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The Importance of the Ratio of Omega-6/Omega-3 Essential Fatty Acids.
Abstract
Several sources of information suggest that human beings evolved on a diet with a ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 essential fatty acids (EFA) of approximately 1 whereas in Western diets the ratio is 15/1-16.7/1. Western diets are deficient in omega-3 fatty acids, and have excessive amounts of omega-6 fatty acids compared with the diet on which human beings evolved and their genetic patterns were established. Excessive amounts of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and a very high omega-6/omega-3 ratio, as is found in today's Western diets, promote the pathogenesis of many diseases, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, whereas increased levels of omega-3 PUFA (a low omega-6/omega-3 ratio) exert suppressive effects. In the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease, a ratio of 4/1 was associated with a 70% decrease in total mortality. A ratio of 2.5/1 reduced rectal cell proliferation in patients with colorectal cancer, whereas a ratio of 4/1 with the same amount of omega-3 PUFA had no effect. The lower omega-6/omega-3 ratio in women with breast cancer was associated with decreased risk. A ratio of 2-3/1 suppressed inflammation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, and a ratio of 5/1 had a beneficial effect on patients with asthma, whereas a ratio of 10/1 had adverse consequences. These studies indicate that the optimal ratio may vary with the disease under consideration. This is consistent with the fact that chronic diseases are multigenic and multifactorial. Therefore, it is quite possible that the therapeutic dose of omega-3 fatty acids will depend on the degree of severity of disease resulting from the genetic predisposition. A lower ratio of omega-6/omega-3 fatty acids is more desirable in reducing the risk of many of the chronic diseases of high prevalence in Western societies, as well as in the developing countries, that are being exported to the rest of the world.
... Stosunek omega 6/omega 3 Równowaga kwasów tłuszczowych omega-6 i omega-3 jest bardzo ważna dla homeostazy i prawidłowego rozwoju [48]. Wielonienasycone kwasy tłuszczowe (PUFA) to kwasy tłuszczowe, które zawierają więcej niż dwa wiązania podwójne (węgiel-węgiel) w cząsteczce. ...
... Diety zachodnie są ubogie w kwasy tłuszczowe omega-3 i mają nadmierne ilości kwasów tłuszczowych omega-6 w porównaniu z dietą, na której ewoluował człowiek oraz na której ustalono jego wzorce genetyczne. [48] Aby lepiej zrozumieć możliwą ścieżkę, dzięki której kwasy omega-3 mogą być skuteczne zarówno w zapobieganiu, jak i leczeniu depresji, należy wziąć pod uwagę ich działanie przeciwzapalne oraz ważną rolę w prawidłowym funkcjonowaniu komórek OUN [6]. Stwierdzono, że suplementacja dwoma głównymi rodzajami PUFA omega-3: kwasem eikozapentaenowym (EPA) i kwasem dokozaheksaenowym (DHA) jest skuteczna w zmniejszaniu objawów depresji [49]. ...
... Pacjenci z depresją mają średnio niższy poziom PUFA omega-3 w osoczu niż osoby bez depresji; dodatkowo istnieją zależności między nasileniem objawów depresyjnych a niższymi poziomami omega-3 PUFA w osoczu [9]. Dlatego odpowiedni stosunek kwasów tłuszczowych omega-6 i omega-3 w diecie, w proporcji około 1-2/1, należy wziąć pod uwagę przy formułowaniu zaleceń dietetycznych [48]. ...
Omega-3 is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) with a double bond present at the ω-3 carbon atom. Recently, many neurobiologists and psychiatrists have been studying the involvement of inflammatory factors and mechanisms in the pathogenesis of depression, including factors like an improper diet with an excess of omega-6, gut dysbiosis, obesity, and autoimmune diseases. The present study focuses on the impact of unsaturated fatty acids on mood improvement and cognitive processes in elderly patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) resistant to standard treatment. This form of depression is often associated with autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus, and inflammatory bowel diseases. The influence of omega-3 supplementation on depression prevention and its effects on childhood depression were also examined. It should be noted that some publications do not confirm the antidepressant effects of omega-3. However, this article provides evidence of the supportive role of omega-3 in depression treatment, based on neuroendocrine, metabolic, and immunological reactions. Objective: Literature review on the impact of omega-3 on depression treatment, considering its forms, inflammatory mechanisms, neuroendocrine factors, diet, lifestyle, and age. Materials and Methods: Literature review based on available sources from PubMed and Google Scholar. Conclusions: Omega-3 is a polyunsaturated fatty acid that positively affects the functioning of the body. Many research studies confirm its antidepressant and anti-inflammatory effects, making it a potential adjunctive treatment for depression, especially in elderly patients with major treatment-resistant depression (MDD) coexisting with other chronic diseases. The results of studies on the relationship between omega-3 and antidepressant action also depend on various environmental factors and lifestyle choices.
