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Bacterial water quality in the personal bottles of elementary students

DOI:10.1007/BF03404571
Authors:
J A Oliphant
J A Oliphant
J A Oliphant
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M. Cathryn Ryan at The University of Calgary
M. Cathryn Ryan
Angus Chu at The University of Calgary
Angus Chu
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Abstract

Samples of drinking water were collected directly from the personal water bottles of students at an elementary school in Calgary, Alberta. Total and fecal coliforms and heterotrophic bacteria were enumerated using membrane filtration and agar plate count methods respectively. The Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines (CWQG) criterion was exceeded for total coliform in 13.3% of 75 samples. Fecal coliform and total heterotrophic criteria were exceeded in 8.9% (of 68 samples) and 64.4% (of 76 samples) respectively. The use of personal water bottles for students in elementary classrooms is not recommended.
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Bacterial Water Quality in the
Personal Water Bottles of
Elementary Students
J.A. Oliphant,
BSc
1
M.C. Ryan, PhD, PGeol, PEng
2
A. Chu, PhD
1
ABSTRACT
Background: Samples of drinking water were collected directly from the personal water
bottles of students at an elementary school in Calgary, Alberta.
Methods: Total and fecal coliforms and heterotrophic bacteria were enumerated using
membrane filtration and agar plate count methods respectively.
Results: The Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines (CWQG) criterion was
exceeded for total coliform in 13.3% of 75 samples. Fecal coliform and total heterotrophic
criteria were exceeded in 8.9% (of 68 samples) and 64.4% (of 76 samples) respectively.
Findings: The use of personal water bottles for students in elementary classrooms is not
recommended.
P
ersonal water bottles are commonly
used in schools and in the work-
place. An elementary school in
Calgary, Alberta recommended that stu-
dents keep personal water bottles at their
desks throughout the school day. In the
absence of official instruction regarding
bottle washing, some students brought
clean water bottles on a daily basis, while
others continually refilled the same water
bottle for months without washing it. The
objective of this study was to assess the
bacteriological water quality in personal
water bottles taken from the desks of stu-
dents at this school in Calgary.
METHODS
Sampling was conducted to collect repre-
sentative samples of water that the students
were drinking. Any available water present
in an individual student’s water bottle was
transferred into sterile (autoclaved at
230
o
C for 20 minutes) polypropylene bot-
tles for lab analysis. Three separate class-
rooms were sampled over a one-week peri-
od. In total, 76 samples were collected
directly from student water bottles, with
sample volumes ranging from 10 to 500
mL. In addition, source water samples
were collected from each of thee classroom
sinks and two drinking water fountains
located in the school hallways. All water
samples were stored at 4°C and analyzed
within 18 hours of collection.
Heterotrophic bacteria were quantified
using Heterotrophic Plate Counts (HPC)
1
on standard HPC plate count media.
Coliform bacteria were analyzed using
Standard Membrane Filtration (MF)
1
techniques and m-Endo (total coliform)
and m-FC (fecal coliform) media.
RESULTS
Significant levels of coliform bacteria were
found in water from the students’ personal
water bottles (Table I). Of the 76 samples
analyzed for total coliforms, 10 (13.3%)
contained >10 cfu/100mL. Fecal coliforms
were enumerated at >1 cfu/100mL in 6 of
68 samples analyzed (8.9%).
Heterotrophic bacteria concentrations
were also elevated. Heterotrophic plate
counts are used as an overall indicator of
the bacterial quality of water supplies.
Drinking water guidelines (>500 cfu/mL)
were exceeded in water collected from
La traduction du résumé se trouve à la fin de l’article.
1. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB
2. Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Calgary
Correspondence and reprint requests: M.C. Ryan, Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Tel: 403-220-2739, Fax: 403-284-0074, E-mail:
ryan@geo.ucalgary.ca
Acknowledgements: The authors thank the elementary school participating in this study, and Dr. T.
Lambert of the Environmental Health Division, Calgary Regional Health Authority, for his assistance
in water sampling.
366 REVUE CANADIENNE DE SANTÉ PUBLIQUE VOLUME 93, NO. 5
SEPTEMBER – OCTOBER 2002 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH 367
ELEMENTARY STUDENTS’ WATER QUALITY
64.4% of the bottles. These high het-
erotrophic counts may indicate the effect
of bacterial regrowth in bottles that have
remained at room temperature for an
extended period. Significant bacterial
regrowth has been shown to occur in treat-
ed, chlorinated water, when left at ambient
temperature for as little as 8-24 hours.
2
Bacterial levels from each of the five
source water samples were all under the
detection limits for both coliforms (i.e.,
<1 cfu/100mL) and heterotrophs
(<10 cfu/mL).
