ArticlePDF Available

The relationship between physical activity and self-image and problem behavior among adolescents

Authors:

Abstract and Figures

Although there are a vast array of studies which have demonstrated the psychological and physical health benefits of regular aerobic exercise for adults, few studies have focussed on children and adolescents. The current study examined associations between the extent of participation in endurance sport, and self-report data on self-image, physical and psychological health and overall lifestyle in a large representative sample of German high-school students. Almost 1000 German adolescents (aged 14-18 years) were administered a comprehensive series of questionnaires aimed at assessing anxiety-depression, trait addiction, smoking and drinking behaviour, physical ill-health reports, and self-perception of self-image, parental acceptance and educational attainment. Regular practice of endurance exercise was related to a more favourable self-image. There was a strong association between participation in sports and the type of personality that tends to be resistant to drug and alcohol addiction. Physical exercise was further significantly related to scores for physical and psychological well-being. Adolescents who engaged regularly in physical activity were characterised by lower anxiety-depression scores, and displayed much less social behavioural inhibition than their less active counterparts. It is likely that discussion of recreational or exercise involvement may provide a useful point of entry for facilitating dialogue among adolescents about concerns relating to body image and self-esteem. In terms of psychotherapeutic applications, physical activity has many additional rewards for adolescents. It is probable that by promoting physical fitness, increased physical performance, lessening body mass and promoting a more favourable body shape and structure, exercise will provide more positive social feedback and recognition from peer groups, and this will subsequently lead to improvement in an individual's self-image.
Content may be subject to copyright.
Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol (2002) 37:544550 DOI 10.1007/s00127-002-0554-7
Abstract Background Although there are a vast array
of studies which have demonstrated the psychological
and physical health benefits of regular aerobic exercise
for adults, few studies have focussed on children and
adolescents. The current study examined associations
between the extent of participation in endurance sport,
and self-report data on self-image,physical and psycho-
logical health and overall lifestyle in a large representa-
tive sample of German high-school students.Method Al-
most 1000 German adolescents (aged 14–18 years) were
administered a comprehensive series of questionnaires
aimed at assessing anxiety-depression, trait addiction,
smoking and drinking behaviour, physical ill-health re-
ports, and self-perception of self-image, parental accep-
tance and educational attainment. Results Regular prac-
tice of endurance exercise was related to a more
favourable self-image. There was a strong association
between participation in sports and the type of person-
ality that tends to be resistant to drug and alcohol ad-
diction. Physical exercise was further significantly re-
lated to scores for physical and psychological
well-being.Adolescents who engaged regularly in phys-
ical activity were characterised by lower anxiety-de-
pression scores, and displayed much less social behav-
ioural inhibition than their less active counterparts.
Conclusion It is likely that discussion of recreational or
exercise involvement may provide a useful point of en-
try for facilitating dialogue among adolescents about
concerns relating to body image and self-esteem. In
terms of psychotherapeutic applications,physical activ-
ity has many additional rewards for adolescents. It is
probable that by promoting physical fitness, increased
physical performance, lessening body mass and pro-
moting a more favourable body shape and structure,ex-
ercise will provide more positive social feedback and
recognition from peer groups, and this will subse-
quently lead to improvement in an individual’s self-im-
age.
Key words adolescence – physical activity self-im-
age – physical health – psychological well-being – social
problems – anxiety-depression
Introduction
In a comprehensive review of the literature exploring
the advantages of regular physical activity [1] it has been
asserted that “among a long list of postulated psycho-
logical benefits, we note positive shifts of mood state
and perceived health, an increased sense of self-suffi-
ciency, greater personal adjustment,enhanced body im-
age, and impaired self-concept. Cognitive and percep-
tual processing is said to be facilitated,type A behaviour
is reduced, stress management skills are improved, and
overall psychological performance is bolstered.Exercise
has further been recommended as a tool in the therapy
of frank psychiatric ailments,including chronic depres-
sion and anxiety states”.
Unfortunately, the majority of these studies have
tended to focus on adult populations, with a disregard
for children and adolescents. There has been little at-
tempt to attest to whether adolescents who exercise
more regularly really display superior self-image, edu-
cational attainment, enhanced interpersonal relations,
ORIGINAL PAPER
B. D. Kirkcaldy · R. J.Shephard · R. G.Siefen
The relationship between physical activity and self-image
and problem behaviour among adolescents
Accepted: 28 February 2002
SPPE 554
Bruce Kirkcaldy, PhD ()
International Center for the Study of Occupational
and Mental Health
Haydnstr. 61
40593 Duesseldorf, Germany
Tel.: +49-211/7 1842 20
Fax: +49-2 11/7 18 5133
E-Mail: Bruce.Kirkcaldy@t-online.de
R. J. Shephard, MD
Faculty of Physical Education and Health
and
Dept. of Public Health Sciences
Faculty of Medicine
University of Toronto
R. G. Siefen,MD
Westfalia Clinic for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
and Psychosomatic
Marl-Sinsen, Germany
545
physical and psychological health when compared to
their less active counterparts.
Some studies have demonstrated that participation
in school sports programmes can have a positive imme-
diate effect upon self-image during the adolescent years,
particularly if the chosen activity is some form of team
sport such as American football,soccer, handball or vol-
leyball with a high profile among the peer group [2].The
effects of such adulation and social status may be rein-
forced by socially-accepted changes in body build – in-
creases in muscularity (particularly in boys) and reduc-
tions in surplus body fat (particularly in girls) [3].
Conversely, there may be a substantial negative impact
on self-image among the majority of students who (be-
cause of an unfavourable body build, or other interests)
do not gain a celebrityposition on the school team [4].
In this connection, perceived self-confidence and self-
efficacy have greater influence than actual physical com-
petence [5].
Field [6] examined the exercise habits of adolescents,
as well as relationship with peers and parents,depressive
tendencies, drug use and educational attainment. Indi-
viduals who exercised more reported better relation-
ships with parents (greater quality, increased touching
and intimacy),less depression,less frequent use of drugs
and higher class average performance grades than the
less physical active individuals. It has been suggested
that since substance abuse (a major problem among
young adolescents) occurs during leisure time, involve-
ment in physical activity may serve as a healthy substi-
tute allowing time-out and serving to enhance sense of
accomplishment and self-esteem [7].