... It is responsible for preventing oxidative stress and inflammation of serotoninergic neurons and thereby maintaining mood state [13]. Omega-3 fatty acids also affect neuroplasticity and cell survival through neurotrophins such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) [19]. Furthermore, omega-3 concentrations have also been found to affect gene expression [19]. ...
... Omega-3 fatty acids also affect neuroplasticity and cell survival through neurotrophins such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) [19]. Furthermore, omega-3 concentrations have also been found to affect gene expression [19]. Additionally, studies have shown that low levels of EPA and/or DHA have been noted in social anxiety disorder [20] and bipolar disorder [21]. ...
... Low levels of DA have been associated with insulin resistance, diabetes, and obesity [3,4] , [5]. Preterm infants born before 32 weeks gestation miss out on the transfer of LCPUFAs and are known to be at risk of deficiency of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and/or arachidonic acid (ARA) that can result in impaired growth and development, [6,7] as well as increased risk of cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome in later life [8,9] These deficiencies may not only be caused by DHA availability, DA due to or in combination with precursor deficiency can also limit the availability of DHA and ARA for healthy development in preterm infants [6]. ...
... A series of transition periods, from intrauterine to extrauterine, from parenteral to enteral feeding and apparent growth changes at term corrected age are potentially demanding for metabolic adaptation, but the exact mechanism is indeterminate. It is known that D5D and D6D activity effect the balance of omega-3 and omega-6 synthesis, and that imbalance of omega 3-and-6 can be harmful to human health [9]. In two childhood studies, low D5D and high D6D activity is associated with increased abdominal obesity and correlated to HOMA-IR values [22,3]. ...
Background:
Desaturase enzymes play a key role in several pathways including biosynthesis of poly- and mono- unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs, MUFA). In preterm infants, desaturase enzyme activity (DA) may be a rate-limiting step in maintaining PUFAs levels during this critical developmental window and impact on long term metabolic health. The study tested the hypothesis that DA is altered in preterm infants compared to term infants in early life and may be a marker of risk or contribute to later alterations in metabolic health.
Methods:
Lipidomic analyses were conducted using blood samples from two established UK-based cohorts, involving very preterm (n = 105) and term (n = 259) infants. Blood samples were taken from term infants at birth, two and six weeks and from preterm infants when established on enteral feeds and at term corrected age. DA of the 2 groups of infants were estimated indirectly from product/precursor lipids ratios of phosphatidylcholine (PC) and triglycerides (TG) species and reported according to their postmenstrual and postnatal ages.
Results:
There were changes in lipid ratios representing desaturase enzyme activity in preterm infants in the first weeks of life with higher delta 6 desaturases (D6D) triglyceride (TG) indices but significantly lower delta 9 desaturase (D9D) and D6D(PC) indices. In comparison to term infants, preterm have lower delta 5 desaturase (D5D) but higher D6D indices at all postnatal ages. Although point levels of desaturase indices were different, trajectories of changes in these indices over time were similar in preterm and term infants.
Conclusions:
This study findings suggest the patterns of desaturase indices in preterm infants differ from that of term infants but their trajectories of change in the first 10 weeks of life were similar. These differences of DA if they persist in later life could contribute to the mechanism of diseases in preterm adulthood and warrant further investigations.
... The ratio of n-6/n-3 is a significant parameter used to evaluate the nutritional value of meat [27]. To better maintain cardiovascular health, the n-6/n-3 ratio in the human diet should not exceed 4 [28]. ...
... In conclusion, amino acids and fatty acids, as two important parameters involved in meat quality, are closely related to the nutritional quality of meat on the one hand, and on the other hand, they affect the flavor and texture of meat. Some essential amino acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained from food [28,29]. There is no significant difference in the content of essential fatty acids between Chaka sheep and Tibetan sheep, but the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in Chaka sheep is significantly lower than that of Tibetan sheep, which means that the fatty acid content of Tibetan sheep has a higher nutritional value. ...
