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Conjunctivitis in birds
Abstract
There are numerous causative agents of avian conjunctivitis, many of which are associated with systemic disease. A thorough evaluation of the patient's history and habitat is mandatory, and a complete physical examination and ophthalmic examination are required. The owner should be informed at the initial visit that an orderly sequential approach for obtaining diagnostic specimens is required and that a protracted course of treatment may be required to bring about complete, long-lasting resolution of clinical signs.
... Two lacrimal puncta (Ostia canaliculi lacrimal) are present in raptors as in all birds and are located near the medial commissure of the lids, posterior to the lid margin. The puncta are best visualized by applying gentle outward traction to the medial canthus of the lids to view the region adjacent to the medial conjunctival fornix (Abrams et al. 2002). Puncta communicate via the lacrial canaliculi to the canalicular sac. ...
... The gross anatomy of the conjunctiva in birds is similar to that in mammals (Abrams et al. 2002). Mucilaginous cells are found in both the palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva, concentrated most heavily at the fornices (Bret A. Moore unpulished data). ...
... The bulbar conjunctiva adjacent to the limbus is more tightly adherent to the underlying sclera than it is in mammals. This fact makes subconjunctival injections and conjunctival surgery involving the conjunctiva more difficult to perform (Abrams et al. 2002). Eosinophils have been reported to be common in the epithelial layer and underlying connective tissue in barred owls (Jochems and Phillips 2015). ...
Birds of prey, also collectively known as raptors, consist of the Falconiformes (falcons and caracaras), Accipitriformes (eagles, buzzards, hawks, kites, and Old World vultures), Cathartiformes (New World vultures), Cariamiformes (seriemas), and Strigiformes (true owls Strigidae, and barn owls Tytonidae) (del Hoyo et al. 1999; Jarvis et al. 2014; McClure et al. 2019). Although grouped together as key apex predators, raptors are phylogenetically heterogenous assimilation with many morphological and ecological differences. Perhaps a most obvious example is revealed in their activity patterns, where most raptors are considered diurnal, except the owls, which are considered nocturnal, a habit they share with two other avian orders for which we have genome sequences (Caprimulgiformes and Apterygiformes) (Martin 1990; Mikkola 1983; Martin 2017; Zhan et al. 2013). However, the ferruginous pygmy owl Glaucidium brasilianum maintains some activity during the day and the snowy owl Bubo scandiacus hunts during the daytime, the American barn owl Tyto furcate is most active in twilight, the burrowing owl Athene cunicularia is cathemeral, and the stripped owl Asio clamator is crepuscular and nocturnal (del Hoyo et al. 1999; Martins and Egler 1990; Motta-Junior 2006; Motta-Junior et al. 2004; Sarasola and Santillan 2014; Martin 1986). Overall, as a group, owls actually exhibit a broad range of activity patterns and habitats (Bowmaker and Martin 1978; Braga 2006). Additionally, nearly one-third of falconiform species, as well as some accipitriformes species, maintain activity during the crepuscular period (Mitkus et al. 2018).
... There are numerous etiological factors causing conjunctivitis in birds which include bacterial infections (Chlamydia, mycobacterium, mycoplasma, etc.), fungal (Candida) and viral infections (pox, infectious bronchitis, etc.), trauma, exposure to high doses of ultraviolet light, vitamin-A deficiency, allergy reaction, foreign bodies or irritant and congenital such as microphthalmia in cockatiels (Doneley, 2016). A thorough history must be obtained, including housing conditions, source (wild caught or captive bred), temporal relationship of exposure to other birds, other species ofbirds that may be housed in close proximity to the patient, and whether any other birds in the owner's care similarly have been affected (Abrams et al., 2002). Broad-spectrum topical antibiotic therapy is indicated in cases of conjunctivitis due to infectious cause and it is more frequently accompanied with a concurrent disease (Mayer and Donnelly, 2012). ...
... The present clinical findings were in accordance with Abrams et al., (2002). As discussed by Abrams et al., (2002) and Mayer and Donnelly (2012), topical broad spectrum antibiotic therapy is proved to be the best for treating primary conjunctivitis. ...
... The present clinical findings were in accordance with Abrams et al., (2002). As discussed by Abrams et al., (2002) and Mayer and Donnelly (2012), topical broad spectrum antibiotic therapy is proved to be the best for treating primary conjunctivitis. Mather et al., 2002 cited that Gatifloxacin, which is the fourth generation fluoroquinolones, is a new weapon in the arsenal of ophthalmic antibiotics. ...
Conjunctivitis is inflammation of conjunctiva of eye. In recent times, it was found that Gatifloxacin is more safe and effective in treatment of acute form of conjunctivitis than with the same dose of ciprofloxacin. This article presents two case reports in birds wherein Gatifloxacin treatment was used for treatment of conjunctivitis. A female Aseel bird, 1 ½ years old and a Cockatiel bird, 1 year old was brought to the Avian and Exotic Pet Unit of Madras Veterinary College with the history of swollen eyes and off-feed for the past three days. The birds were
unable to open their eyes (right eye for Aseel; left eye for Cockatiel) for the past four days and the unaffected eyes were partially open. On examination of the affected eye, it was noticed that the eye was congested, swollen, crusting over the eyelid and had watery discharge from the eye. The condition was tentatively diagnosed for conjunctivitis. The birds were treated topically with Gatifloxacin eye drops @ 2 drops in the affected eye TA T.I.D for three days. In case of eye
discharge, using a clean wash cloth moistened with warm water, gently wiping off
the discharge was advised. In addition to this, multivitamin syrup was given to the
bird orally. The birds showed marked improvement after five days.