In an extensive review [8] of the literature on leisure
and adolescence it was reported that over 90% of the 13-
to 14-year-olds participate in weekly sport,but this level
falls to 67 % for males and 49 % for females some 6 years
later. Competitive sport and group physical pursuits be-
come replaced by regular physical exercise in the form
of swimming, jogging, aerobics or walking. Girls have
been shown to drop out quickly, especially among com-
petitive sports, presumably because of concern about
bodily changes. More recent statistics published by the
US Surgeon General [9] suggest that only about one-half
of young American people aged 12–21 years participate
in vigorous physical activity regularly, and one fourth
report no involvement in vigorous activity. Only 19% of
high-school students reported being physically active
for 20 min or more per day in physical education classes.
Moreover,physical activity declines sharply during ado-
lescence.
Much of the analysis to date has focussed on young
adults, and although endurance exercise is much more
likely to have a positive impact upon long-term health,
the impact of such activity upon self-image has received
less attention.It seems likely that if the chosen pattern of
physical activity has a favourable effect upon self-image,
the student will be less likely to become involved in ad-
verse lifestyles (smoking, drinking alcohol and abuse of
drugs), but again there has been little experimental ex-
ploration of this issue. Accordingly, we have examined
associations between the extent of participation in en-
durance sport, self-image, physical and psychological
health and overall lifestyle in a substantial sample of
German high-school students.
We postulated a positive association between en-
gagement in regular physical exercise and health, and
from this viewpoint we formulated five sub-hypotheses:
H1 Young adolescents who engage in regular sporting
activities will display a more favourable self-image
than their sedentary counterparts;
H2 Physically active adolescents will exhibit less nega-
tive affect, in terms of anxiety and depression, than
more sedentary individuals;
H3 Physical ailments will be less prevalent in the exer-
cising than in the sedentary group, and this will be
most apparent on those somatic scales related to
physical exhaustion and tiredness (emotionality);
H4 Individuals who report frequent problems in their
social interactions with others are likely to be
sedentary;
H5 Relative to their sedentary peers, adolescents who
engage in regular forms of exercise will display
lower addiction scores and be less likely to smoke,
to consume alcohol or to take illicit drugs.
Subjects and methods
Subjects and experimental plan
Data were collected from nine of the ten secondary schools in the
Marl area of West Germany, a semi-rural region in the northern,
Protestant part of Germany. The geographical region is typical of
middle-sized urban communities in the Rhine-Ruhr industrial area.
The sample included pupils from both technical schools, three sec-
ondary schools, two comprehensive schools, and two of three gram-
mar schools.The directors of the schools were informed about the na-
ture, aims and procedures of the assessment programme, which was
conducted in accordance with a protocol reviewed by the institutional
committee on human experimentation. In addition to the main sur-
vey, written material in the form of letters and survey descriptions
was mailed to parents and teachers.Tests were administered between
21.02.2000 and 09.062000, and were limited to pupils in the 9
th
and
10
th
grades. Four trained university students were involved in con-
ducting the questionnaire sessions. Two hours were allowed for “ex-
planation and delivery of test instruments”, but in practice the time
required to complete the questionnaires varied from 30 to 65 min.The
response rate represented 63.4% of pupils of that class group in the
schools sampled.
Students ranged in age from 14 to 18 years (Table 1), with a mean
age (SD) of 15.6 years [0.8]. The total sample of 988 adolescents in-
cluded an approximately equal proportion of boys and girls (47.2 and
52.8%,respectively).About half of the students were attending either
a technical or a grammar school, and the remainder a secondary or
comprehensive school. The typical one-way distance from the stu-
dents homes to their respective schools was 3–6 km, travel being by
bus, or more frequently by the parents car.
The questionnaires, which were written in the German language,
explored socio-demographic variables (gender,age,nationality,num-
ber of siblings and educational status); family variables (e.g. self-im-
age); mental well-being (problems of introversion and anxiety/de-
pression); physical health (exhaustion, gastric disorders, limb pains,
circulatory problems and colds”) and a personality construct of ad-
diction.
546
Assessment of involvement in endurance sport
Involvement in endurance sport was assessed by a simple question-
naire developed by the authors (note that in Europe, the term sport
covers all types of physical activity,rather than simply involvement in
team sports such as soccer).Students are asked about their degree of
regular, continuous involvement in general recreational activities
(running, swimming and cycling). Ratings were in step-wise, gradu-
ated increments (never, seldom, often, always).
Physical health
Physical health was assessed by the Giessen Subjective Complaints
List [10, 11]. This instrument comprises 59 items relating to physical
ailments.Each item is rated on a 1–5 Likert scale (never,rarely, some-
times, often and always).The inventory includes items from the areas
of general well-being, autonomic complaints, bodily pains, emotion-
ality and common childhood problems. Factor analysis has previ-
ously revealed a five-factor solution of “ailments”, with seven items
loading on each of the following areas: exhaustion, gastric com-
plaints, pains in the limbs, circulatory problems and symptoms of
colds”. By aggregating scores across all items, a global measure of
physical discomfort/distress is derived (alpha coefficient 0.938).
Personality: “addiction”
Liability to the development of a drug dependency was assessed us-
ing the addiction scale of Gossop and Eysenck [12]. This inventory
contains 32 constituent items taken from the EPQ (Eysenck Personal-
ity Questionnaire) [13].It is able to distinguish between normal males
and male drug-dependent individuals at the probability level of 0.001.
The majority of these same items were also effective in discriminat-
ing female addicts from a control group of non-addicts. The score is
essentially a conglomerate of introversion,neuroticism and psychoti-
cism, and its internal reliability is satisfactory (alpha= 0.76). This
measure showed a consistent significant positive association with
adolescents self-report of drug abuse.
Psychological health (social problems and anxiety-depression)
The German version of the Achenbach Child Behaviour Checklist
[14] was used to assess problem social behaviour and anxiety/de-
pression. For this purpose, two of the eight YSR [13] scales were
scored on a 3-point scale (“0”not applicable,“1” occasionally and “2”
frequently): social problems (8 items) “anxiety/depression (16
items relating to introversion, perfectionism, guilt-proneness, anxi-
ety,emotionality,etc.).Alpha coefficients were 0.69 (social problems)
and 0.85 (anxiety-depressive), respectively.
Social and educational attitudes
In addition to the standardised questionnaires (addiction scale of the
EPQ; Achenbachs Child Behaviour Checklist – subscales social prob-
lems, and anxiety-depression, Giessen Subjective Complaints List for
Children and Adolescents), an attempt was made to extract relevant
data concerning social and school life. Eighteen items were included:
school grades in German language, history or politics, mathematics,
natural sciences and foreign languages; number of times school was
changed, or a school year was repeated; self-image (reported level of
self-satisfaction, number of friends, self-rejection and self-impor-
tance); family relationships (parental expectations, parental conflict,
maternal acceptance, paternal acceptance). This section was con-
structed in a nationwide survey among German adolescents to mon-
itor more transient changes in the social-educational domain. The
psychometric properties of this section of the questionnaire are dis-
cussed in detail in Kirkcaldy, Siefen, Surall and Bischoff [15]. The
scales had demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency and related
in a meaningful way to other psychological constructs.