This study aimed to comprehensively evaluate the characteristics in the longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscle of Chaka (CK) sheep and Tibetan (TB) sheep, and transcriptomics–metabolomics association analysis was used to find the possible genes, differential metabolites, and significant differential metabolic pathways that lead to meat quality differences. Based on the researched results, the nutritional quality of meat, including the contents of ether extract (11.95% vs. 10.56%), unsaturated fatty acid (51.20% vs. 47.69%), and polyunsaturated fatty acid (5.71% vs. 3.97%), were better in TB sheep than in CK sheep, while the CK sheep has better muscle fiber characteristics, such as the total number (62 vs. 45) and muscle fiber density (1426.54 mm2 vs. 1158.77 mm2) and flavor. Omics research has shown that the key differential metabolites and metabolic pathways were dominated by amino acid metabolism, particularly the glutathione metabolism, taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, and lipid metabolism-related pathways, such as glycerophospholipid metabolism and the sphingolipid signaling pathway. The intermediate metabolite sn-Glycerol 3-phosphoethanolamine played a key role in determining sheep meat quality, which was regulated by GPAT2, PLPP2, AGPAT1, PNPLA2, and GPAT4 and correlated with meat color, texture, and flavor. Overall, these results will provide effective information and more evidence to support further exploration of valuable biomarkers of meat quality.
... To investigate the effect of type of fat intake, previous studies have suggested dietary fat quality indices, such as cholesterol-saturated fat index (CSI) and the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 (N6/N3). CSI was introduced in 1986 by Connor et al. 26 and N6/N3 was proposed by Simopoulos et al. 27 . Findings regarding the relationship between the type of dietary fat and the risk of obesity are inconsistent. ...
... CSI was calculated according to this formula CSI = (1.01 × g saturated fat) + (0.05 × mg cholesterol) 26 . N6/N3 was calculated by dividing N6/N3 contents of foods 27 . ...
Abstract Obesity has become a common global problem. Some obese people can be metabolically healthy. Gene-environment interaction can be important in this context. This study aimed to assess the interaction between dietary fat quality indices and the Melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) gene in metabolically healthy and unhealthy overweight and obese women. This cross-sectional study was conducted on 279 women with overweight and obesity. The definition of metabolically healthy and unhealthy phenotypes was done according to Karelis criteria. Dietary assessment was done using a 147-item validated semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire and dietary fat quality was assessed by cholesterol-saturated fat index (CSI) and the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 (N6/N3) essential fatty acids. MC4R was genotyped by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism technique. A generalized linear model was used to evaluate the interaction between dietary fat quality indices and the MC4R gene in both crude and adjusted models. Study subjects with higher ratio of N6/N3 had higher homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA IR) index (P = 0.03) and other variables showed no difference according to the tertile of CSI and N6/N3. Participants with the C allele of MC4R rs17782313 had lower height (P
... The ω-6/ω-3 fatty acid ratios of PS, FSO and CS were 64.10, 0.31, and 292.53, respectively. In comparison, their blends in the proportions of 1:2:7, 3:2:5, 5:2:3 and 7:2:1 had ratios of ω-6/ω-3 fatty acid ratios in the range of 1:1-4:1, which were desired for maintaining or improving human health 29,30 . In this study, the main components of the obtained blends were palmitic acid 35.25 -43. ...
... However, there was still incompatibility in the lipid system at below 10 which may be caused by the ex- Figure 4 shows the SFC profile of physical blends, interesterified products and commercial shortenings. The SFC values of EIE products were less than that of their initial blends at the lower temperature region, which was mainly due to the decreased mid-melting TAGs SSU-TAGs, [27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42] . All physical blends were completely melted at 45 and their interesterified products melted completely at about 50 . ...
This study aimed to produce stable plastic fat with desired physicochemical characteristics and ω-6/ω-3 fatty acid ratio (1:1-4:1) from palm stearin (PS), flaxseed oil (FSO) and cottonseed stearin (CS) via enzymatic interesterification (EIE). For the first time, the EIE variables of the blends containing PS, FSO and CS were investigated and optimized through single-factor experiments and response surface design to achieve a high interesterification degree. The optimized enzymatic interesterification conditions were: 60°C, 6 wt% Lipase UM1, and 6 h. Lipase UM1 had a similar effect on ID values with commercial lipases. The EIE improved the compatibility of the lipid blends, with the interesterified product EIE-721 (7:2:1, PS:FSO:CS) being the best candidate base stock for shortening considering its solid fat content, desired ω-6/ω-3 fatty acid ratio, wide melting range, abundant β′ form crystal, and compact microstructure. This study provides a strategy to produce balanced ω-6/ω-3 fatty acid plastic fat through enzymatic interesterification and validates the application of Lipase UM1 in the preparation of plastic fat.