DISCUSSION
The findings suggest that significant bacte-
rial contamination can occur in individual
water samples originating from personal
water bottles. This study cannot identify
the origin of contamination, however the
most likely source of enteric bacteria found
in the students’ water bottles is the hands
of the students themselves. Inadequate and
improper hand washing after students have
used the bathroom facilities could result in
fecal coliforms in the classroom area. A
study conducted within a Houston, Texas
day-care isolated fecal coliforms from the
hands of 17% of staff and children, and
13% of classroom objects during routine
monitoring.
3
These rates increased signifi-
cantly during outbreaks of diarrhea.
Although the transmission routes of fecal
contamination in day-care centres may
vary from those in primary schools, conta-
mination of hands, taps and sinks was
shown to be a reliable predictor of diar-
rhoeal risk.
3,4
These same sources may
potentially be the main vectors of fecal
transmission from the environment to the
students’ water bottles in this study. A pre-
vious study conducted in a primary school
in Leeds, England indicated that hygiene
training significantly decreased the levels of
fecal streptococci isolated from the hands
of elementary children.
5
The results
obtained from this study suggest there is a
need to educate students about proper
hygiene practices in order to decrease the
spread of coliform bacteria.
Significant bacterial contamination
occurred in water collected from personal
water bottles. Since the source water
showed no significant levels of het-
erotrophic or coliform bacteria, we con-
clude that current practices pertaining to
personal water bottle care at this elemen-
tary school are not sufficient to ensure the
safe bacterial quality of the students’ drink-
ing water. Drinking directly from the
water fountains may be a safer alternative
to water bottles.
Further study with larger sample popula-
tions and sample replication is warranted
to further evaluate the risk of reusing per-
sonal water bottles.
REFERENCES
1. Greenburg AE, Clesceri LS, Eaton AD (Eds.),
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater 20
th
ed. Washington, DC:
American Public Health Association,
1998;Sections 9215,9222B,9222D.
2. Geldrich EE, Nash HD, Reasoner DJ, Taylor
RH. The necessity of controlling bacterial popu-
lations in potable waters: Community water sup-
ply. J AWWA 1972;64:596-602.
3. Ekanem EE, Dupont HL, Pickering LK, Selwyn
BJ, Hawkins CM. Transmission dynamics of
enteric bacteria in day-care centers. Am J
Epidemiol 1983;118:562-72.
4. Laborde DJ, Weigle KA, Weber DJ, Kotch JB.
Effect of fecal contamination on diarrheal illness
rates in day-care centers. Am J Epidemiol
1993;138:243-55.
5. Kaltenthaler EC, Elsworth AM, Schweiger MS,
Mara DD, Braunholtz DA. Faecal contamination
on childrens’ hands and environmental surfaces
in primary schools in Leeds. Epidemiol Infect
1995;115:527-34.
Received: June 28, 2001
Accepted: April 29, 2002
TABLE I
Summary of Results from the Bacteriological Analysis of Water from Elementary
Students’ Personal Water Bottles
Coliform Bacteria Heterotrophic plate counts
(cfu/100mL) (HPC) (cfu/mL)
Range Frequency (% Samples)* Range Frequency
(% Samples)*
Total Fecal
Coliforms Coliforms
<1 85.3 91.2 <10 15.8
1-10 1.3 1.5 10-500 19.7
11-100 0‡ 1.5 501-5,000 7.9
101-1,000 4.0 1.5 5,001-50,000 11.8
>1,001 9.3 4.4 >50,000 44.7
Maximum 22,300 16,800 – >400,000
# Samples 75 68 – 76
CWQG† 00 – <500
Total % exceeding CWQG† 13.3 8.9 – 64.4
* Frequency values rounded to nearest tenth of a percent
† Microbiological criteria in the Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines (CWQG; which can
be viewed at http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/waterquality) recommend a maximum criteria of zero total
coliform detectable per 100 mL, but tolerate up to 10 total coliform detectable per 100 mL in
recognition of sample variability. A guideline of less than 500 HPC is set because of possible
coliform inhibition, not necessarily because the heterotrophic bacteria themselves are pathogen-
ic.
‡ bolded values exceed Canadian Water Quality Guidelines (CWQG)
RÉSUMÉ
Contexte : Nous avons recueilli des échantillons d’eau potable dans les gourdes à eau des élèves
d’une école primaire de Calgary (Alberta).
Méthode : Par filtration sur membrane et au moyen de tests sur plaque à la gélose, nous avons
déterminé le nombre total de bactéries et le nombre de coliformes fécaux et de bactéries
hétérotrophes.
