce dernier de ressources de substitution. La préparation technique à la compétition, partie intégrante des stratégies de prévention des risques corporels, repose sur la co-construction d’un écosystème efficient et partagé, comme ressources aux pratiques conjointes des entraîneurs et de leurs gymnastes.
In today's dynamic business environment, innovation is arguably the most powerful tool of responsive organizations when it comes to sustaining an edge and searching for sustainable growth in the dynamic business environment. This chapter focuses on the critical importance of innovative behavior in businesses and highlights how talent development serves to foster such innovative behavior and translates to basic science innovation. Preliminary findings at the review of literature on the relationship between innovative behavior and talent development are discussed in this chapter relating to the consequent approaches to building an employee capable of innovation. It also underscores the vital role of psychological factors in talent development. The result emphasizes that talent development must be aligned as a strategic imperative for creating and sustaining innovation in organizations and not just as an enabling factor.
Sporda Liderliğin Çerçevesi Pervin BİLİR Liderlik Nedir? Pervin BİLİR Tolga ÇELİK Liderliğin Özellik Teorileri Pervin BİLİR Seyhan BİLİR GÜLER Liderlik Stilleri Selahattin AKPINAR Öznur AKPINAR Liderlik, Takımlar ve Etkileşim: Ya Grubun İçindesiniz ya da Dışında Melih N. SALMAN Yıkıcı ve Toksik Liderlik Ergun YURDADÖN Spor Yönetiminde Kolaylaştırıcı Liderlik Pervin BİLİR Spor Yönetiminde İletişim Canan SAYIN TEMUR Saadet GÖNEN Stratejik Planlama ile Stratejik Liderlik Pervin BİLİR Nurşen ŞAHİN Kurumsal Değişime Liderlik Etmek Enver DÖŞYILMAZ Spor Liderliğinde Çeşitlilik Özge AYDIN Antrenör Tayfun ŞİRİN Ozan Ç. SARIKAYA Antrenörlükte Liderlik Modelleri Yeliz ERATLI ŞİRİN Antrenörlükte Örgütsel Liderlik Yaklaşımları Nurşen ŞAHİN Antrenörlükte Liderliğin Ölçülmesi Eren ULUÖZ Gamze ÜNALDI Empati ile Sürdürülebilir Performans Zeynep Filiz DİNÇ Cem Yoksuler YILMAZ Gelecek: Spor Liderliğindeki Yönelimler ve Zorluklar Erdem EROĞLU Sultan EROĞLU
The post-Olympic period is a challenging and stressful period in which many athletes can experience a range of negative psychological reactions. This has led to the coining of the term ‘post-Olympic blues.’ The purpose of this study is to explore the post-Olympic mental health of Danish athletes with the specific aim to investigate the number of Danish athletes experiencing ‘post-Olympic blues’ after the Tokyo Olympics. Forty-nine Olympic athletes completed measures of well-being (Short-Warwick-Edinburg-Mental-Wellbeing-Scale), depression (Patient-Health-Questionnaire-9), and anxiety (Generalized-Anxiety-Disorders questionnaire) one month after the Olympics Games. The results indicated that 27% of athletes reported either below average well-being or moderate to severe depression scores, with 16% reported both below average well-being and moderate to severe depression scores. Female athletes reported significantly higher depression than male athletes, with no significant gender difference in well-being or anxiety. No significant age differences were found. No statistically significant results were found between athletes’ goal achievement and mental health, however, there was a tendency that athletes who failed to meet performance expectations reported more negative experiences post-Games. The current results are discussed with regards to developing a clear definition of post-Olympic blues, practical implications, and future research.