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... Based on these results, maximal concentrations of curcumin (50µM) and fish oil (0.05%) were incubated together with LPS (100nM) to determine potential synergistic effects on TNF-α (Figure 3) and IL-6 levels ( Figure 4) at both short-and long-term exposure [17]. It was determined that incubation with these maximally effective concentrations did not further lower TNF-α levels at either time point tested (Figure 3a and 3b), nor IL-6 levels at the long-term exposure condition (Figure 4b). ...
... Then, considering the complicated event in FA metabolism, the helpful n-6/n-3 parameter has usually been viewed, where the increase in the n-6/n-3 ratio is associated with the atherosclerotic process triggered by a pro-inflammatory environment. In contrast, a reduction of the ratio is desirable for modulating the inflammatory event in a positive way, possibly reducing CV risk [46]. ...
During chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression, an increase in fibroblast growth factor (FGF23) is present. In stage 5, a positive correlation between FGF23 and omega-6 (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) emerges. Hypothesizing that the rising positive correlation between monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1) and n-6 in stage 4 could be the cause, we previously explored FGF23 and MCP1’s roles in dyslipidemia and cardiovascular risk in CKD. In the present paper, we retraced the study evaluating 40 kidney transplant patients (KTx), a cohort where several factors might modify the previous relationships found. An ELISA and gas chromatography assessed the MCP1, FGF23, and PUFA levels. Despite the FGF23 increase (p < 0.0001), low MCP1 levels were found. A decrease in the n-6/n-3 ratio (p = 0.042 CKD stage 4 vs. 5) lowered by the increase in both n-3 αlinolenic (p = 0.012) and docosapentaenoic acid (p = 0.049) was observed. A negative correlation between FGF23 and the n-6/n-3 ratio in CKD stage 4 (r2 −0.3 p = 0.043) and none with MCP1 appeared. According to our findings, different mechanisms in the relationship between FGF23, PUFAs, and MCP1 in CKD and KTx patients might be present, which is possibly related to the immunosuppressive status of the last. Future research will further clarify our hypothesis.
... The oil is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids-the most important being linolenic (ω-3) and linoleic (ω-6) as the main ones. They have a good effect on health as food supplements and for preventing coronary heart disease [5,[21][22][23][24][25][26]. ...
Flaxseed oil is a prevalent food supplement. On one hand, vegetable oil is used in the food industry and pharmacy due to its health benefits; on the other hand, it has an application as a lubricant oil. The fatty acid composition of the investigated oil was determined as follows: the main fatty acids were α-linolenic (57.5%), oleic (17.5%), linoleic (12.5%), palmitic (6.0%), and stearic acid (4.3%). The content of unsaponifiable matter was 1.4%. The total sterol content was determined (0.5%), with identified β-sitosterol (79.7%) as a main component, followed by stigmasterol. The content of tocopherols was found to be 243 mg/kg. The compound γ-tocopherol predominated (68%) in the tocopherol fraction, followed by γ-tocotrienol (32%). Some physicochemical indicators were also determined—density, surface tension, and dynamic and kinematic viscosity—at the following temperatures: 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 °C. The increase in temperature led to a decrease in all indexes and good linear dependence was observed. The determined physicochemical indicators provided information about the stability of flaxseed oil, which is very important considering its use in food and technical products.
... (1) (2)) (Willett et al., 1993;Simopoulos, 2002): ...
... Grass-fed varieties contain more omega 3 fatty acids and less omega 6 fatty acids. Omega 6 fatty acid is linked to arthritis, chronic inflammation and cancer [11]. Grass-fed beef contains more precursors for vitamins A and E, more cancer-fighting antioxidants like glutathione and superoxide dismutase and less total fat than grain-fed beef [12]. ...
The most essential need for Humans to survive on this evergreen Earth is Air, Water, Food and Shelter. In the above factors, food plays a core role in Human Health. The food habits which are followed nowadays give a map to reach diseases; this is due to Modern foods which include fast foods, preserved foods and deep-fried and packed snacks. Unhygienic cooking can also lead to contamination of foods and causes serious health issues for all humans. This should not be extended to our future generations. 10,000 years ago, the Mortality rate was less while the people were healthy, strong and also free from many non-communicable diseases. One of the secrete behind this is food habits and physical activities. This review tells an idea about its History, Theory, Components and its effects on certain non-communicable diseases like Atherosclerosis, Osteoporosis, Stroke, Ischemic heart diseases, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, Sleep Apnoea, Inflammation deficiency, Gut health, inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, risk factors and its improvement on consuming Paleolithic diets. It also gives brief information about the paleo ketogenic diet and its treatment of rectal cancer, soft palate cancer. Modified Paleolithic diet also includes nutritional risk among people with multiple risk factors and also on metabolic syndrome.