... Trauma is een van de belangrijkste onderliggende niet-infectieuze oorzaken van conjunctivitis bij roofvogels, maar wordt ook frequent waargenomen bij andere vogelsoorten (Abrams et al., 2002). Daarnaast kan ook de aanwezigheid van een vreemd voorwerp zoals zand of grasaren, chemicaliën zoals ammoniakdampen, tumoren, hypovitaminose A, excessief vederverzorgingsgedrag (vaak door kooigenoot) of anatomische afwijkingen, zoals entropion, aanleiding geven tot conjunctivitis (Abrams et al., 2002;Miles et al., 2006;Souza et al., 2009;Gelatt en Plummer, 2017). ...
... Trauma is een van de belangrijkste onderliggende niet-infectieuze oorzaken van conjunctivitis bij roofvogels, maar wordt ook frequent waargenomen bij andere vogelsoorten (Abrams et al., 2002). Daarnaast kan ook de aanwezigheid van een vreemd voorwerp zoals zand of grasaren, chemicaliën zoals ammoniakdampen, tumoren, hypovitaminose A, excessief vederverzorgingsgedrag (vaak door kooigenoot) of anatomische afwijkingen, zoals entropion, aanleiding geven tot conjunctivitis (Abrams et al., 2002;Miles et al., 2006;Souza et al., 2009;Gelatt en Plummer, 2017). ...
... en Cryptosporidium spp. en myiasis (Abrams et al., 2002;Dubey, 2002;Elias et al., 2008;Lopez et al., 2010;Church et al., 2013;Dunham et al., 2016). Veel van deze parasieten komen echter zelden voor in West-Europa en infecties worden vaak uitsluitend waargenomen bij in het wild levende dieren of in het wild gevangen dieren. ...
A five-year-old, female scaly-sided merganser was presented with a chronic recurrent conjunctivitis of the left eye. Physical examination showed a caseous nodular lesion at the palpebral conjunctiva associated with excessive tearing. Necropsy revealed caseous necrotic debris at the left conjunctiva and infra-orbital sinus, but also multiple granuloma in several internal organs. Histological examination showed granulomatous splenitis, hepatitis, arteritis, fibrinonecrotic enteritis and conjunctivitis, and also amyloidosis of liver and spleen. Bacterial and molecular tests of a conjunctival swab in the live animal showed the presence of a multiresistant Escherichia coli strain and Chlamydia psittaci, respectively. These bacteria had only a secondary pathogenic role. No premortem cytological examination or Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) staining of the histological section of the conjunctiva biopt or additional tests, such as blood test and radiographs, were performed. Finally, a Mycobacterium avium infection of the conjunctiva and internal organs was confirmed following necropsy by ZN staining and PCR analysis. Local and systemic antimicrobial treatments with fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines and aminoglycosides were unsuccessful.
... Trauma is een van de belangrijkste onderliggende niet-infectieuze oorzaken van conjunctivitis bij roofvogels, maar wordt ook frequent waargenomen bij andere vogelsoorten (Abrams et al., 2002). Daarnaast kan ook de aanwezigheid van een vreemd voorwerp zoals zand of grasaren, chemicaliën zoals ammoniakdampen, tumoren, hypovitaminose A, excessief vederverzorgingsgedrag (vaak door kooigenoot) of anatomische afwijkingen, zoals entropion, aanleiding geven tot conjunctivitis (Abrams et al., 2002;Miles et al., 2006;Souza et al., 2009;Gelatt en Plummer, 2017). ...
... Trauma is een van de belangrijkste onderliggende niet-infectieuze oorzaken van conjunctivitis bij roofvogels, maar wordt ook frequent waargenomen bij andere vogelsoorten (Abrams et al., 2002). Daarnaast kan ook de aanwezigheid van een vreemd voorwerp zoals zand of grasaren, chemicaliën zoals ammoniakdampen, tumoren, hypovitaminose A, excessief vederverzorgingsgedrag (vaak door kooigenoot) of anatomische afwijkingen, zoals entropion, aanleiding geven tot conjunctivitis (Abrams et al., 2002;Miles et al., 2006;Souza et al., 2009;Gelatt en Plummer, 2017). ...
... en Cryptosporidium spp. en myiasis (Abrams et al., 2002;Dubey, 2002;Elias et al., 2008;Lopez et al., 2010;Church et al., 2013;Dunham et al., 2016). Veel van deze parasieten komen echter zelden voor in West-Europa en infecties worden vaak uitsluitend waargenomen bij in het wild levende dieren of in het wild gevangen dieren. ...
A five-year-old, female scaly-sided merganser was presented with a chronic recurrent conjunctivitis of the left eye. Physical examination showed a caseous nodular lesion at the palpebral conjunctiva associated with excessive tearing. Necropsy revealed caseous necrotic debris at the left conjunctiva and infra-orbital sinus, but also multiple granuloma in several internal organs. Histological examination showed granulomatous splenitis, hepatitis, arteritis, fibrinonecrotic enteritis and conjunctivitis, and also amyloidosis of liver and spleen. Bacterial and molecular tests of a conjunctival swab in the live animal showed the presence of a multiresistant Escherichia coli strain and Chlamydia psittaci, respectively. These bacteria had only a secondary pathogenic role. No premortem cytological examination or Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) staining of the histological section of the conjunctiva biopt or additional tests, such as blood test and radiographs, were performed. Finally, a Mycobacterium avium infection of the conjunctiva and internal organs was confirmed following necropsy by ZN staining and PCR analysis. Local and systemic antimicrobial treatments with fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines and aminoglycosides were unsuccessful.