Effective coaching facilitates athletes’ success in reaching their potential in sport. Coaches possess a range of knowledge, skills and attributes that influence athletes’ performance, including various intrapersonal and interpersonal qualities. The purpose of this study is to systematically review the research investigating the psychosocial functioning of Olympic coaches and its perceived effect on athlete performance. The review was conducted and reported in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. The following databases were searched: SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Web of Knowledge, and Medline. The literature search identified 2873 studies which were screened and assessed for eligibility, with the resultant 25 eligible studies being assessed for quality of evidence using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Convergent meta-integration with thematic analysis was performed by converting quantitative and qualitative data from 207 Olympic coaches and 925 Olympic athletes into relevant themes and patterns. Three core themes of traits, states, and behaviors were identified. Within these themes, 18 traits, 28 states, and 38 behaviors were identified that were perceived to have either a facilitative, debilitative, or non-categorized effect on athlete performance. Future research will help national governing bodies and practitioners develop coach education to enhance Olympic coaching effectiveness.
An understanding of supportive relationships, the specific assistance they provide, and how social support benefits athletes is important in the design of evidence‐based interventions. This chapter provides a brief history of social support before outlining different ways support has been conceptualized and measured. The key theoretical models examined in the literature are discussed along with the effects observed on some key outcomes and insight into the key components of support perceptions. Some of theoretical models overviewed are: main effect model, stress prevention model, stress‐buffering model, and optimal matching model. Sport psychology research has examined the effects of social support on a range of outcomes, with areas of particular interest being the impact upon burnout, injury prevention and responses, and performance. Functional aspects of social support can be assessed in terms of perceived support and received support. The chapter also discusses the practical implications of the current literature and directions for future research.
Este trabajo, de corte descriptivo, muestra una panorámica de la formación y conocimientos de los entrenadores mexicanos universitarios finalistas nacionales. La pertinencia de la investigación tiene sentido, debido a la importancia que tiene el deporte universitario como escalón para el deporte olímpico y escaparate del deporte profesional en la visión global y que en México no debe ser la excepción. Con ello, una de las variables para analizar el nivel deportivo universitario en México es justamente la formación profesional y académica de sus entrenadores, así como sus conocimientos y cómo los aplican.
Para acercarse al tema se utilizó un modelo cuantitativo a través de un cuestionario adaptado y validado en poblaciones españolas y mexicana. La muestra es probabilística aleatoria y está conformada por 326 entrenadores participantes en la final nacional universitaria 2013. Entre los hallazgos observados se revelan aspectos asociados con la formación del entrenador, la formación permanente y los medios que utiliza para aumentar sus conocimientos. De igual forma, la presente investigación ofrece características sobre el perfil entrenador universitario que tiene el país.
The practice environment of athletes can influence their competitive performance. The influencing performance factors present in practice are understudied and the aim of this study was to explore these factors. Using a case study approach, a basketball practice environment was investigated to reveal influencing performance factors. Participants were fifteen members of a UK Elite Academy Basketball League team based in a sixth form college, which included: ten players, two coaches, one strength and conditioning coach, one academic teacher and the head of sport (mean age = 21.8 years). A case study approach was adopted to collect data from interviews, focus groups, and direct observations to provide a holistic assessment of the practice environment. Data was analysed using inductive thematic analysis, which revealed six overarching themes: effort; status; individuality; preparation; team drive; and practice vision. Data analysis exposed several influencing performance factor themes unreported in previous literature, suggesting practice environments should be viewed as a standalone field of investigative enquiry. The results from this study provide a much needed foray into the psychological influences of practice and gives practitioners the opportunity to reflect upon the results against their own practice environments.
Objectives
Although much is now known about the role of social support in the competitive stress process, scholars have yet to examine this moderator in relation to organizational stress. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived organizational stressors and subjective performance in sport, with particular focus on the potential moderating role of social support.
Design and methods
Talented athletes (N = 122; 60 male; Mage = 20.50) completed questionnaires of perceived organizational stressors, social support, and subjective athletic performance.
Results
In addition to evidence of main effects, analyses revealed four significant interactions which demonstrated that social support did act as a significant moderator of the relationship between organizational stressors and subjective performance. Contrary to the extant literature, however, the findings illustrated reverse buffering. Associations suggest that some dimensions of social support exacerbated rather than mitigated athletes' stress reactions (i.e. impaired performance) when encountering greater frequencies of organizational stressors.