Self-reported use of drugs
The self-reported level of drug usage (smoking cigarettes, drinking
beer [the main alcoholic beverage in this part of Germany] and using
cannabis) was assessed by asking “Have you ever tried the following?”
Possible responses were never” 1; only tried” 2,“yes, occasional us-
age 3, and “yes, regular use 4.
Statistical methods
All univariate and multivariate statistical analyses (linear discrimi-
nant analysis and ANOVA) were computed using SPSS 10 (2001).Male
and female subjects indicated closely comparable exercise participa-
tion (“never”males 10.3%, females 11.2%; “seldom males 34.2%,fe-
males 42.6%; “often males 31.5% females 29.2%; “frequently”males
23.9%, females 17%, chi-squared (3) = 10.98, p <0.05). In all initial
analyses we examined the impact of the main terms gender and exer-
cise separately, and then the interactive term gender x exercise for the
first set of variables (personality, parental attitudes and health out-
come).There was no evidence of a statistically significant interaction
for the first set (Pillai’s trace =0.049, F [30,2136] =1.19, p >0.05), nor
indeed for the physical ailment profiles (Pillai’s trace=0.013, F [15,
2634] =0.75, p > 0.05). Subsequent covariate analysis controlled for
potentially confounding effects of gender and,if anything, the effects
attributed to exercise were accentuated in consequence. Hence, we
concluded that overall gender did not confound the effects attributed
to exercise per se.Thus,for ease of exposition,we decided to focus on
between-exercise group differences.
Associations between various levels of participation in endurance
sport and the other variables have been tested by a series of discrim-
inant analyses. Where significant differences have been demon-
strated, these have been explored post-hoc, using the least significant
difference method.Linear discriminant analysis was conducted in or-
der to examine all personality and attitudinal variables simultane-
ously; this method possesses distinct advantages over the classical
univariate procedure of profile analysis in the event of non-orthogo-
nality of scales. It minimises the likelihood of making a type 1 error
by adjoining multiple measures as a single cluster,thus taking into ac-
count interrelationships between dimensions,individual subject vari-
ance around the group means on the profile elements and group vari-
ability on the individual variables [16].
Results
Participation in endurance sports
One section of the questionnaire focussed on whether
the subject engaged in endurance sports and, if so, to
what extent. Overall, 10.7% (n = 106) of the students re-
ported “never”undertaking endurance/aerobic sporting
activities, 38.6% (n=381) reported seldom”, about
one-third 30.3% (n= 299) often and the final 20.2%
(n= 202) “frequently”.
Table 1 Socio-demographic variables
n%
Gender
Male 477 48.3%
Female 511 51.7%
Age
14–15 years 449 45.4%
16–18 539 54.6%
Educational status
Secondary school 213 21.5%
Comprehensive 257 26.0%
Technical-grammar 348 35.2%
Grammar 171 17.3%
547
For subsequent analyses, the figures vary depending
on the number of respondents to a particular groups of
questions.
Personality, parental attitudes, physical
and psychological health
A between-group linear discriminant analysis was next
applied to the reported levels of participation in en-
durance sport (Table 2).The first canonical variate [1–3]
was statistically significant (eigenvalue=0.905, chi-
squared [30] = 72.12, Rc =0.242, p <0.001), as was the
second variate (eigenvalue= 0.961, chi-squared [18] =
28.65, p < 0.06, Rc= 0.155). Overall, the profiles differed
between groups (Pillai’s trace = 0.074, [15, 2163]= 3.652,
p <0.001).
For those F-tests which were statistically significant,
we have presented the figures for the highest scoring
group in bold, and the lowest scoring group is shown in
italics (e.g. overall physical symptoms were reported
most frequently among the group of adolescents who
reported “never” being involved in endurance sports)
(Table 3). On all scales associated with personality and
self-perceptions, individuals with differing degrees of
involvement in endurance/aerobic sports revealed quite
distinct differences (Table 3). For example, although no
difference in reported physical ailments was observed
between the two sets of extreme groups (“never” vs.
seldom exercising, or often vs. “regularly” exercis-
ing), differences were observed when comparing the
“low” and “high activity groups,with the less active in-
dividuals reporting significantly more physical com-
plaints.
Physical ailments
The next stage of the analysis examined associations be-
tween participation in endurance sport and subclasses
of physical ailments (Tables 4 and 5). The between-
groups physical ailment profiles were compared using
multivariate statistical analysis.The groups differed sig-
nificantly in their respective profiles of reported physi-
cal illnesses (Pillai’s trace=0.056, F [15, 2646]=3.37, p
<0.001***).
Table 2 Relationships between participation in endurance sport, self-image and problem behaviour. Significance of relationships is tested by discriminant analysis (see
text)
Group category 1 (n = 80) 2 (n = 286) 3 (n = 218) 4 (n = 143)
Never Seldom Often Frequently F (3,723)
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Attitudes
Self-image 5.10 2.92 5.07 2.81 5.76 2.82 6.25 2.84 6.68***
Paternal acceptance 5.30 2.96 5.29 2.89 5.85 2.99 5.55 2.74 1.72
Mathematical competency 5.06 2.99 5.53 2.76 5.59 2.69 6.06 2.92 2.31
Educational threat 5.90 3.12 5.36 2.91 5.52 2.83 5.45 2.76 0.75
Maternal rejection 5.28 3.11 5.64 2.76 5.36 2.91 5.62 2.83 0.63
Linguistic competency 4.94 3.06 5.37 2.87 5.91 2.77 5.53 2.94 2.67*
Personality
Addiction 12.36 4.83 11.02 4.51 9.69 4.57 9.62 5.04 5.40***
Physical well-being
Physical illness 121.34 27.13 120.86 25.94 113.58 25.36 112.53 27.67 5.09**
Psychological well-being
Anxiety-depression 23.09 5.31 23.09 5.78 22.30 5.26 21.05 4.56 2.95*
Social problems 10.25 2.57 9.70 1.99 9.59 2.08 9.43 1.75 9.29***
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001
Table 3 A post-hoc comparison of scores on the various personality scales between specific groups, classified in terms of their participation in endurance sport (Least Sig-
nificant Difference Method)
Never/seldom Never/often Never/frequently Seldom/often Seldom/frequently Often/frequently
1–2 1–3 1–4 2–3 2–4 3–4
Addiction 0.05* 0.001*** 0.001*** 0.01** 0.01** n. s.