... Captive psittacines exhibit more infectious conjunctivitis than their free-ranging counterparts and can be caused by bacterial, fungal, viral, or parasitic infections (Abrams et al. 2002). Being the most commonly domesticated group of birds, recognition of the types of conjunctivitis is of utmost importance as many diseases can be considered zoonoses, transmissible to humans and other household pets, such as Chlamydophila psittaci infections (Lipman et al. 1994;de Freitas Raso et al. 2006). ...
... Abscesses are typically much more inspissated and caseous than periorbital abscesses in mammals and can be bilateral as described in an orange-winged Amazon parrot (Tully and Carter 1993). As a result, inspissated inflammatory foci in the supraorbital or infraorbital sinuses may need to be surgically removed through the skin in order to preserve vision and to get complete resolution of disease (Abrams et al. 2002). The approach for an infraorbital sinusotomy is midway between the medial canthus and the nare, and after exploration and irrigation the incision is either closed in a single layer or left open to heal by second intention (Morrisey 1997;Bowles et al. 2005). ...
Psittaciformes is an ancient order among modern birds, distributed across over 90 genera totaling nearly 400 species (Forshaw 1989; Sibley and Ahlquist 1990; Cracraft 2001; Nanda et al. 2007). Species are divided into three superfamilies. The Psittacoidea are considered true parrots and include macaws, parakeets, lories and lorikeets, budgerigars, Amazon and African gray parrots, among others. Cacatuoidea contains cockatoos and cockatiels. Strigopoidea consists of intriguing New Zealand parrots including keas (the only alpine parrot species), kakas, and kakapo (large, flightless, nocturnal parrots). Together Psittacines are found in every tropical region worldwide (Godoy 2007; Willis and Oniki 2003), with Brazil having the greatest number of representatives totaling about 85 different species (Sick and Pacheco 1997; Godoy 2007).
... respond well to specific medical treatments, in the case reported the presence of a granuloma in both the infraorbital sinuses did not allow to solve the problem with only pharmacological treatment and washings of the infraorbital sinuses [3,4]. ...
... However, it is also important to underline that in psittacids a diet based only on sunflower seeds associated to ocular problems should always orient the clinician at a hypovitaminosis A [1,2,3,4] as well as to an aspergillosis. In fact the aspergillus sp. ...
This case report describes a blepharoconjunctivitis associated with an infraorbital sinus granuloma in a 7 years female cockatiel. The animal was referred for a bilateral conjunctivitis, initially treated with a medical therapy that produced no improvement of clinical signs because of the presence of a suborbital mass. During the exploratory surgery the mass was compatible with a granuloma of infraorbital sinus. Unlucky , the recurrence of this granuloma needed some diagnostic exams to isolate the c cause of the mass and the correlated infection. The aim of this article is to underline the importance of a correct diagnostic approach and the need of a combination of a specific pharmacological treatment with a surgery to solve such a problem even if literature seems to suggest mainly a medical approach. Clinical case A 7 years old female cockatiel was referred to Veterinary hospital "Città di Palermo" Palermo (Italy), where first author have been worked as referral veterinarian for exotic animal, because of bilateral blephaconjunctivitis since one week and anorexia for few days. According to its medical history, its diet was based only on sunflower seeds. At the clinical examination, the parrot was cachectic and its feathers appeared in very bad condition. The periocular area was alopecic and, where present, feathers were wet and damaged due to epiphora and scratching. Moreover Blepharospasm, eyelid oedema, epiphora and a thick lump in the supraorbital part of both eyes were noticed (Figure 1). Figure 1: Cockatiel with blepharoconjunctivitis associated with swollen eye during its first visit. The eye are so swollen that cockatiel wasn't able to opening the eyelids Application of fluorescein in the conjunctival sac didn't reveal any ulcera as well as occlusion of the lacrimal duct. From the crop was isolated Trichomonas sp. while from the conjunctiva was isolated Pseudomonas Aueruginosa sensitive to Amikacin, Piperacillin and Ceftazidime. Trichomonas sp, although is a common finding in the gastroenteric system, is able to spread in the air sacs thought the choanes [5]. Based on clinical and laboratory findings the animal was treated with: •metronidazole 25 mg/kg twice a day for 3 weeks to treat trichomoniasis, •ceftazidime IM a 100 mg/kg q8hours for 3 weeks according to the colture and sensitivity test, •tobramycin ophthalmic solution 1 drop q8hours for 2 weeks, •piroxicam ophthalmic solution 1 drop twice a day for 2 weeks, •washing of nostrils and infraorbital sinuses and aerosol with thiamphenicol glycinate acetylcysteine in order to fluidify the secretions responsible for the lacrimal duct obstruction twice a week for 2 weeks. Based on clinical suspects the animal was treated with: •doxycycline 50 mg/kg q7die for 4 weeks for a suspected Chlamydophila psittaci infection as the owner doesn't allow to test for it. •vitamin A 2000 UI//kg orally for 10 days for a suspected hypovitaminosis due to wrong diet. Moreover a pellet diet was introduced. After two weeks of treatment, the cockatiel was feeding by its own with pellet diet gaining weight but the swelling of the eyes were still present. Therefore an explorative surgery was performed to determine the origin of such swelling. Induction of anesthesia was performed with midazolam 0.1 mg/ kg and butorphanole 1 mg/kg injection in pectoral muscles and once intubated, the anesthesia was maintained by a mixture of oxygen 0.5 L/ min and 2 % isoflurane. The skin was disinfected with 4 % chlorhexidine and a 1 cm incision was performed on both supraorbital masses on the dorsal surface of the upper eyelid. Under the incisions the presence of a peanut sized granuloma were reveled. Surgical incisions were left open to allow further washings as well as to grant drainage (Figure 2,3).