Conclusion
These findings not only advance theoretical understanding of the organizational stress process, but also present a number of significant implications for athletes, coaches, and applied practitioners aiming to enhance performance in pressurized and demanding situations. Specifically, recommendations are forwarded for practitioners to address coaching stressors and provide effective social support that is matched to the stressors that he or she encounters.
Sports organisations face immense challenge, both structurally and organisationally, in coordinating talent-development processes. This complex interaction may be exacerbated by structural change and sports policy decision-making, not only changing the way pathway elements interact and individuals progress, but also the quality of the learning and development domain. The aim of this research was to investigate the development pathway of South African cricketers and the impact of change to the provincial structure in 2004. Twelve semi-structured interviews with highly experienced players, coaches and administrators raised a number of themes. Specifically, the changes reduced elite playing opportunities and narrowed pathway options. Club cricket standards dropped, reducing its viability as a pool for talent identification and effective development. This placed stress on age-related academies as a fundamental development environment and the need to select talent ‘into the system’ earlier, which has implications for late developers and the extent to which chance influences development. Practical consequences, in the long-term, not only reduce the participation base and narrow the performance pathway, but also impact on the overall health of SA domestic and international games. Findings also reinforce the theoretical models, acknowledging sports development as an individual and nonlinear process and confirm cricket as a late developing sport, stressing the importance of those development environments between mass participation and elite performance (school/club/university) to retain structure, competition and exhibit the greatest flexibility and coherency. Implications for practice and research are discussed.
Менеджмент подготовки спортсменов к Олимпийским играм / [Бубка С. Н., Бу-латова М. М., Есентаев Т. К. и др.; под ред. С. Н. Бубки, В. Н. Платонова]. – К. :
Олимп. лит., 2017. – 480 с.
В книге подвергнуты всестороннему анализу проблемы стратегического и функционального менеджмента подготовки национальных команд и спортсменов к Олимпийским играм. Рассмотрены история и современное состояние систем олимпийской подготовки в странах с наиболее развитым олимпийским спортом, проанализированы факторы, определяющие общекомандный успех на Олимпийских играх, в том числе спортивное законодательство, программно-нормативные основы, вопросы кадрового, материально-технического, спортивно-методического, научного и медицинского характера.
Для широкого круга специалистов, работающих в сфере спорта высших достижений и олимпийской подготовки, а также представителей государственных, политических и деловых кругов, заинтересованных в успехах национальных команд на Олимпийских играх.
В монографии подвергнута всестороннему анализу проблема развития двигательных качеств (скоростных, силовых, выносливости, ловкости и координации, гибкости) и физической подготовки спортсменов. Своим содержанием представленная работа принципиально отличается от большинства обобщающих работ, посвященных двигательным качествам и физической подготовке спортсменов. Структура двигательных качеств и методика их развития рассматриваются не сквозь призму достижения наивысшего тренировочного эффекта применительно к тому или иному качеству, а на основе соответствия уровня развития и особенностей проявления каждого из двигательных качеств эффективности двигательных действий, характерных для конкретного вида спорта, органичной взаимосвязи двигательных качеств между собой и с другими сторонами подготовленности спортсменов – технической, тактической, психологической.
Широко представлен материал общенаучного и специального характера, обеспечивающий фундаментальность подхода к структуре двигательных качеств и методике их развития, рациональному питанию, применению средств интенсификации тренировочного процесса, стимуляции работоспособности и восстановительных реакций, профилактике перетренированности и травматизма как важнейшим составляющим высокоэффективной физической подготовки спортсменов. Содержание книги базируется на огромном массиве научного знания, накопленного западной, восточно-европейской и азиатской школами спортивной науки, обобщении достижений передовой спортивной практики, а также на результатах многолетних исследований автора.
Для тренеров и спортсменов, преподавателей и студентов вузов физического воспитания и спорта, научных работников, спортивных врачей.