... Oil is an integral cooking medium of every food preparation. Apart from energy, oil also provide essential fatty acids linoleic acid (omega-6) and linolenic acid (omega -3), which cannot be synthesized in the human body and must be obtained from diet (Liu et al.,2016;Simopoulos, 2002). The nutritional value of edible oils depends upon the fatty acid profile, degree of unsaturation, arrangement of fatty acid in triglyceride structure. ...
Genetic traceability implies the control of the entire chain of food production and marketing, allowing the food to be traced through every step of its production back to its origin. The verification of commercial oil traceability is necessary for the prevention of deliberate or accidental mixing or mislabeling, which is very important in the international trade. DNA-based technologies are gaining increasing attention in the food authenticity field. Established official methods based on physical, chemical parameters and specific ultraviolet (UV absorptions) measurements to characterize and guarantee its quality do not provide reliable results for oil traceability. In the near future, it will become mandatory to establish edible oil authenticity and detect possible adulterations through DNA-based markers; hence standardization of DNA extraction procedure is the first step towards the work. Numerous edible oils of high dietary importance and market values such as groundnut oil are susceptible to adulteration and/or trafficking are yet to be investigated. Hence the study titled “Standardization of method for DNA extraction from groundnut oil suitable for molecular traceability” was conducted.
... For example, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids have been implicated in modulating persistent inflammation in COPD patients [15]. The ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids influences rectal cell proliferation in CRC patients, with deviations from a standard ratio leading to suboptimal outcomes [16]. However, one study that analysed 11 common malignancies posited contradictory conclusions, suggesting that omega-3 fatty acids do not reduce the risk of developing cancer [9]. ...
Background
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients often exhibit gastrointestinal symptoms, A potential association between COPD and Colorectal Cancer (CRC) has been indicated, warranting further examination.
Methods
In this study, we collected COPD and CRC data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, genome-wide association studies, and RNA sequence for a comprehensive analysis. We used weighted logistic regression to explore the association between COPD and CRC incidence risk. Mendelian randomization analysis was performed to assess the causal relationship between COPD and CRC, and cross-phenotype meta-analysis was conducted to pinpoint crucial loci. Multivariable mendelian randomization was used to uncover mediating factors connecting the two diseases. Our results were validated using both NHANES and GEO databases.
Results
In our analysis of the NHANES dataset, we identified COPD as a significant contributing factor to CRC development. MR analysis revealed that COPD increased the risk of CRC onset and progression (OR: 1.16, 95% CI 1.01–1.36). Cross-phenotype meta-analysis identified four critical genes associated with both CRC and COPD. Multivariable Mendelian randomization suggested body fat percentage, omega-3, omega-6, and the omega-3 to omega-6 ratio as potential mediating factors for both diseases, a finding consistent with the NHANES dataset. Further, the interrelation between fatty acid-related modules in COPD and CRC was demonstrated via weighted gene co-expression network analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment results using RNA expression data.
Conclusions
This study provides novel insights into the interplay between COPD and CRC, highlighting the potential impact of COPD on the development of CRC. The identification of shared genes and mediating factors related to fatty acid metabolism deepens our understanding of the underlying mechanisms connecting these two diseases.
... Humans consume PUFAs mostly through vegetable oils, and each type of vegetable oil has a unique PUFA composition and content that offers the body a variety of nutrients [5][6][7]. The PUFA composition and levels in edible oils play an essential role in human health, particularly the n-3 to n-6 FA ratio [8,9]. However, the content of n-6 PUFAs in modern human dietary oils is generally high, while n-3 PUFAs are generally deficient [10]; alpha-linolenic acids are less than 10% in most popular edible oils such as sunflower oil, peanut oil, palm oil, corn oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, and olive oil [11]. ...
Tree peony is a unique oil plant resource in China, and tree peony seed oil is one of the healthy edible oils with a very promising future. However, the main oil tree peony cultivars promoted in China are Paeonia ostii ‘Fengdan’ and Paeonia rockii. In order to explore new oil tree peony cultivars, 68 tree peony cultivars were investigated and cultivars with oil potential were selected by cluster analysis and grey relational analysis (GRA) in this study. The results demonstrated that the 68 cultivars varied significantly in terms of agronomic characteristics (p < 0.05), with the coefficient of variation in seed yield per plant reaching a high of 75.36%. The oil content of 46 cultivars was higher than ‘Fengdan’ (20.87 ± 0.26%) and ‘Zibanbai’ (21.24 ± 1.01%), while the alpha-linolenic acids and total unsaturated fatty acid contents of 26 cultivars were higher than ‘Fengdan’ (39.79 ± 1.13% and 88.99 ± 0.47%) and ‘Zibanbai’ (40.51 ± 0.09% and 93.59 ± 0.09%). Finally, three cultivars with better integrated traits were selected by cluster analysis and grey relational analysis (GRA), comprising of ‘Changshoule’, ‘Xianchizhenghui’, and ‘Yupantuojin’. The contents of alpha-linolenic acids and total unsaturated fatty acids in ‘Changshoule’ (47.98 ± 0.17% and 93.60 ± 0.08%), ‘Xianchizhenghui’ (49.44 ± 0.63% and 93.80 ± 0.06%), and ‘Yupantuojin’ (40.46 ± 0.26% and 93.58 ± 0.06%) were higher than that of ‘Fengdan’ (39.79 ± 1.13% and 88.99 ± 0.47%). In general, these cultivars can be used as hybrid parental materials for breeding new excellent oil tree peony cultivars.