... Oxyspirura mansoni, the eyeworm of poultry, is a nematode widely distributed in many tropical and subtropical countries (Islam et al. 1995;Lee et al. 2006;De Chirinos et al. 2009). O. mansoni has been reported in a wide variety of avian orders: Anseriformes, Falconiformes, Galliformes, Columbiformes, and Passeriformes (Ransom 1904;Schwabe 1951;Chirinos & Godoy 1999;Abrams et al. 2002;Vellayan et al. 2012). ...
... The eggs are then swallowed by the bird, transported through the digestive tract, and eliminated through feces. The eggs are ingested by the cockroaches, and incubated in their digestive system (Abrams et al. 2002). ...
The current report addresses the finding of ocular filariosis in a domestic adult hen, raised in a backyard, in a community near La Silla River, south Nuevo Leon, in Mexico. The hen was submitted to a veterinary practice due to weakness and diarrhea. During necropsy, three nematodes were found underneath the nictitating membranes in both of the bird's eyes. The nematodes were identified as Oxyspirura mansoni. The diagnostic was confirmed when the intermediate host of O. mansoni, the Surinam cockroach (Pycnoscelus surinamensis), was found in the hen's living environment.
... Additionally, ophthalmic signs of enophthalmos, reduced palpebral fissure, and paleness can be indicators of general systemic unwellness. Conjunctivitis in Passeriformes is quite common and can be caused by many other viral and bacterial organisms, including Herpesvirus (Mueller 1990;Macwhirter 1994;Dorrestein 2009;Desmidt et al. 1989;Paulman et al. 2006), cytomegalovirus (Macwhirter 1994;Dorrestein 2009 (Kern 1997;Abrams et al. 2002). Parasitic conjunctivitis by nematodes (Thelazia spp., Oxyspirura spp., Setaria spp., and Ceratospira spp.) and trematodes (Philophthalmus lucipetus, P. gralli, P. hegeneri, P. larsoni) can also occur (Greve 1986;Kern 1997;Literak et al. 2013;Hunter and Quay 1953;Kern and Colitz 2013;Nollen and Murray 1978;Penner and Fried 1963;Penner and Trimble 1970). ...
Passerines comprise over 50% of the known avian species on Earth, with over 6000 species in greater than 110 families distributed worldwide except for Antarctica (Barker et al. 2004). Classified as the “perching birds,” Passeriformes are able to perch on vertical surfaces (i.e., trees) owed to having an anisodactyl toe arrangement, that is, having three toes directed forward and a fourth directed backward. They are generally small but range from only a few grams (short-tailed pygmy tyrant Myiornis ecaudatus) to nearly 1.5 kg (Raven, Corvus corax). Most species are omnivores, with their diets varying seasonally (i.e., increasing insect consumption during the breeding season), although there are some primarily carnivorous species (e.g., shrikes).
... In addition, neoplasia, trauma and hypovitaminosis A can also cause lesions in the conjunctiva. The history and the clinical examination of the affected birds as well as the results of the histopathological and bacteriological examinations were essential to differentiate avian mycobacteriosis from other reported diseases [25][26][27][28]. The smears stained with Ziehl-Neelsen from the lesions of the eyelids confirmed the disease. ...
In this report, cases of avian mycobacteriosis in two lofts of racing pigeons are described. Three racing pigeons of 2-year old from the first loft (A) and four racing pigeons of 4–5 years old from the second loft (B) were submitted to the Unit of Avian Medicine for clinical examination and necropsy. In the case history chronic and debilitating disease was reported. The clinical signs included emaciation, depression, lameness, periorbital swelling and diarrhea, although the appetite was normal. Post mortem lesions involved an enlarged spleen with multiple different sized yellow nodules. Similar lesions were also observed in the liver, conjunctiva of the inferior eyelids and in the femoral bone marrow. The suspicion of avian mycobacteriosis was based on history, clinical signs and typical lesions. In order to confirm the diagnosis, histopathology was performed on tissue sections and revealed the presence of multiple granulomas with central necrosis. In addition, Ziehl-Neelsen positive bacilli were observed in histological sections and smears from the granulomas of the affected tissues. Molecular analysis identified the causative agent as Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium. This is the first case report of avian mycobacteriosis in Greece, which describes the presence of granulomatous conjunctivitis and the molecular identification of M. avium subsp. avium as the causative agent in racing pigeons.
... Conjunctivitis is a common ocular lesion in pet birds, and Pseudomonas sp. has been reported as a common bacterial causal agent of this disease. 1,26 Here, 3-day therapy with ophthalmic and oral antimicrobial medication (Zooserinet pills, Avizoon, 2625-451 Forte da Casa, Portugal) did not improve the condition. Even when moist diets are not used for feeding pekin robin chicks, the larvae of some insects, such as bees, possess considerable moisture content 4,10 and must be adequately prepared in advance. ...
Pekin robins (Leiothrix lutea) were once the most widely kept softbills in captivity. As a result of the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES-1997), the worldwide trade of wild-caught pekin robins has been prohibited due to the depletion of native populations of this species. In Brazil, as in other countries, pekin robins imported prior to the enactment of the CITES have disappeared from aviaries because the end of the birds' natural life span has passed, and only very few captive-bred pekin robins now exist. While captive propagation fails to address the primary causes of wild bird population decline, it might help the recovery of populations of this species. This article presents records made over a 10-yr period of a captive colony of pekin robins. Emphasis is placed on the management of the flock, the ailments affecting the birds, and the findings associated with bird losses. The main causes of bird losses included rearing management failures and age-related disorders.
Avian ocular disease may be primary or a manifestation of systemic disease. Various infectious and noninfectious diseases have been reported to cause ocular pathology. Thorough physical examination and diagnostic testing are necessary to determine a treatment plan.