Self-image n. s. n. s. 0.01** 0.01** 0.001*** n. s.
Ailments n. s. 0.05* 0.05* 0.01** 0.01** n. s.
Anxiety-depression n. s. n. s. 0.001*** n. s. 0.001*** 0.05*
Social problems 0.05* 0.05* 0.001*** 0.05* n. s. n. s.
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001
548
Smoking, drinking and drug usage
The final stage of statistical analysis focussed on self-re-
ports of drug and alcohol consumption (Table 6); we se-
lected categories of usage which are common among
German adolescents.Overall,the groups differed signif-
icantly in drug and alcohol usage (eigenvalue= 0.961, F
[9,2373]= 4.35,p <0.001***).Adolescents who were reg-
ularly involved in endurance sport also reported a sig-
nificantly lower usage of cigarettes. There was no main
effect associating “sport”and drinking beer.Conversely,
cannabis use was significantly more frequent among
those adolescents who “never” engaged in endurance
sports.
Conclusions
The present study shows substantial associations be-
tween the regular practice of endurance sport and atti-
tudes, personality, scores for physical and psychological
well-being and the adoption of a healthy lifestyle. Nev-
ertheless, causality should not be inferred from a cross-
sectional survey of this type. It could be that a poor self-
image or impaired physical or psychological health is a
cause of physical inactivity rather than the converse, or
it could be that a favourable home environment gives
parental encouragement of physical activity, together
with a good self-image, physical and psychological
health and avoidance of drug usage.Proof of a causal re-
lationship will require further research using either a
sophisticated path analysis,or a trial where a proportion
of the students in randomly selected classes is per-
suaded to adopt an increased level of endurance sport.
As regards the mechanisms, it may be that the social
aspects of physical activity among adolescents are im-
portant determinants of mental and psychological
health. Vikjalmsson and Thorlindsson [17] found evi-
dence that those adolescents who were affiliated to a
sport’s club displayed lower anxiety and depression
scores compared to those pursuing individual sports.
They concluded that the social adhesive properties of
group (sport) participation may have been the key in-
gredients contributing to psychological well-being,
rather than physical activity per se.
The association between sport participation and self-
image is substantial and highly significant statistically.
In the school context, involvement in endurance activi-
Table 4 Physical ailments and participation in endurance sport. Significance of relationships is tested by discriminant analysis (see text)
Group category 1 (n = 99) 2 (n = 344) 3 (n = 268) 4 (n = 178)
Never Seldom Often Frequently F (3,885)
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Exhaustion 27.18 8.16 25.74 7.16 24.09 6.69 23.49 7.49 8.27***
Gastric complaints 14.01 4.17 14.51 4.12 13.78 3.93 13.27 4.56 3.80**
Pains in limbs 12.67 3.89 12.74 3.94 12.39 3.89 12.53 4.17 0.41
Circulatory problems 11.39 3.83 10.72 3.96 9.75 3.60 10.00 3.74 6.33***
Cold symptoms 18.36 4.83 18.88 5.00 17.59 4.59 17.23 4.56 6.56***
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001
Table 5 A post-hoc comparison of scores for various ailments between specific groups, classified in terms of their participation in endurance sport (Least Significant Dif-
ference Method)
Never/seldom Never/often Never/frequently Seldom/often Seldom/frequently Often/frequently
1–2 1–3 1–4 2–3 2–4 3–4
Exhaustion n. s. 0.001*** 0.001*** 0.01** 0.001*** n. s.
Gastric complaints n. s. n. s. n. s. 0.05* 0.001*** n. s.
Pains in limbs n. s. n. s. n. s. n. s. n. s. n. s.
Circulatory problems n. s. 0.001*** 0.01** 0.01** 0.05* n. s.
Cold symptoms n. s. n. s. 0.06 0.001*** n. s. n. s.
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001
Table 6 Relationships between participation in endurance sport, drinking and drug usage. Statistical analysis is as in Tables 2 and 3
Never 1 Seldom 2 Often 3 Regular 4 F 3,977 1/2 1/3 1/4 2/3 2/4 3/4
MM MM
Smoke 2.95 2.95 2.88 2.56 5.37*** n. s. n. s. 0.01 n. s. 0.001 0.01
Beer 3.03 2.95 2.95 2.90 0.91 n. s. n. s. n. s. n. s. n. s. n. s.
Cannabis 2.02 1.64 1.59 1.58 6.58*** 0.001 0.001 0.001 n. s. n. s. n. s.
Note: post-hoc between group comparisons (“LSD”) are presented on the right-hand side of the table; *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001
549
ties rarely leads to the adulation that a leader of a soccer
or handball team might receive from members of the op-
posite sex. If physical activity is indeed playing a posi-
tive causal role,it may act by increasing feelings of mas-
tery and self-efficacy [18]. Previous investigators have
noted a positive effect of curricular physical education
upon academic performance [19].The link with linguis-
tic competency that was observed in the present study
could also indicate an underlying “high-achiever” per-
sonality. In the adult world, some companies seek out
people who are involved in endurance sport because
they tend to be employees with an outstanding perfor-
mance on the job [20].Alternatively,being verbally more
competent may reflect superior social and communica-
tion skills which may be beneficial in social sporting ac-
tivities.
There is also a strong link between participation in
endurance sport and the type of personality that is re-
sistant to addictions. Surveys of the adult population
have found a relatively weak impact of physical activity
upon smoking habits, more obvious for those involved
in endurance than in “social” sports such as tennis [21].
Some people indicate that involvement in distance run-
ning is helpful in stopping smoking, but the low per-
centage of smokers among this population also reflects
many individuals who stopped smoking before they be-
gan running [22]. Several studies suggest that individu-
als with heavy involvement in physical activity were less
likely to take up smoking than the sedentary members
of this population [23, 24, 25].
Hays [26] referred to Glasser’s [27] research distin-
guishing between positive and negative addiction. She
suggested that in contrast to negative, self-debilitating
addictions such as substance abuse, the positive addic-
tion to regular exercise such as swimming or running
may serve as a replacement or distraction from smoking
or alcohol abuse,strengthening an individual’s self-effi-
cacy and enhancing their life satisfaction.
Finally, there are strong relationships between en-
durance activity and reported scores for physical and
psychological well-being. The most significant physical
complaint of sedentary individuals is exhaustion, and
this could be either a consequence of a poor level of fit-
ness (so that they have difficulty in keeping up with their
fitter peers), or it could be the cause of the inactivity.