In many elite sport performance contexts, overtraining is a critical issue for coaches to understand, recognise and respond to. While the indicators and effects of overtraining have attracted considerable research interest, there are no diagnostic tests that reliably predict impending overtraining. This study explores the practices and beliefs of three highly successful professional elite rowing coaches as they predict and manage the risk of athlete overtraining during crucial periods of intensive training. These coaches took part in a series of semi-structured interviews that explored their practices, philosophies and experiences. The research draws on sociological perspectives pertinent to coaching pedagogy and, more specifically, the tenets of naturalistic decision-making in exploring how the coaches define and make decisions about overtraining. In doing so it recognizes that coaching involves decision-making in complex and demanding situations. The coaches were found to monitor the fatigue of their rowers through observation, communication and measures of training pace. In general, the intuitions and cues that were used by coaches had little in common with overtraining markers or indicators that are promoted in the sport science literature. Coaches’ decision-making was based largely on subjective information and processes that were influenced by a range of stressors unique to their positions. We contend that the research provides an important new perspective on coaches’ definitions and management of overtraining and enables management of overtraining to be better understood as a key element of coaching pedagogy in elite performance settings. In this article we argue successful coaches have unique insights into this topical area and this is worthy of future exploration.
The performance of association football (soccer) teams from East Africa (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania [KUT]) in International competitions has not met the expectations of their followers and it has been consistently poor in comparison to Northern, Southern and Western regions of Africa. This article reviews some of the factors perceived to influence football development in East Africa focusing on KUT. Using performance factors conceptual framework, this paper highlights organizational factors, which have influenced the development of football such as facilities, equipment, funding, technical personnel, incentives, external exposure, and appointment of coaches in the development of football in East Africa. It is apparent that a lot more is demanded for the leadership of soccer in East Africa if the standards of the game are to be uplifted.
Given the many benefits of international sporting success, understanding the development and long-term sustainability of an elite sporting career has become an important pursuit worldwide. Despite decades of research little is known about the development of elite senior Australian Track and Field athletes, therefore this study aimed to understand the major influences contributing to their development and success. A Track and Field Athlete Development questionnaire was used to collect data from 73 Olympic and World Championship level athletes. Analysis indicated athletes progressed to the elite level via six different pathways; however, the majority follows a linear pathway from junior to elite senior athlete. Further, results demonstrated the key influencing factors during development included later specialization, involvement in other sports during adolescence and strong social support. In addition, growing up in a major city and completing a University degree were also common features. Overall the study provides an insight into the development and success of Australian Track and Field athletes who competed at the Olympic Games or World Championships between 1956 and 2013.
Although social and personal relationships are vital for productivity, health and wellbeing, conflict is inevitable and is likely to cause upset and hurt feelings as well as anxiety and distrust. Despite the potentially central role of interpersonal conflict in sport, researchers have yet to pay concerted attention to exploring the nature of conflict, its antecedents and consequences. Following a thorough literature search 80 research papers were identified, of which only a small number (6) studied interpersonal conflict directly, most captured dysfunctional interpersonal processes such as breakdown of communication. The current review aims to provide a critical summary of the existing literature around the psychological construct of interpersonal conflict, including its antecedents, management strategies and outcomes within the context of coach–athlete relationships as well as other relational contexts in sport. Based on the relevant literature, a framework of interpersonal conflict is proposed, which includes a specific focus on a key dyad within sport coaching – namely the coach–athlete dyad. Future research directions and potential practical implications for sport psychology consultants, coach educators, coaches and athletes as well as other stakeholders are discussed.