Like other animals pet and companion birds are also prone to systemic illness. This is presented in the form of certain clinical signs and symptoms which is known as “sick-bird
syndrome.”
This quick reference handbook covers the diagnosis and treatment of eye disease in a range of exotic companion animal species, including rabbits, rodents, reptiles, birds, amphibians and fish. It clarifies when extrapolation from cat or dog eyes is appropriate, or when new information is needed to ensure that diagnoses and treatments are appropriate for the particular species. Writing in an accessible and down to earth style, the author brings a wealth of personal experience to this specialised subject area. The book contains many ophthalmic photographs of both anatomy in normal eyes and pathology in abnormal cases. It also includes a separate chapter on the common ophthalmic features of exotic pets, discussing what can be learnt from cross-species comparison and another chapter giving a brief history of comparative ophthalmology. Ophthalmology of Exotic Pets is an invaluable aid for veterinary practitioners and students with an interest in exotic pet species, as well as for veterinary ophthalmologists. KEY FEATURES Covers lagomorphs, rodents, reptiles, birds, amphibians and fish Offers clear guidance for species-specific treatment Facilitates extrapolations from the cat or dog to the exotic eye Written in a concise quick reference format Highly illustrated with colour photographs.
An umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua alba) was presented with a keratoconjunctivitis of 9 months' duration that was refractory to antibacterial and antifungal treatments. Microsporidian-type spores were observed in calcofluor M2R-stained cytological preparations of debrided corneal epithelium. Hematoxylin and eosin-stained sections of a conjunctival biopsy also showed a small number of intracellular parasites. Microsporidial DNA was detected by polymerase chain reaction in DNA extracted from the remaining biopsy material. Sequence analysis of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene identified the microsporidium as Encephalitozoon hellem. The cockatoo was treated with oral albendazole for 3 months with resolution of the signs, and then again for 4 months when the signs returned. Since then, the bird has remained healthy for 2 years. This is the second report of a microsporidial keratoconjunctivitis in a bird, and the first report of an E. hellem infection in a cockatoo. Ophthalmologists should consider E. hellem as a possible cause of a keratoconjunctivitis in parrots that is refractory to treatment with traditional antimicrobials.
The purpose of this retrospective study was to identify the types and causes of disorders that primarily or specifically afflict the membrana nictitans of birds. Seventeen wild, domestic, and pet exotic birds examined by the Ophthalmology Services at three institutional referral centers were identified with lesions of the third eyelid. Lesions were unilateral in 16 birds. Traumatic injury, with (three birds) and without (four birds) an associated foreign body, was the predominant cause of lesions. Neoplasia, presumed dystrophic mineralization, and inflammation with or without infection were equally represented (three birds each). One probable congenital malformation was identified. We conclude that although many specific and nonspecific external ocular disorders incidentally involve the membrana nictitans to a minor degree, clinically important primary disorders of the third eyelid seem distinctly uncommon in birds.
This paper describes an outbreak of ocular candidiasis in ornamental ducks kept privately in Norfolk. Ocular signs included small lesions on the nictitating membrane, keratitis and intraocular infection. A method of successful treatment is given and attention is drawn to the importance of an abnormal environment in the pathogenesis of this condition.
Mycoplasmal conjunctivitis is an emerging disease of wild house finches and other songbirds. This article provides background information on the epidemiology of mycoplasmal conjunctivitis gathered through a unique collaboration of veterinarians, ornithologists, and concerned citizens. The relevance of this disease to the recognition and treatment of mycoplasmal diseases in companion birds is also discussed.
An adult male wompoo fruit-dove (Ptilinopus magnificus) was examined because of repeated facial trauma that was first observed and evaluated 3 months previously. On physical examination, the upper eyelid was swollen and one nematode was observed on the cornea. Topical anesthesia of the eye facilitated removal of three adult female and one adult male ocular nematodes. The dove was treated with a topical ophthalmologic preparation of ivermectin and recovered uneventfully. The ocular nematodes were examined morphologically and identified as Ceratospira inglisi. This parasite is rarely observed in birds, and its life cycle has not been determined.
Thirty-seven house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) with conjunctivitis were admitted to a rehabilitation center. Six (35%) of 17 conjunctival swab samples collected before treatment began were positive on culture for Mycoplasma gallisepticum. All birds were treated with ciprofloxacin hydrochloride ophthalmic solution (one drop in each eye [OU] q12h) for 5 to 7 days and tylosin tartrate in water (1 mg/ml) as the sole source of drinking water for 21 to 77 days. Conjunctivitis was resolved in all birds after therapy was completed (60 to 177 days). Conjunctival swab samples from all birds collected after treatment and submitted for culture were negative for M. gallisepticum. Two (11%) of the 18 conjunctival swab samples collected after treatment were positive for M. gallisepticum by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Serum samples from 2 (5.4%) other of the 37 birds were antibody positive for M. gallisepticum by serum plate agglutination; serum samples from these two birds were antibody negative when retested 22 days later. No gross lesions were found at necropsy in 16 house finches that had been treated, including the birds that tested positive by PCR or serum plate agglutination. Tissue samples of conjunctiva, choanae, infraorbital sinus, trachea, lungs, air sacs, and reproductive organs collected at necropsy were negative for mycoplasma by culture (n = 16) and PCR (n = 15). We did not find evidence of M. gallisepticum infection in house finches after treatment with tylosin tartrate administered orally and ciprofloxacin hydrochloride ophthalmic solution applied topically.