... The thrombogenic index did not differ significantly with fish meal replacement with any of the insects investigated. The recommended polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids ratio is to be higher than 0.4 in animal products in order to reduce the risk of cardiovascular, autoimmune, and other chronic diseases [59]. Interestingly, in the present investigation, this ratio ranged between 0.66 and 0.79 and was not significantly affected by the partial replacement of fishmeal. ...
A 25-week experiment was undertaken to explore the effect of partial replacement of dietary fishmeal (FM) with black soldier fly meal (Hermetia illucens) (BS), mealworm meal (Tenebrio molitor) (MW), and a 1 : 1 mixture of both insect meals (BSMW) on fillet quality in African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). A total of 96 fish with an average initial body weight of 248 AE 28 g were stocked into a recirculating aquaculture system and fed in four different dietary groups (control, BS, MW, and BSMW). No mortality was recorded in any of the groups. At the end of the feeding period, 24 fish (n = 6 for each treatment, weight between 690 and 822 g) were used for analysis. There was no alteration in filleting yield or other slaughter indices within experimental groups, except the hepatosomatic index. Among quality attributes, pH 24 hr postmortem exhibited a significant difference (p<0:05). In respect of the fatty acid profile, the n-6/n-3 ratio ranged between 1.17 and 1.40 but was not significantly modified by the partial replacement of FM. Similarly, the proximate composition of the fillets was not significantly different between the control and experimental diet groups. The ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acid to saturated fatty acids ranged between 0.67 and 0.79 in the fillets, without significant differences between groups. The atherogenic index was increased in the BS group, as compared to the others; however, the thrombogenicity index of fillets was not significantly affected. Similarly, the conventional quality traits of the fillet, such as cooking, drip, and thawing losses, did not differ within treatments. This study demonstrates that the dietary inclusion of black soldier fly and/or mealworm meals used for African catfish at the tested inclusion level has negligible impact on fillet properties.
... Health-related indices such as n6/n3, PUFA/SFA, h/H, HSFA, AI, and TI indices are used to assess the nutritional value and potential impact of product consumption on consumer health. A ratio of PUFA/SFA in the diet above 0.45 and a n6/n3 below 4.0 reduces the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases and cancer [34]. In our study, the PUFA/SFA ratio in milk fat ranged from 0.04 to 0.05 and n6/n3 from 3.91 to 4.23. ...
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of the oxyhumolite supplementation in the feed of cows on the profile and the nutritional indices of fatty acids (FA) in milk and cheese. To the diet of 30 cows, a 100 g/per cow/per day humic-mineral supplement with 65% humic acids was included. Milk was sampled three times: control (0 day, before the dietary modification) and on days 30 and 60 after the introduction of the supplement. For chemical analyses, samples from each cow and for cheese manufacture samples of bulk milk were taken. Fat content in the milk and the cheese, and partial sums of fatty acids profile, nutritional fatty acid ratios and indices were determined. The indicated changes in milk fat quality are difficult to unequivocally assess from a dietary point of view. Negative changes were found in the increase in the proportion of hypercholesterolemic acids (HSFA), atherogenic (AI) and thrombogenic (TI) indices, and a decrease in the hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic (h/H) ratio, the proportion of desired (DFA) and monounsaturated (MUFA) FA over time of supplementation. Positive changes were also found: the increase in polyunsaturated (PUFA), branched-chain (BCFA), short- and medium-chain (SCSFA) and long-chain (LCSFA) FA percentages, and also content was reported. The cheese (30 and 60 d) showed an increase in the content (mg/100 g) of SFA (including SCFA and LCSFA), OCFA (odd-chain FA), BCFA, MUFA, and DFA. Adverse changes were observed with an increase in PUFA n6, the n6/n3 ratio, and HSFA and TI. No significant differences were found for the AI index. The preliminary results obtained are promising, although further research is needed.