Purpose: estimation of ubiquity of chronic fatigue among qualified sportsmen of Ukraine in different kinds of sports and determination of specificities of chronic fatigue syndrome’s formation among them. Material: in the research qualified sportsmen of different kinds of sports (n=286) participated. For determination of chronic fatigue degree we used the questionnaire of Leonova. Results: in 104 sportsmen we registered symptoms of chronic fatigue of different degree. Among women symptoms of chronic degree were registered oftener (47.0%), than among men (29.2%). Most of chronic fatigue cases were noticed in swimming, light athletics and football. Formation of chronic fatigue was preceded by certain stages: overtiredness, over tension, over training. In 36.4% of the questioned sportsmen we registered chronic fatigue symptoms of different degree. We offered a model of chronic fatigue and syndrome of chronic fatigue formation in qualified sportsmen. Conclusions: progressing of sportsmen’s chronic fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome are characterized by gradual appearing of stable or relapsing significant tiredness or by quick tiredness. As a result we can observe reduction of usual activity during long period of time (more than one month).
Previous performance environment research in sport has either focused on specific variables in relative isolation or a multitude of variables without theoretically linking them together. Using a case study approach, we explored the high performance environment (HPE) in an elite swimming team through the theoretical lens of the HPE model [Jones, J. G., Gittins, M. J., & Hardy, L. (2009). Creating an environment where high performance is inevitable and sustainable: The high performance environment model. Annual Review of High Performance Coaching and Consulting, 1, 139–149]. The HPE model consists of four core components and a number of subcomponents: leadership (vision, support, challenge), performance enablers (information, instruments, incentives), people (attitudes, behaviours, capacity), and organizational culture (achievement, well-being, innovation, internal processes). The findings illustrate the relationships between a wide range of factors and sport performance, and provide qualitative evidence for the HPE model in an elite sport context. Nevertheless, several revisions are suggested in terms of integrating additional relevant concepts and considering differential weighting of the model's components. For practitioners operating in elite sport, adopting a holistic view of the performance environment draws attention to the numerous organizational influences on sport performers and encourages a more coordinated approach to developing high performance. Practitioners attempting to effectively intervene at an environmental level will need to be able to coach leaders, facilitate performance enablers, engage people, and shape cultural change.
Despite the apparent widespread use of Butler and Hardy's (1992) performance profiling procedure (Doyle & Parfitt, 1999), there is limited research detailing the benefits that can accrue from its use. Hence, the present investigation sought to provide an evaluation of sport psychologists' perceptions of the usefulness and impacts of performance profiling. Fifty-six British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences accredited sport psychologists completed a closed survey detailing their perceptions of the usefulness and benefits associated with the production of an individual athlete performance profile within a group setting. Descriptive analysis revealed that consultants believed profiling to be useful in providing a basis for goal setting, identifying strengths and weaknesses, raising athlete awareness, evaluating and monitoring athlete performance, and in facilitating discussion, communication and interaction within teams. This brief report argues that further research is needed to empirically evaluate the usefulness of profiling in order that its frequent use can be fully justified. Initial assessment, Performance profile, Psychologist opinions, Survey.
Research on international labor migration in professional sports (e.g., Magee & Sugden, 2002) suggests that the experiences of athletes in foreign cultures are often diverse and entail numerous pressures. In order to examine such experiences in greater depth, existential phenomenological interviews (Thomas & Pollio, 2002) were conducted with ten current and former professional basketball players, ages 24 to 55, from the US. Thematic analysis of the interview transcripts produced eight major themes that clearly characterized participants' experiences: Learning the Local Mentality, Experiencing Isolation, Connecting with Others, Exploring the Physical Environment, Dealing with the Business, Adjusting to Team Resources, Managing Team Dynamics, and Playing the Game. Taken together, the results suggest that while playing overseas required participants to manage a variety of cultural and sport-related stressors, it also afforded them opportunities for personal and professional development.
This study included 235 Canadian Olympic athletes who participated in the 1984 Olympic Games in Sarajevo and Los Angeles. Individual interviews were carried out with 75 athletes and a questionnaire was completed by another 160 to assess their mental readiness for the Olympic Games and factors related to mental readiness. Common elements of success were identified, as well as factors that interfered with optimal performance at the Olympic Games. Statistically significant links were found between Olympic performance outcome and certain mental skills. This investigation assessed the level of mental readiness and mental control experienced by Canadian athletes at the 1984 Olympic Games. A large-scale study was undertaken involving 235 Canadian Olympians who participated in the 1984 Olympic Games in Sarajevo or Los Angeles. It was a two-stage study involving an interview sample and a questionnaire survey sample.