The third eyelid, or membrana nictitans, is well developed in all avian species, and normal function of the third eyelid is necessary for maintaining a healthy ocular surface. Two cranes and a lovebird were presented for evaluation of unilateral third eyelid lacerations that compromised movement of the third eyelid. The lacerations were repaired using microsurgical techniques, with emphasis placed on identifying the pyramidalis tendon and marginal plait, determining their integrity, and ensuring proper mobility of the third eyelid. One bird had a full-thickness laceration of the pyramidalis tendon that required reattachment. All three birds regained normal function of the third eyelid, and the development of secondary corneal disease was prevented. Surgical reconstruction of third eyelid lacerations is strongly recommended because of the integral role played by the third eyelid in maintaining a normal ocular surface.
An epidemic of conjuctivitis and respiratory distress among captive Australian finches is reported. The mortality rate was approximately 70 percent. Characteristic clinical signs included severe conjunctivitis, dyspnea, depression and anorexia. Light microscopy revealed numerous basophilic intranuclear inclusions in karyomegalic epithelial cells of conjunctiva, esophagus and conducting respiratory tracts. Upon ultrastructural examination of the conjunctiva, numerous viral particles were seen in the epithelial cells, manifesting the characteristic cytomegalovirus morphogenesis.
Some species in Subuluridae, Thelaziidae and Ascaridiidae are discussed. Subulara helicospicula sp.nov. from malcohas and a bulbul from Borneo is described. It differs from other species in having long, unequal spicules which are helical throughout their distal half. Allodapa suctoria (Molin, 1860) Seurat, 1914, is reported from several species of birds from Taiwan, Borneo and Palawan. A. turnicis (Maplestone, 1931) Inglis, 1958, was found in the button quail, Turnix sustator on Palawan.
Thelazia digiticauda Schuurmans-Steckhoven, 1937, is redescribed from specimens recovered from the eyes of a ruddy kingfisher, Halcyon coromanda from Taiwan. Ceratospira inglisi sp.nov. from a cockatoo in Palawan and a pigeon in Borneo differs in spicule size from the three species so far described. Oxyspirura {Y.) mansoni (Cobbold, 1879) Skrjabin, 1931, was recovered from bamboo partridges, Bambusicola thoracica, from Taiwan, and Oxyspirura (0.) popawi Skrjabin , 1929, was found in the eyes of a swallow, Hirundo daurica in Taiwan.
Ascaridia columbae (Gmelin, 1790) Travassos, 1913, was common in a variety of pigeons in Borneo and Palawan, and A. subaequalis (Wehr, 1930) was found in the lesser coucal, Centropus bengalensis in Taiwan and in a common coucal, C. sinensis in Palawan.
This report describes an outbreak of Staphylococcal dermatitis which occurred in commercial Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) with a history and clinico-pathological evidence suggestive of pantothenic acid deficiency. The flock had a low hatchability rate (40 to 43%) and a high percentage (50%) of dead-in-shell embryos. Approximately 5 to 15% of the grower flock developed crusty facial scabs and conjunctivitis from 4 days of age. Culture of eyelid skin yielded pure growths of non-haemolytic, coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp. Histological examination revealed a generalised hyperkeratosis and parakeratosis of feathers, feather follicles and non-follicular skin. There was invasion of feather follicles by cocci and focal areas of suppurative exudative dermatitis and subcutaneous abscesses particularly in the eyelids and commissures of the beak. Clinical signs were alleviated by treatment with amoxycillin and a change in ration formulation.
A total of 100 eyes from newly hatched and young domestic ducklings were swabbed and the bacterial flora determined by standard bacteriological culture methods. Of the total number of bacteria isolated, 57% were gram negative suggesting that the majority were derived from the intestinal flora. Only 2% of the eyes sampled showed no bacterial growth. The bacterial species most commonly cultured were Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Acinetobacter anitratus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, non-haemolytic Streptococci, micrococcus spp., a-haemolytic Streptococci and Acinetobacter lwoffii. More than one bacterial species was found in the majority of eyes. A. anitratus was isolated almost exclusively from 1 day old ducklings while A. lwoffii was mainly isolated from pen-reared ducklings. Chlamydia psittaci was not isolated from any of the conjunctivae sampled.
The clinical manifestations of three cases of infection with NAD (V-factor)-requiring Haemophilus-like bacteria in psittacines are described. Case 1 involved members of the Platycercus family and produced mainly respiratory signs. In case 2 only conjunctivitis was seen among cockatiels. The third case was a hand-reared African grey parrot which developed a peracute septicaemia. The Haemophilus-like bacteria isolated from the three cases differed from each other as well as from the known avian NAD-requiring Haemophilus and Pasteurella species.
Three Red‐cheeked Cordon‐blue (Uraeginthus bengalus) showed a disease characterised by degeneration, giant cell formation, intranuclear inclusion‐bodies and inflammatory response in syrinx, primary bronchus and conjunctiva. Inclusions contained typical herpesvirus particles. Resume Trois Cordons‐bleus à joues rouges (Uraeginthus bengalus) ont été atteints d'une maladie caractérisée par de la dégénérescence, la formation de celules géantes, des corps d'inclusions intranucléaires et une inflammation du syrinx et des premières bronches ainsi qu'une conjonctivite. Les inclusions contenaient des particules typiques d'herpèsvirus. Zusammenfassung Drei Schmetterlingsastrilde (Uraeginthus bengalus) zeigten eine Krankheit, die durch Degeneration, Riesenzellbildung, intranukläre Einschlußkörperchen und entzündliche Reaktion in Syrinx, Primärbronchus und Konjunktiva gekennzeichnet war. Die Einschlußkörperchen enthielten typische Herpesviruspartikel. Resumen Tres cordón azul de mejilla roja (Uraeginthus bengalus) mostraron un proceso caracterizado por degeneración, formanión de células gigantes, cuerpos de inclusión intranucleares y una respuesta inflamatoria en la siringe, bronquios primarios y la conjuntiva ocular. Las inclusiones contenían partículas de herpesvirus típicas.