... The LCPUFA(n6) linoleate (18:2n6) is considered essential (26), and its levels decrease in the skin of dogs with ichthyosis (27). The ratio of n6/n3 LCPUFA may be a determinant of the degree to which these LCPUFAs are beneficial (28). In some contexts, LCPUFA(n6) may be detrimental to gut health, as shown through the modification of the gut microbiome in a mouse model (29). ...
Introduction
The effect of medium-chain fatty acid-containing triglycerides (MCT), long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid-containing triglycerides from fish oil (FO), and their combination (FO+MCT) on the serum metabolome of dogs ( Canis familiaris ) was evaluated.
Methods
Dogs ( N = 64) were randomized to either a control food, one with 7% MCT, one with FO (0.18% eicosapentaenoate and 1.3% docosahexaenoate), or one with FO+MCT for 28 days following a 14-day washout period on the control food. Serum metabolites were analyzed via chromatography followed by mass spectrometry.
Results
Additive effects of serum metabolites were observed for a number of metabolite classes, including fatty acids, phospholipids, acylated amines including endocannabinoids, alpha-oxidized fatty acids, and methyl donors. Some effects of the addition of FO+MCT were different when the oils were combined compared with when each oil was fed separately, namely for acylcarnitines, omega-oxidized dicarboxylic acids, and amino acids. Several potentially beneficial effects on health were observed, including decreased circulating triglycerides and total cholesterol with the addition of FO (with or without MCT) and decreases in N-acyl taurines with the addition of MCT, FO, or FO+MCT.
Discussion
Overall, the results of this study provide a phenotypic characterization of the serum lipidomic response to dietary supplementation of long-chain n3-polyunsaturated and medium-chain saturated fats in canines.
... PUFAs are classified into n-3 PUFAs [including α-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)] and n-6 PUFAs [such as linoleic acid and arachidonic acid (ARA)], in accordance with the position of the double bond at the methyl-termini (Wallis et al. 2002;Wiktorowska-Owczarek et al. 2015). Importantly, dietary intervention studies showed that an increase in the n-6 and n-3 PUFA ratio (n-6/n-3) in diets increases the risk of several diseases, including cardiovascular disease, in humans (Simopoulos 2002). More recently, the "Omega-3 index", the amount of EPA and DHA in the red blood cell membranes, has been widely used in epidemiologic studies in humans. ...
n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), including α-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), are essential nutrients for vertebrates including humans. Vertebrates are n-3 PUFA-auxotrophic; hence, dietary intake of n-3 PUFAs is required for their normal physiology and development. Although fish meal and oil have been utilized as primary sources of n-3 PUFAs by humans and aquaculture, these traditional n-3 PUFA sources are expected to be exhausted because of the increasing consumption requirements of humans. Hence, it is necessary to establish alternative n-3 PUFA sources to reduce the gap between the supply and demand of n-3 PUFAs. Here, we investigated whether insects, which are considered as a novel source of essential nutrients, could store n-3 PUFAs by the forced expression of n-3 PUFA biosynthetic enzymes. We utilized Drosophila as an insect model to generate transgenic strains expressing Caenorhabditis elegans PUFA biosynthetic enzymes and examined their effects on the proportion of fatty acids. The ubiquitous expression of methyl-end desaturase FAT-1 prominently enhanced the proportions of α-linolenic acid, indicating that FAT-1 is useful for metabolic engineering to fortify α-linolenic acid in insect. Furthermore, the ubiquitous expression of nematode front-end desaturases (FAT-3 and FAT-4), PUFA elongase (ELO-1), and FAT-1 led to EPA bioproduction. Hence, nematode PUFA biosynthetic genes may serve as powerful genetic tools for enhancing the proportion of EPA in insects. This study represents the first step toward the establishment of n-3 PUFA-producing insects.
... Furthermore, all six seaweeds, except for red seaweed G. changii, were found to contain both omega-3 (ω− 3) and omega-6 (ω− 6) fatty acids. According to Simopoulos (2002), an excessive amount of ω− 6 would promote the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease, cancer, inflammation, and autoimmune diseases while a low ratio of ω− 6:ω− 3 on the contrary would exert suppressive effects. Green seaweed C. sertulariodes in this study demonstrated an ω− 6:ω− 3 ratio of 2.07:1 (suggested ratio: 1-2:1), which is deemed ideal for optimal health benefits. ...