To gain a better understanding of factors perceived to have positively and/or negatively influenced Olympic athlete performance and to examine differences in performance factors cited by athletes who met or exceeded performance expectations and athletes who failed to meet expectations, 8 Atlanta and 7 Nagano Olympians were interviewed. Interviews were conducted via telephone, tape recorded, transcribed, and content analyzed by three investigators. Major factors perceived to have positively influenced performance included mental skills and preparation, attitude towards the Olympics, support services and support facilitation, multifaceted preparation, physical preparation, and coaching. Major factors perceived to have negatively influenced performance included departing from normal routine, media distractions, coach issues, overtraining, and injury. The two groups, those who met or exceeded expectations and those who did not meet expectations, differed on only a few positive performance factors, including attitude towards the games, Olympic housing, and team unity. Negative factors that differed between the groups included team selection, coaching, lack of support, and team issues.
The effects of mental skills training in youth sport have been well documented (Efran, Lessor, & Spiller, 1994; Li-Wei, Qi-Wei, Orlick, & Zitzelsberger, 1992; Wanlin, Hrycaiko, Martin, & Mahon, 1997). This investigation focused on understanding why mental skills training information is not being used by junior tennis coaches and identifying better ways to convey this information to coaches. Focus-group interviews were conducted with 20 elite junior tennis coaches. Results revealed a need for more mental skills training coach education on content information. Understanding how to teach mental skills was also emphasized, as was the need for coaches to become more comfortable with this process. Coaches suggested that mental skills training information could be made more user-friendly through development of hands-on concrete examples and activities, increased mental skills training resources (particularly audio and video formats), and involvement in mental skills coach education efforts.
This paper describes a study on the recall of 2400 events from the author's daily life, recorded during a period of 6 years. One feature of the study is that all events were recorded by means of four aspects, viz., what the event was, who was involved, and where and when it happened. All events were scaled for saliency, emotional involvement, and pleasantness. Recall was cued by different combinations of the recorded aspects. For instance, given what, the task was to reproduce who, where, and when. Given who and when, the task was to reproduce what and where. This technique enlarges M. Linton's (1975, in D. A. Norman & D. E. Rumelhart (Eds.), Explorations in cognition (chap. 14), San Francisco: Freeman) insights into the organization of autobiographical memory. Pleasant events were better recalled than unpleasant events. An analysis of the effectiveness of cue combinations showed that, in the organization of autobiographical memory, temporal information functions in a different manner than information about what, who, and where. Although the number of irretrievable events can rise to about 20%, there is some evidence that in fact none of these events was completely forgotten.
Interviewed all 20 members of the 1988 US Olympic Wrestling Team about their performances in the Seoul Olympics. Mental preparation strategies, precompetitive cognition, and affect were examined by having the wrestlers respond to a series of questions about their all-time best match, worst Olympic match, and most crucial Olympic match. Considerable consistency was found across wrestlers' responses regarding all-time best and worst Olympic matches whereas striking differences were found between the best and worst matches. For example, before best matches, wrestlers followed mental preparation plans and routines and were extremely confident, totally focused, and optimally aroused. They also focused on clear tactical strategies. Before worst matches, wrestlers were not confident, had inappropriate feeling states and experienced many task-irrelevant and negative thoughts, and deviated from preparation plans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined if mental skills and strategies such as high confidence, commitment, and the use of cooperative routines, as well as previously unexamined physical, social, and environmental factors affect Olympic performance. Athletes and coaches from 8 US Olympic teams were interviewed. Four teams met/exceeded performance expectations and 4 teams failed to perform up to performance predictions. Focus group interviews were conducted with 2 to 4 athletes from each team. Individual interviews were conducted with 1 or 2 coaches from each team. Differences existed between teams that met/exceeded performance expectations and teams that failed. Teams that met/exceeded expectations participated in resident training programs, experienced crowd and family or friend support, used mental preparation, and were highly focused and committed. Teams that failed to meet expectations experienced planning and team cohesion problems, lacked experience, faced travel problems, experienced coaching problems, and encountered problems related to focus and commitment. Results showed that achievement of peak performance at the Olympic Games is a complex and delicate process influenced by a variety of psychological, physical, social, and organizational factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