Given that the analysis is based upon self-reports,a final
possibility is that the more anxious members of the
group engaged in symptom-reporting to a greater extent
than did their more active peers [26, 28]. In regard to
symptoms of the common cold,there has been much in-
terest recently concerning possible effects of endurance
exercise upon immune function [28]. The current con-
sensus is that moderate participation in endurance ex-
ercise enhances the immune response, but that beyond
an individually determined critical threshold, en-
durance activity can have a deleterious effect. The
threshold for an adverse effect is generally quite high,
and is unlikely to be reached except by high perform-
ance athletes, so that a favourable effect of endurance
activity upon the prevalence of cold symptoms is to be
anticipated in ordinary school students.
Limitation of physical activity is a common manifes-
tation of depression; in this association, the psychologi-
cal disturbance may well be the primary manifestation,
and the limitation of physical activity the consequence.
Furthermore, one of the limitations of our measure of
physical health is that it does not ascertain the presence
of an actual chronic physical illness which may concei-
vably have restricted opportunities for exercising (esti-
mates suggest that 5–10% of children would fall into this
category). If such is the case, however, the associations
we reported will be attenuated (an underestimate of the
association between exercise-health).
The magnitude of effect sizes reveals that it was prob-
lems of self-perception and social adjustment (socially
avoidant temperament) and to a lesser extent the trend
to anxiety-depression and exhaustion which most dis-
tinguished adolescents who were physically inactive
from those who were (more or less) regularly in physi-
cal exercise.
As might be expected, parental attitudes and educa-
tional achievement did not appear to be associated with
proclivity towards physical activity.
The present data support the potential therapeutic
benefits of physical activity for children and adoles-
cents. In addition to enhanced physical health, Hayes
[27] has proposed that engagement in physical pursuits
or discussion of recreational or exercise involvement
may serve as a useful point of entry for facilitating dis-
cussion among adolescents about issues relating to body
image and self-esteem. In terms of psychotherapeutic
applications, physical activity has many further advan-
tages, particularly among children and adolescents. It is
likely that by enhancing physical fitness,increased phys-
ical performance,decreasing body mass and promoting
a more favourable body shape and structure, exercise
will provide more positive social feedback/recognition
from peer groups, and this in turn will improve an indi-
vidual’s self-image.The increased opportunity for social
interaction and group participation allows a challenging
of socially avoidant behavioural propensities and the
development of positive expectations. Regular involve-
ment in physical exercise reduces the risk of fatigue by
augmenting physiological functions such as maximal
oxygen transport and maximal muscle force that would
otherwise limit performance; a reduction of fatigue over
a normal day may in turn induce a positive change in
mood state. Finally, physical activity serves to distract
from depressive thoughts and self-debilitating cogni-
tions.
550
References
1. Kirkcaldy BD,Shephard RJ (1990) Therapeutic aspects of leisure
and sport. Special Edited Issue, International Journal of Sport
Psychology 21 (3): 165–184
2. Bluechardt MH, Wiener J, Shephard RJ (1995) Exercise pro-
grammes in the treatment of children with learning disabilities.
Sports Medicine 19: 55–72
3. Teasdale TW, Sorensen TIA,Stunkard AJ (1992) Intelligence and
educational level in relation to body mass index of adult males.
Human Biology 64: 99–106
4. Shephard RJ, Lavallée H, Larivière G (1978) Competitive selec-
tion among age-class ice-hockey players. British Journal of
Sports Medicine 12: 11–13
5. Ulrich BD (1987) Perceptions of physical competence, motor
competence,and participation in organized sport: their interre-
lationships in young children. Research Quarterly 58: 57–67
6. Field T (2001) Exercise is positively related to adolescents rela-
tionship and academics.Adolescence, Spring
7. Murphy TJ,Pagano RR,Marlatt GA (1986) Lifestyle modification
with heavy alcohol drinkers: effects of aerobic exercise and med-
itation.Addictive Behaviors 11: 175–186
8. Argyle M (1996) The Social Psychology of Leisure.Penguin,Lon-
don
9. US Surgeon General (2001) Physical activity and health.Chap.5.
Patterns and trends in physical activity. US Health,Washington
10. Brähler E, Scheer J (1983) Der Giessener Beschwerdebogen
(GBB) – Testhandbuch. Huber, Bern, Stuttgart and Vienna
11. Prehler M,Kupfer J,Brähler E (1992) Der Giessener Beschwerde-
bogen für Kinder und Jugendliche (GBB-KJ). Psychsom Med
Psychol 42: 71–77
12. Gossop MR,Eysenck SBG (1980) A further investigation into the
personality of drug addicts in treatment. British Journal of Ad-
diction 75: 305–311
13. Eysenck HJ,Eysenck SBG (1991) Manual of the Eysenck Person-
ality Scales. Hodder and Stoughton, London
14. Achenbach TM (1991) Deutsche Child Behaviour Checklist.
KJFD (Arbeitsgruppe Kinder-, Jugendlichen- und Familiendia-
gnostik), Cologne
15. Kirkcaldy BD, Siefen G,Surall D,Bischoff RJ (2002) Predictors of
drug and alcohol abuse among children and adolescents. Per-
sonality and individual differences (revised)
16. Kroll W, Crenshaw W (1968) Multivariate personality profile
analysis of four athletic groups. In: Kenyon GS (ed) Proceedings
of the Second International Congress of Sport Psychology. Ath-
letic Institute, Chicago
17. Vijhalmsson R,Thorlindsson T (1992) The integrative and phys-
iological effects of sport participation: a study of adolescents.
Sociol Quart 33: 637–647
18. Bandura A (1997) Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory for be-
havioural change. Psychol Rev 84: 191–215
19. Shephard RJ (1997) Curricular physical activity and academic
performance. Pediatr Exerc Sci 9: 113–126
20. Baun WB, Bernacki EJ, Tsai SP (1986) A preliminary investiga-
tion of the effect of a corporate fitness program on absenteeism
and health care cost.Journal of Occupational Medicine 28:18–22
21. Norwegian Confederation of Sport (1983) Physical activity in
Norway. Norwegian Confederation of Sport, Oslo
22. Shephard RJ, Kavanagh T, Mertens DJ (1995) Personal health
benefits of athletic competition. British Journal of Sports Medi-
cine 29: 35–40
23. Twisk J, Kemper HCG, Snel J (1995) Tracking of cardiovascular
risk factors in relation to lifestyle. In: Kemper HCG (ed) The
Amsterdam Growth Study. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL,
pp. 203–224
24. Trudeau F,Laurencelle L,Tremblay J,Rajic M,Shephard RJ (1998)
A long-term follow-up of participants in the Trois Rivières semi-
longitudinal study of growth and development.Pediatr Exerc Sci
10: 366–377
25. Kirkcaldy BD, Cooper CL,Brown J,Athanasou J (1994) Job stress
and health profiles of smokers, ex-smokers and non-smokers.