Avian pox was determined to be the cause of death of a spectacled Amazon parrot (Amazona albifrons). Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies were visualized by light microscopy in esophageal and bronchial epithelial lesions. Electron microscopy revealed pox-virus virions in the inclusions.
During a 6-week period at the San Diego Zoo, avian pox occurred in 9 pheasants representing 5 species. Lesions were limited to facial skin and consisted of epithelial cell hyperplasia, secondary inflammatory changes, and intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion bodies which, by electron microscopy, were shown to contain pox virus. The disease was self-limiting in 7 pheasants, but 2 pheasants died. Free-ranging Indian red junglefowl were implicated as the source of the infection.
An outbreak of avian pox was detected among captive peacocks (Pavo cristatus) at Baghdad Zoological Park during spring, 1978. A total of 45 of the 60 birds in the aviary developed pox lesions around the beaks and eyes. Morbidity was 75% and mortality was 13%. A virus isolated from the skin lesions produced large plaques on the chorioallantoic membrane of developing chicken embryos and induced cytopathic effect characteristic for pox viruses in chicken embryo cell cultures. The virus neither haemagglutinated nor haemadsorbed to chicken erythrocytes. It was ether resistant and chloroform sensitive. Chickens inoculated with the virus by scarification developed localized pox-like lesions, while turkeys had only transient swelling of feather follicles at the site of inoculation. Virus partially purified with Genetron 113 was precipitated by antisera to fowlpox and pigeon pox viruses.
A previously undescribed species of hemolytic Actinobacillus was isolated from six waterfowl, three with periocular serous exudation and two with airsacculitis and bronchopneumonia. Cultural and biochemical characteristics were compared with those of Actinobacillus and Pasteurella spp, using a numerical technique.
A bilateral conjunctivitis in a pet parrot (Amazona versicolor) is reported. Aeromonas hydrophila was isolated in pure culture from both eyes and considered of diagnostic significance. Biochemical characteristics and antimicrobial susceptibility of the strain were studied, as were the factors that could have contributed to the clinical conjunctivitis and the role of A. hydrophila as an opportunistic pathogen. /// Se reporta una conjuntivitis bilateral en un loro (Amazona versicolor). Una cepa de Aeromonas hydrophila fue aislada en cultivo puro a partir de los dos ojos y se consideró de significancia diagnóstica. Se estudiaron las características bioquímicas y la susceptibilidad antimicrobiana de la cepa, como también los factores que podrían haber contribuido a la presentación de la conjuntivitis clínica y el papel de la A. hydrophila como un agente patógeno oportunista.
Seven of 30 canaries in an aviary in New Zealand developed ophthalmic problems. Clinically, 5 birds had unilateral and 2 birds had bilateral lesions characterized by conjunctivitis, crusty exudates on eyelids, and collapse of the eyeball. Microscopic lesions in 12 of 14 eyes examined included inflammation of the choroid and retina, with osseous replacement of the globe in some. Numerous Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites were seen in the detached retina and vitreous humor of acutely affected birds. The diagnosis of toxoplasmosis was confirmed by immunohistochemical staining with T gondii antiserum. Affected birds had encephalitis, and T gondii was localized in the brains of these by immunohistochemical examination and by use of bioassays in mice. Toxoplasmosis should be considered in differential diagnosis of ophthalmitis in canaries.
Cutaneous tumour-like growths were observed on the face and other areas of the body surface of young Chilean flamingos. In the cells of these lesions, avian pox-specific cytoplasmic inclusion bodies were observed by light microscopy and virus particles were detected under an electron-microscope. It was diagnosed as avian pox.
The present paper describes a previously unrecorded conjunctivitis of unknown etiology in the budgerigar. Clinical observation reveals close parallels with "cockatiel conjunctivitis". This disease of the cockatiel is often associated with respiratory symptoms. Clinical and pathological features, as well as therapy of the disease are discussed.
From liver, lung, and kidney of a dead sparrow with signs of conjunctivitis a cytopathic agent was isolated in chicken embryo cell culture which was identified as a poxvirus by electron microscopy. From its growth characteristics in avian and mammalian cell culture it was concluded to belong to the genus avipox virus.
Isolierung eines Pockenvirus von einem Sperling (Passer domesticus)
Von einem auf dem Gelände des Instituts für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten der Tiere in Gießen tot aufgefundenen Sperling mit Anzeichen einer Konjunktivitis konnte aus Leber, Niere und Lunge ein für Hühnerembryo- und Entenembryo-Zellkulturen zytopathogenes Agenz isoliert werden, das sich elektronenmikroskopisch als Pockenvirus erwies. Da das Virus nur in Hühner- und Entenembryo-Zellkulturen, nicht jedoch in primären und permanenten Säugetier-Zellkulturen einen zytopathogenen Effekt hervorrief, wurde es dem Genus Avipoxvirus zugeordnet.
In Hinblick auf die mögliche Bedeutung des Befundes für die Übertragung von Pockenviren durch Sperlinge auf Hausgeflügel sind weitere Untersuchungen mit dem Isolat vorgesehen.
Avian pox has been reported in at least 60 species of birds belonging to 20 different families. However, poxvirus infection in birds of prey is apparently uncommon. On 18 May 1981, an adult male red-tailed hawk was found on the US Department of Energy's Arid Land Ecology Reserve in Benton County, Washington. The bird was incapable of flight and was extremely thin. Nodular proliferations were noted on both feet and cutaneous scab-like lesions around the beak and eyes. The bird was killed in the field and submitted promptly to the diagnostic laboratory for necropsy. This report of pox infection in a free-living adult red-tailed hawk represents one of the few such cases reported in the US. The potential for spread of the virus to other hawks may occur particularly during the nesting season when an infected adult could conceivably pass the virus to a mate and nestlings by direct contact or fomites. Little is known of the natural of avian pox infection in birds of prey. In other birds it is generally considered mild and self-limiting; however, eye lesions resulting in impaired vision may lead to starvation.