present a general overview of attribution theory with respect to the sport and physical activity literatures / a conceptual framework will be presented / this framework will be employed to discuss some sport and physical activity applications, methodological considerations, and future research directions
consider causal attributions and self-efficacy cognitions as process variables / the notion that these cognitions reciprocally determine each other will be pursued (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
theoretical approaches to the study of groups are outlined / findings from three of the most-researched topics within sport groups, namely, group size, group composition, and group cohesion, are presented / problems associated with the study of group dynamics are delineated / suggestions for avoiding or minimizing these "pitfalls" are advanced (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This is the 2nd in a series of articles reporting on a study (see record
1993-19763-001) involving interviews with all 20 members of the 1988 US Olympic Wrestling Team regarding their performances in the Seoul Olympics. The results of analyses of thoughts and affect occurring during competition were examined. The wrestlers responded to a series of questions about their all-time best match, worst Olympic match, and most crucial Olympic match. Considerable consistency was found across wrestler responses regarding best and worst matches whereas striking differences were found between best and worst matches. During best matches, wrestlers were extremely confident, totally focused, and optimally aroused. They also focused on clear tactical strategies. During worst matches, the wrestlers were not confident, had inappropriate feeling states, experienced many task-irrelevant and negative thoughts, and either deviated from strategic plans or made poor strategy choices. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Zusammenfassung Weder soziokulturelle Gegebenheiten, belastende Lebensereignisse noch zirkumskripte unbewute Konfliktkonstellationen reichen alleine zum Verstndnis der tiologie psychogener Estrungen aus. Die Verfasser betrachten die Erkrankung auf dem Hintergrund eines komplexen, sich wechselseitig bedingenden familiren Entwicklungsgefges (familiendynamische Verlaufsgestalt"). Dieses Modell wird dargestellt und an 89 Patientinnen empirisch berprft. Zwischen den beiden Patientengruppen mit Anorexia nervosa (n = 43) und Bulimia nervosa (n = 30) ergaben sich hinsichtlich der Hufigkeit der erwarteten familiren Konstellationen nur geringe Unterschiede, waren jedoch tendenziell ausgeprgter (p<0,10) im Vergleich zur Gruppe der Patienten mit atypischer Anorexia bzw. Bulimia nervosa (n = 16). Fr eine differenziertere klinische berprfung des vorgeschlagenen Entwicklungsmodells ist eine grere Patientenstichprobe erforderlich. Summary Neither sociocultural circumstances stressing live events nor circumscript unconscious conflict constellations alone can contribute to sufficient understanding of the etiology of psychogenic eating disorders. The authors discuss these disorders against the background of a complex and interdepending system of family development ("dynamic family-staging model"). This model was demonstrated and empirically proved in 89 patients. Between the two groups of patients with anorexia nervosa (n = 43) and bulimia nervosa (n = 30) the frequence of expected family constellations did not differ significantly, but had a more marked tendency (P<0.10) than in the group of patients with atypical anorexia or bulimia nervosa (n = 16). A greater patient sample is necessary for a more differentiated clinical investigation of the proposed developmental model.
Extensive in-depth interviews were conducted with all 20 members of the 1988 U.S. Olympic Wrestling Team regarding their efforts to cope with stress experienced during the Seoul Olympics. Qualitative analyses revealed that the wrestlers employed a variety of coping strategies including: (a) thought control strategies (blocking distractions, perspective taking, positive thinking, coping thoughts, and prayer), (b) task focus strategies (narrow, more immediate focus, concentrating on goals), (c) behavioral based strategies (changing or controlling the environment, following a set routine), and (d) emotional control strategies (arousal control, visualization). In accordance with the observations of Compas (1987) and Folkman and Lazarus (1985), the coping efforts of the Olympic wrestlers were not limited to particular strategies nor to single approaches to dealing with a particular stressor but, rather, reflected a dynamic complex process involving a number of strategies, often in combination. The results also suggested that the degree to which coping strategies are well learned or automatized is related to their perceived effectiveness.