Stress Medicine 10 (3): 159–166
26. Hays K (1999) Working it out. Using exercise in psychotherapy.
American Psychological Asociation,Washington DC
27. Glasser W (1976) Positive addiction. Harper and Row, New York
28. Pennebacker J (1992) Stress in words: health,linguistic and ther-
apeutic applications.APA Paper,Washington DC
... The significant potential of physical activity in building a positive body image proves to be important in the context of implementing this health education area within PE. Referring to physical health outcomes, regular exercise for girls has a positive effect on body composition and size, including a protective influence on adiposity and central body fat (Moliner-Urdiales et al., 2009;Lohman et al., 2006), lean mass gain (Völgyi et al., 2011), physical well-being (Kirkcaldy et al., 2002), as well as body posture (Sidlauskiene et al., 2019;Wyszyńska et al., 2016). Engaging in regular physical exercise can also result in psychological benefits in adolescents, including positive outcomes in terms of self-and body-perception. ...
... Engaging in regular physical exercise can also result in psychological benefits in adolescents, including positive outcomes in terms of self-and body-perception. These include: a more positive self-image and lower anxiety (Kirkcaldy et al., 2002), a protective effect on body image dissatisfaction (Gaspar et al., 2011) and, in overweight and obese individuals, higher physical self-perception and body satisfaction, regardless of BMI changes (Goldfield et al., 2007). ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Negative body image in female adolescents is a sign of the times, but it is also a current global issue due to its implications for the onset of health-compromising behaviours and the increasing power of appearance-based social media. The aim of this study is to investigate the protective role of a life-skills based intervention during PE classes in adolescent girls against increasing body dissatisfaction resulting from body composition changes and to assess the impact of intervention on the skill of setting goals. Method: The study involved 81 female students aged 12–14 years and used a pre-test/post-test control group design. Students participating in a 15-lesson programme (experimental group) were compared to those who had regular PE lessons (control group). Students completed self-reported measures of the analysed life skills. Anthropometric and body composition measurements were also taken. Results: Despite more rapid biological changes during the programme (significantly higher waist circumference, waist-to-height ratio, BMI at post-test compared to the control group, not observed at baseline) the experimental group stayed at the same level of body dissatisfaction as at baseline (“mild concern”). In goal setting, lack of participation in the programme produced a negative change in the performance-avoid goal orientation (PAGO) dimension (p=0.005) in the control group. Conclusions: The study suggests that a preventive intervention targeting life skills can be successfully implemented in PE settings and have a probable mitigating effect on body image dissatisfaction, even in situations when subjects experience intensive biological changes.
... These strategies can effectively alleviate negative self-assessments driven by societal pressures (Braun et al., 2016;Halliwell, 2013;Miyagawa, 2024;Slater & Tiggemann, 2011). For instance, engaging in physical activity has been shown to foster positive emotions, enhance self-esteem, and promote a healthier self-image among young individuals (Joseph et al., 2014;Kirkcaldy et al., 2002). These advantages can help protect against negative self-perceptions induced by external pressures. ...
Article
Full-text available
Social networking sites (SNS) are ubiquitous and often linked to appearance anxiety. This study aims to explore the moderating role of self-concept clarity (i.e., a clear sense of one’s own identity) in the relationship between SNS use and appearance anxiety. A sample of 532 young Chinese women (18–35 years old) from Xiaohongshu (one of China’s most popular social media platforms), completed the Social Network Sites Intensity Scale, the Active and Passive Use Scale, the Self-Clarity Scale, and the Social Appearance Anxiety Scale. The results showed that SNS use positively predicted appearance anxiety, with this relationship being present in individuals with low self-concept clarity, but not in those with high self-concept clarity. Active use also predicted appearance anxiety, but this relationship was observed in individuals with low self-concept clarity while it was not found in those with high self-concept clarity. However, passive use significantly and positively predicted appearance anxiety regardless of the level of self-concept clarity, although this relationship is more pronounced in individuals with low self-concept clarity. These results suggest that self-concept clarity serves as a buffer against the rise in appearance anxiety associated with SNS use. Additionally, they enhance our understanding of cyberpsychology by examining the role of individual characteristics, such as self-identity, and different types of SNS use.
... Furthermore, higher levels of self-esteem were consistently observed among those who participated in sports. These findings are consistent with several studies (Kirkcaldy et al., 2002;Weber et al., 2023), which have found that engagement in sports generally correlates with elevated self-esteem regardless of the specific type of sport. ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction: Adolescence is a critical period for mental health, and physical activity could help address this issue. Regular physical activity has been linked to improved mental health in young people. This may lead to better mental health outcomes by elevating physical self-concept and self-esteem. Objective: to analyze the influence of the type of sports practiced by Spanish adolescents on their self-concept, self-esteem, and physical fitness. Methodology: A total of 1180 adolescents aged 12 to 19 years from 4 high schools in Andalusia, Spain, participated in the study. The EUROFIT battery, which is validated and widely used battery for assessing physical fitness in adolescents, was administered during three different days, and the correlation between these variables was analyzed. Results: Specifically, it was found that adolescents who did not practice sports present higher values of body mass index, although their values were lower in Sit-and-reach tests, Horizontal jump, Course Navette, Handgrip, physical self-concept Strength, and physical self-concept Attractive. Among those who did practice sports, individuals engaged in contact sports exhibited better physical abilities and higher levels of self-concept. Discussion: our findings regarding self-concept and self-esteem align with existing literature. Conclusion: those adolescents who participate in oppositional and contact sports present higher values of physical fitness and physical self-concept compared to those who participate in other type of sport or do not practice any sports. The specific interests of each adolescent must be addressed with the aim of improving adherence to extracurricular physical activity.
... A longitudinal study comparing inactive, beginner, and active individuals found that regular physical activity was positively associated with higher levels of happiness, self-esteem, and life satisfaction (19). Among adolescents, participation in sports and the development of athletic skills have been associated with lower levels of depression (20,21) and decreased risks of depression and suicidal ideation, notably through improved self-esteem (22). Moreover, a study has shown that, among young adults, maintaining a daily routine and engaging in physical or sport activities were among the coping strategies associated with lower distress during the COVID-19 pandemic (23). ...