Résultats : Le seuil fixé dans les Recommandations pour la qualité de l’eau potable au Canada eu
égard au nombre total de coliformes a été dépassé dans 13,3 % des 75 échantillons recueillis. Le
seuil pour les coliformes fécaux a été dépassé dans 8,9 % des cas (sur 68 échantillons), et celui
pour l’ensemble des bactéries hétérotrophes, dans 64,4 % des cas (sur 76 échantillons).
Constatations : L’emploi de gourdes à eau par les élèves du primaire est à éviter.
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Full-text available
  • Jan 1996
Gastro-intestinal diseases continue to be a major health problem in primary schools in the UK. This study, which took place in 20 primary schools in the Leeds area, investigated the presence of faecal indicator bacteria on children's hands and environmental surfaces. Faecal streptococci were used as an indicator of faecal contamination. A handwashing knowledge score was developed for each child. Those children with good hygiene knowledge had less faecal contamination on their hands (relative risk: 1·4. 95% CI = 1·09–1·81, P = 0·005). Those schools with higher hand counts were more likely to have had a reported outbreak of gastroenteritis in the past. Values of the Townsend Deprivation Index, an indicator of deprivation, were compared with the hand results and those schools in high deprivation areas had higher hand counts. Of the swabs taken from surfaces in the toilet areas and classrooms, the carpets in the classrooms were the most frequently contaminated surfaces.
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The Necessity of Controlling Bacterial Populations in Potable Waters: Community Water Supply
Article
  • Sep 1972
The waters in some of the community water-supply systems in the US often contain a myriad of microorganisms that carry past the disinfection barrier. Although the majority of those that survive and flourish are not pathogenic, the situation presents a potential danger. Here is an article on the sort of organisms that contribute to the trouble, with a description of factors relating to propagation of the species.
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Transmission dynamics of enteric bacteria in day-care centers
Article
Ekanem, E. E., H. L. DuPont (U. of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030), L. K. Pickering, B. J. Selwyn and C. M. Hawkins. Transmission dynamics of enteric bacteria in day-care centers. Am J Epidemiol 1983;118:562–72. The role of fomites in the transmission of diarrhea in day-care centers was evaluated. During a nine-month period (December 1980–August 1981), inanimate objects and hands of children and staff in five Houston day-care centers were cultured monthly and again during outbreaks of diarrhea. Air was sampled from the classrooms and bathrooms using a single-stage sieve sampler. When a diarrhea outbreak occurred, stool specimens were collected from III and well children and from staff in the affected rooms. Multiple pathogens accounted for 3 of 11 outbreaks. The rates of isolation of fecal coliforms from hands and classroom objects on routine sampling were 17% (22/131) and 13% (8/64), respectively. During outbreaks of diarrhea, fecal conforms were recovered with significantly greater frequency from hands (32%; p < 0.005) and from classroom objects (36%; p < 0.005). There was no difference in the level of fecal contamination in the toilet areas during outbreak and nonoutbreak periods. Shigella was not isolated in the study; salmonella was Isolated on one occasion from a table during an outbreak of salmonellosis. Contamination of hands, communal toys and other classroom objects appeared to play a role in the transmission of enteropathogens in day-care center diarrhea outbreaks and helped to explain the presence of multiple pathogens among those affected.
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Effect of Fecal Contamination on Diarrheal Illness Rates in Day-Care Centers
Article
Contact spread of enteropathogens in day-care centers is supported by the recovery (presence vs. absence) of fecal coliforms from hands and day-care center fomites. This prospective study was conducted to determine what, if any, quantitative measures of fecal coliforms predict the risk of diarrhea among day-care center attendees. Diarrheal illness without concomitant respiratory symptoms was monitored among 221 children aged < 3 years in 37 classrooms (24 day-care centers) through biweekly parental telephone interviews from October 1988 to May 1989 in Cumberland County, North Carolina. The risk of diarrhea was expressed as new episodes/classroom-fortnight. Contamination was expressed as the log10 fecal coliform count per unit of surface area, per toy, and per child and staff hands. Significant predictors of diarrheal risk were any hand contamination (p = 0.003) and the number of contaminated moist sites (hands, faucets, and sinks) (p = 0.006). After adjusting for the child/staff ratio using weighted multiple regression, the authors found that classrooms with either any hand contamination (p = 0.0015) or contamination on all moist sites (p = 0.015) had a significant twofold increased rate of diarrhea compared with classrooms without contamination. This was the first study to demonstrate an increased risk of diarrhea associated with fecal contamination and the frequent sink contamination in day-care centers.
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