The principal objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that acclimatization to moderate altitude (2,500 m) plus training at low altitude (1,250 m), "living high-training low," improves sea-level performance in well-trained runners more than an equivalent sea-level or altitude control. Thirty-nine competitive runners (27 men, 12 women) completed 1) a 2-wk lead-in phase, followed by 2) 4 wk of supervised training at sea level; and 3) 4 wk of field training camp randomized to three groups: "high-low" (n = 13), living at moderate altitude (2,500 m) and training at low altitude (1,250 m); "high-high" (n = 13), living and training at moderate altitude (2,500 m); or "low-low" (n = 13), living and training in a mountain environment at sea level (150 m). A 5,000-m time trial was the primary measure of performance; laboratory outcomes included maximal O2 uptake (VO2 max), anaerobic capacity (accumulated O2 deficit), maximal steady state (MSS; ventilatory threshold), running economy, velocity at VO2 max, and blood compartment volumes. Both altitude groups significantly increased VO2 max (5%) in direct proportion to an increase in red cell mass volume (9%; r = 0.37, P < 0.05), neither of which changed in the control. Five-kilometer time was improved by the field training camp only in the high-low group (13.4 +/- 10 s), in direct proportion to the increase in VO2 max (r = 0.65, P < 0.01). Velocity at VO2 max and MSS also improved only in the high-low group. Four weeks of living high-training low improves sea-level running performance in trained runners due to altitude acclimatization (increase in red cell mass volume and VO2 max) and maintenance of sea-level training velocities, most likely accounting for the increase in velocity at VO2 max and MSS.
Collective efficacy in sport
- D L Feltz
Feltz, D. L. (1994). Collective efficacy in sport. Journal ofSport and Exercise Psychology, 16(Suppl), 516.
K (1998) Positive and negativefactors influencing U.S. Olympic athletes and Gould. Greenleaf, Chung, and Guinan coaches: Atlanta Games assessment. Final grant report sub-mitted to the U.S. Olympic Committee Sport Science and Technology Division
- D Gould
- D Guinan
- D Greenleaf
- R Medbery
- M Strickland
- L Lauer
- Y Chung
- Peterson
Gould, D., Guinan, D., Greenleaf, D., Medbery, R, Strickland, M., Lauer, L., Chung, Y., & Peterson, K (1998) Positive and negativefactors influencing U.S. Olympic athletes and Gould. Greenleaf, Chung, and Guinan coaches: Atlanta Games assessment. Final grant report sub-mitted to the U.S. Olympic Committee Sport Science and Technology Division, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Greenleaf, C. A., Gould, D., & Dieffenbach, K. (2001). Fac-tors Influencing Olympic Performance: Interviews with Atlanta and Nagano U.S. Olympians. Journal of Applied SportPsychology, 13, 179-209.
Anaerobic and aerobic train-ing Training in sport:Ap-plying sport science Overtraining: The challenge of prevention
- T Reilly
Reilly, T, & Bangsbo,]. (1998). Anaerobic and aerobic train-ing. In B. Elliott &J. Mester (Eds.), Training in sport:Ap-plying sport science (pp. 351-409). Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons. United States Olympic Committee. (1998). Overtraining: The challenge of prevention. Olympic Coach, 8, 4-8.
Nutrition needs for team sport
- Williams
- C W Nicholas
Williams, c., & Nicholas, C. W. (1998). Nutrition needs for team sport. SportsScience Exchange, 11 (3, Serial No. 70).
Mental links to excellence. The SportPsychologist
- T Orlick
Orlick, T, & Partington.]. (1988). Mental links to excellence. The SportPsychologist, 2, 105-130.