Article
Background Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the scientific community has been concerned about the high rates of psychological distress among adolescents. The pandemic not only tested adolescents’ adaptation, but also disrupted key areas of their development. This demonstrates the need to study their psychological adjustment over time during this critical period to better guide services. Objective This study sought to explore the extent to which physical activity and its association with self-esteem in the first months of the pandemic impacted adolescents' psychological distress, six months later. Methods Two hundred and ninety-four adolescents (73% girls) between the ages of 12 and 17 participated in a longitudinal study launched at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. The number of hours spent engaging in physical activity (HPA) in the past week and self-esteem were measured at Time 1 (T1; summer 2020). Psychological distress was measured at T1 and Time 2 (T2; winter 2021). Results More HPA in the past week were related to greater self-esteem at T1. Greater self-esteem at T1 was related to lower psychological distress, six months later (T2). Lastly, HPA in the past week was not directly linked to psychological distress at T2, which confirms a fully indirect model. Conclusion Results suggest that physical activity is a key factor in promoting better mental health adjustment through its benefits in terms of self-esteem, even during times of turmoil. Findings reinforce the recommendation of promoting the practice of sports and athletic activity in difficult times.
... Existing studies have demonstrated that physical exercise has beneficial effects on the skin, physique, and mental state across various age groups, all of which may influence evaluations of physical appearance [50][51][52][53][54]. This study is the first to systematically compare and evaluate the variations in the impact of physical exercise on physical appearance across age groups, revealing an inverted U-shaped relationship with age. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background In contemporary society, physical appearance significantly influences individuals' social interactions and career achievements. Although some studies suggest that physical exercise may positively impact physical appearance, most rely on subjective self-assessment data. In contrast, third-party evaluations are widely regarded as more objective and reliable. Thus, this study aims to explore the effects of physical exercise on physical appearance, as assessed by third-party evaluations, and to examine its heterogeneity. Methods This study utilized third-party physical appearance evaluation data from 25,460 respondents in the 2018 China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) and assessed the impact of physical exercise on physical appearance using multiple linear regression and instrumental variable analysis. Furthermore, the heterogeneity in the effects of physical exercise was investigated using subgroup regression and quantile regression analyses. Results The findings indicate that physical exercise substantially enhances physical appearance, with its effects varying significantly across different populations. Specifically, women, urban residents, and those with lower appearance scores experience more pronounced enhancement from physical exercise compared to men, rural residents, and those with higher scores. Additionally, the effect of age on the impact of physical exercise on appearance exhibits an inverted U-shaped relationship. Middle-aged adults (40–59 years) experience the most significant improvements, while benefits are lower for adolescents (10–20 years), young adults (20–39 years), and older adults (60–80 years). Conclusions This study systematically reveals the positive impact of physical exercise on physical appearance, demonstrating that regular exercise can significantly enhance individual appearance scores. This finding contributes to a broader understanding of the multifaceted benefits of physical exercise.
... Likewise, poor physical activity has also been associated with many health issues. In contrast, engagement in physical activity has been linked to enhanced self-esteem (4), and improved physical and psychological well-being (5)(6)(7). The relationship between sleep satisfaction and physical activity has become a focal point of public health research due to its implications for overall well-being and health promotion. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Understanding the general health and well-being of the aged population requires an understanding of several factors, among which the interplay between physical activity and sleep quality are the most efficient determinants. There is still much to learn about the precise ways that different components of sleep quality affect different kinds of physical activity in older persons, accordingly, the study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the interaction between these variables. Methods An online questionnaire-based investigation was conducted between August and September 2023. This cross-sectional study analyzed data from 1,437 participants aged 50 to 89 years. The questionnaire evaluated levels of physical activity, sleep satisfaction, and demographic data. We used cluster analysis, regression analysis, and factor analysis to investigate the connections between these variables. Results Factor analysis revealed a single factor that accounted for 51.95% of the variance in all variables linked to sleep, and this factor represented overall quality of sleep. Regression analysis revealed that gender significantly predicted sleep quality, with females reporting lower sleep satisfaction. While strenuous exercise did not significantly affect sleep quality, moderate exercise was a positive predictor of sleep quality that neared statistical significance. Furthermore, cluster analysis revealed that those who engaged in more physical activity had higher-quality sleep. Conclusion These results highlight the significance of encouraging physical activity to improve older adults’ sleep quality. Specific programs that promote moderate exercise may enhance this population’s general health and sleep quality. Future research should focus on longitudinal studies to create causality and modify intervention strategies aimed at promoting healthy aging.
... This study reveals that physical activity can mitigate the negative impact of anxiety on adolescent inhibitory control. This is attributed to the impact of physical activity on anxiety [34,35,[59][60][61], as well as brain regions involved in emotional regulation [36], and its promotion of inhibitory control [37, 38, 40-42, 62, 63]. Therefore, physical activity weakens anxiety's impact on adolescent inhibitory control. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Adolescents may have anxiety due to a series of events such as school work and social interaction. Improper handling of anxiety often leads to some negative consequences, such as Internet addiction. Therefore, this study further explored the relationship between anxiety and Internet addiction, as well as the mediating role of inhibitory control between the two, and also considered the moderating role of physical activity between anxiety and inhibitory control. Methods A total of 1607 adolescents, comprising 664 boys and 943 girls with an average age of 15.86 years (SD = 0.73), from Shandong, Shanxi, Hebei, and Hunan provinces completed a self-report survey on physical activity, anxiety, inhibitory control, and Internet addiction. Descriptive analysis, correlation analysis, and mediation test were conducted. Results The results revealed a significant positive correlation between anxiety and adolescent internet addiction (r = 0.413, p < 0.001), and a significant negative correlation with inhibitory control (r = -0.423, p < 0.001). Inhibitory control was found to be significantly positively correlated with physical exercise (r = 0.143, p < 0.001) and significantly negatively correlated with internet addiction (r = -0.368, p < 0.001). After controlling for demographic variables, anxiety significantly positively predicted Internet addiction (β = 0.311, p < 0.001) in adolescents, and it also indirectly predicted Internet addiction through inhibitory control (β = -0.231, p < 0.001). Physical activity significantly weakened the predictive effect of anxiety on inhibitory control (β = -0.092, p < 0.001). Conclusions This study further explored the issue of psychological mechanisms between anxiety and Internet addiction in adolescents, and added that physical activity alleviates the negative effects of anxiety on adolescents. Schools and families are encouraged to promote physical exercise among adolescents to alleviate the influence of negative emotions on their psychological and behavioral health.