In an aviary housing 200 six-month-old canaries, 165 became ill and 145 died over a 6-week period from a disease initially characterized by lethargy, ruffled feathers, open-mouth breathing, and death in 2 to 3 days. Proliferative "pox-like" lesions around the eyes and mouth were not seen until the 4th week. At necropsy, initially affected birds had cloudy air sacs and patchy pneumonia. Histologically, the lungs had proliferative necrotizing bronchitis. Birds necropsied later had proliferative skin lesions and intracytoplasmic inclusions typical of poxvirus in the epidermis and airway epithelium. A virus was isolated from an organ pool of lung, air sac, liver, and skin of affected birds and was identified by electron microscopy as poxvirus.
Multiple outbreaks of acute severe fibrinopurulent lesions of the eyelids occurred in chickens and turkeys. Lesions began as tiny foci of epidermal necrosis and ulceration and spread to involve the entire eyelid. Scabs overlying the epidermis contained large gram-positive cocci; lesser numbers of small cocci and gram-negative bacilli were in more superficial areas. Staphylococcus hyicus was isolated from birds in all stages of the disease. Escherichia coli and Streptococcus sp. were isolated only during severe stages; no anaerobic bacterial pathogens were isolated. Vasculitis and perivascular lymphocytic infiltrates in deep layers of the dermis suggested that a staphylococcal toxin may have been involved. The disease was not reproduced by scarifying S. hyicus onto the eyelids or by intravenous inoculation of retrovirus-infected chickens.
The paper presents 6 cases of paramyxovirus infections which are very rare or until now not described as isolations from these species of bird.
Two virus isolates were obtained from exotic finches (Ortygospiza atricollis and Poephila cincta) suffering from apathy, diarrhea, conjunctivitis, and dysphagia. The isolates were identified as paramyxoviruses based on their multiplication characteristics in embryonating chicken eggs, chicken embryo fibroblasts, and chicken embryo kidney cell cultures, on morphology upon electron microscopy, and on other biological properties. Both isolates were serologically related to the reference strain of the paramyxovirus serotype 3. Intravenous infection of 42-day-old chicks resulted in no clinical signs, but intracerebral infection of 1-day-old chicks resulted in mortality and intracerebral pathogenicity indices of 0.25 to 0.35. Of five finches from various species inoculated with isolate 840/85, three remained clinically healthy through 6 weeks, but two died: one (Poephila cincta) 5 days postinoculation after showing nervous distress, and the other (Amandava amandava) suddenly 42 days postinoculation.
The occurrence and aetiological significance of Aspergillus fumigatus, an opportunistic pathogen, have been studied in 93 animals with various ophthalmological problems. A total of 93 eye swabs collected from 35 mules, 26 dogs, 13 fowl, 11 cattle, five buffaloes and three camels were investigated mycologically for the presence of A fumigatus. The pathogen was isolated in pure and heavy growth from the swabs from two dogs, one bull, one mule and one fowl. The fungus was also demonstrated directly in clinical material by the potassium hydroxide technique. A fumigatus could not be cultured from the buffaloes and camels. All the five cases had been treated with broad spectrum antibiotics and cortisone and two had received traumatic injury to the eyes (one mule and a bull). The organism was not isolated in pure culture from the conjunctival swabs of 22 apparently healthy animals (11 dogs, six mules, three fowl and two cattle). Many other saprophytic fungi were recovered in mixed cultures but were considered to be contaminants. The clinical signs and diagnostic criteria of oculomycosis have been discussed.
Blindness from conjunctivitis caused by Actinobacillus suis was found in a Canada goose (Branta canadensis) from a wildlife refuge in Kentucky. Lesions were not observed elsewhere and other body organs were grossly normal. Actinobacillus spp. in birds is rare and this is apparently the first report of conjunctivitis resulting from this infection in waterfowl.
We removed a trematode of the species Philophthalmus from under the left upper eyelid of a 66-year-old man who had follicular conjunctivitis for three weeks. After removal of the parasite, the conjunctivitis resolved.
The epidemiology, clinical features and diagnostic procedures of pox in racing pigeons over a three year period are described. The incidence rate coincides with the racing season, and the disease is characterised by the appearance of swellings on the unfeathered portions of the body especially near the eyes and beak, interfering with sight and feeding. The morbidity rate is high, with a variable mortality rate mainly associated with secondary trichomoniasis. Histological sections of lesions reveal typical intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies. The causal virus is readily isolated in chick embryos.
An outbreak of avian pox, with an estimated 12-fold increase in the incidence of infection, occurred among wild bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) in the southwestern Georgia/northcentral Florida region. The outbreak was first detected in July, 1978, and continued at least until March, 1979. During this period, 26 separate clinical case accessions involving 43 bobwhites from 8 counties in Florida and Georgia were diagnosed as avian pox. A survey of 2,586 bobwhites from 6 southeastern states revealed avian pox infections in 312 bobwhites from Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, and Tennessee. Seventy-seven percent of the infected birds in the survey had only mild lesions on the legs and feet; however, 23% had more extensive lesions on the head. Severely affected birds had lesions around the eyes, nares, and in the mouth which impaired vision, respiration, and/or feeding. Infection rates were not related to age or sex of the birds but varied greatly among locales, even on adjoining properties. A morbidity rate of approximately 2% and a mortality rate between 0.6 and 1.2% were estimated for a 13,000 km2 region in Georgia and Florida.