Article
Background Body image perception (BIP) is associated with self-perception. Excessive concern about body image and body image dissatisfactions (BIDs) are linked to the risk factors for eating disorders, low self-esteem, depression, and less physical activity (PA), in turn leading to obesity. It is still unclear how a physiotherapy student perceives themselves. Aims The objective of the study is to find the association between the BIP, anthropometric measurements, and PA. Subjects and Methods The study was conducted at Alva’s College of Physiotherapy, Moodbidri. This is a correlation type of study. A total of 127 physiotherapy students who were between the age group of 18 and 25 years were recruited for the study based on the inclusion criteria. Body mass index (BMI) and skinfold (SF) measurement were measured using a syndex skin fold calliper. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form and Body Shape Questionnaire were used to assess PA and BIP, respectively. Results The study showed a significant association between BIP and BMI and SF measurements, where females are showing higher BID, whereas males are showing no significant result. PA and BID did not show any significant association among males and females. Conclusions The findings of this study showed that there is a high incidence of BID among the physiotherapy students. Even though there was a good-to-excellent level of body fat among the university students, a high rate of BID was noted, especially among the female students.
Article
Full-text available
Objectives The purpose of the study was to evaluate the impact of physical activity of university staff members on their well-being and work performance. In the course of analyses, the author attempted to find an answer to the question to what extent physical activity contributes to the improvement of well-being of the workforce. Material and methods The study was based on a diagnostic survey method employing a questionnaire.In the course of analyses, the authors attempted to find an answer to the question to what extent physical activity contributes to the improvement of internal and external well-being of the Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities staff. Results The analyses confirmed that the stimulation of physical activity in the workplace may benefit employee well-being on many levels. The results of the study demonstrated that physical activity has a positive impact on emotional, psychological, and social well-being of university staff, and that it augments the efficiency, focus, and creativity in the workplace. The research findings may be of importance to employees, employers, and decision-makers involved in the taking of decisions about health promotion programmes in the workplace. The study may contribute to the promotion of the concept of well-being, above all, in non-profit organizations, where new tendencies in human resource management are typically introduced later than they are in commercial organizations Conclusions Against a backdrop of the conducted analyses, the emphasis on employee well-being needs to be viewed now as one of the best investments a modern organization may make. Creating an optimal environment in which employees can fulfil their potential is one of the key factors in the long-term effectiveness of an organisation. Healthy and fit staff mean an efficient organisation.
Article
Full-text available
Presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from 4 principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Factors influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arise from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. (21/2 p ref)
Article
This study examined the interrelationships among perceived physical competence, motor competence, and participation in organized sport in young children. Males and females in Grades K through 4 (n = 250) were given The Perceived Competence Scale for Children (Harter, 1979) or The Pictoral Scale for Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children (Harter, Pike, Efron, Chao, & Bierer, 1983), a 9-item motor competence assessment battery, and a questionnaire regarding their participation in sport. Results revealed that perceived physical competence for children in these grade levels was not significantly related to their participation in organized sport programs. Motor competence was significantly related to participation in that participants in organized sport programs performed selected gross motor tasks better than did nonparticipants. Further, children's reported perceptions of physical competence were significantly related to their demonstrated motor competence. Discussion focused on the theoretical and practical implications of the results.
Article
The purpose of this project was to undertake a long-term follow-up of participants in the Trois-Rivieres Growth and Development Study. Some 20 years after their initial involvement in the program, two groups were compared: experimental subjects (n = 150) who had received 5 one-hour sessions of specialized physical education per week throughout their 6 years of primary school, and the original control group (n = 103). All subjects completed a questionnaire regarding current patterns of physical activity (PA), attitudes and beliefs about PA, and perceived barriers to PA. Principal results indicate: (a) More experimental than control women exercise 3 times or more per week, (b) experimental subjects more commonly perceived their health to be very good to excellent, (c) control subjects in general felt less psychological dependency on exercise, and (d) women in the experimental group had a lower relative risk of back problems.
Article
Advocates of quality daily physical education for prepubescent children frequently encounter the argument that such initiatives will harm academic progress. The impact of daily physical education upon the academic performance of primary school students is thus reviewed with particular reference to studies conducted in Vanves (France), Australia, and Trois Rivières (Québec). When a substantial proportion of curricular time (14-26%) is allocated to physical activity, learning seems to proceed more rapidly per unit of classroom time, so that academic performance matches, and may even exceed, that of control students. Children receiving additional physical education show an acceleration of their psychomotor development, and this could provide a mechanism for accelerated learning of academic skills. Other potential mechanisms include increased cerebral blood flow, greater arousal, changes in hormone levels, enhanced nutrient intake, changes in body build, and increased self esteem. Academic teachers may also favor the enhanced physical education program, creating "halo" effects, and the resulting release time may enhance their academic teaching. Irrespective of mechanisms, the implication for public policy is that daily required physical education can be introduced when a child enters primary school without compromising academic development. Given the importance of establishing positive health habits from an early age, school boards should be encouraged to follow a policy of required daily physical activity in primary schools. Evidence of specific benefit in students with learning disabilities remains less convincing.
Article
The Giessen Subjective Complaints List for Children (GSCL-C), a questionnaire on physical complaints in self-image form, was developed out of the adult GSCL. The questionnaire contains items from the areas; general wellbeing, vegetative complaints, pains, emotionality and children's complaints. The subjects is asked to estimate the degree of distress caused by each complaint (never/rarely/sometimes/often/always). Factor analysis based on a sample of 1047 schoolchildren aged 9 to 15 revealed five complaint complexes containing seven items each, which were subsequently grouped into the following scales: (1) Exhaustion, (2) Gastric Complaints, (3) Pains in Limbs, (4) Circulatory Problems, (5) Cold Symptoms. The sum of the five scales makes up the sixth scale score, overall distress. Besides describing the development of the instrument and its scales, sex- and age-related norms are given and the assessment criteria explained. Procedure and areas of application are also discussed
Article
This book is intended to inspire mental health professionals to bring to their work a clearer understanding of, interest in, and enthusiasm for exercise in the process of recovery from mental or emotional problems. It blends theory, research, and practice experience. The primary theme directs psychotherapists toward the value of exercise in the treatment of most psychiatric conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Explores the impact of exercise on psychological well-being. Issues discussed include problems associated with the evaluation of the benefits of exercise, advantages of exercise therapy over alternative therapeutic forms, and specificity of responses to exercise (e.g., elevated arousal, secretion of mood-altering chemicals, self-efficacy, body image, fatigue and mood state). Also considered are the interindividual differences in susceptibility (e.g., personality and life-styles, nature and extent of mood disturbances), and the benefits vs risks of exercise therapy. Evidence suggests that regular physical activity is of benefit to both physical and psychological health. (French, Spanish, German & Italian abstracts) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)