Agriculture in the 21st century faces challenges in adopting efficient and sustainable production methods to feed the growing population. In this context, seaweed offers greater advantages over terrestrial plants. This study investigated the nutritional composition and antioxidant properties of six edible seaweeds found in Malaysia. The seaweeds studied were brown (Padina australis, Sargassum binderi, Sargassum polycystum), green (Caulerpa racemosa, Caulerpa sertularioides), and red (Garcilaria changgi) seaweeds. The moisture, ash, protein, fat, and total dietary fibre contents of the seaweeds were analysed according to the Association of Official Analytical Chemists methods. Total available carbohydrate content was assessed using the Clegg-anthrone method. Mineral, amino acid, and fatty acid contents were determined through atomic absorption spectroscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography, and gas chromatography methods, respectively. Results revealed that the seaweeds were all high in total dietary fibre (53.96–76.97 g/100 g dried weight, dw) and ash (4.46–18.53 g/100 g dw) whereas their fat (0.05–4.62 g/100 g dw) content was generally low. The brown seaweeds were good sources of calcium. Red seaweed G. changii had the highest content of essential amino acids whereas brown seaweed S. binderi had the highest polyunsaturated fatty acid and lowest saturated fatty acid contents. Fucoxanthin could only be detected in brown seaweeds. Methanolic extracts of seaweeds showed good antioxidant activities measured using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity (DPPH-RSA), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and trolox equivalent antioxidant activity (TEAC) assays. Overall, this study contributed knowledge on underexploited Malaysian seaweeds and proposed them as an alternative source of nutrients for humans to meet food security challenges.
... Further, in women with migraine, consumption of proinflammatory omega-6 fatty acids, as compared to antiinflammatory omega-3 fatty acids, is associated with an 11-fold increase in the development of inflammation [38]. AHEI includes healthy foods such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts and legumes, n-3 chain fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and fruit juice [15]. ...
Abstract
Background Migraine is a common brain disorder characterized by recurrent seizures lasting between 4 and 72 h.
Dietary factors can affect migraine headaches. The Alternative Healthy Diet Index (AHEI) is a measure of diet quality
and adherence to healthy dietary patterns. This study aimed to assess the association of adherence to AHEI and
severity, disability, duration, and frequency of migraine headaches.
Methods In this cross-sectional study, 266 women who suffered from migraines were selected. Usual dietary intakes
were assessed using a semi-quantitative, 147-item, food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). AHEI was calculated based on
FFQ. The Migraine Disability Assessments (MIDAS) and Visual Analog Scale (VAS) questionnaires were used to evaluate
migraine disability, severity and the pain, duration and frequency of headaches.
Results People with high adherence to AHEI, compared with low adherence, had a 43% reduction in headache
duration in the crude model (OR=0.57; 95% CI 0.34, 0.97; P=0.03), which remained significant after adjusting for
potential confounders (OR=0.56; 95% CI 0.31, 0.99; P=0.04). No association was found between the frequency of
migraine and AHEI in both crude and adjusted models (OR=1.19; 95% CI 0.66, 2.14; P=0.55). In addition, no significant
association was found between high adherence of AHEI and odds of severe and moderate headaches (P>0.05).
Conclusion The results of our study showed that people with high adherence of AHEI had a 43% reduction in
duration of migraine. More studies are needed to evaluate and better understand this relationship.
Keywords Alternative healthy Diet Index, Severity of migraine, Duration of migraine, Frequency of migraine
... This was due to the high proportion of ALA and n-3 PUFAs present in the chia seed oil. The consumption of foods with low n-6/n-3 PUFA ratios may contribute to lowering the risk of coronary heart disease, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome, among other illnesses [53]; on the contrary, an imbalance of these fatty acids in favor of n-6 PUFA could contribute to the prevalence of atherosclerosis, obesity and diabetes, among others [54][55][56]. Conventional diets in most Western countries are rich in n-6 PUFA, reaching n-6:n-3 PUFA ratios of 20:1. A 5:1 or 4:1 n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio is usually recommended to balance the intake of both types of PUFA. ...
Citation: Vera-Cespedes, N.; Muñoz, L.A.; Rincón, M.Á.; Haros, C.M. Physico-Chemical and Nutritional Properties of Chia Seeds from Latin American Countries. Foods 2023, 12, 3013. https://doi. Abstract: In the last few decades, chia (Salvia hispanica L.) cultivation has expanded around the world, and the seeds have become well known due to their rich composition of nutrients and bioactive compounds. The aim of this work was to evaluate the physical, chemical, and nutritional profile of eight types of chia seeds grown in different Latin-American countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, and Peru). The results showed that several nutritional parameters of the seeds, such as the protein content and amino acid profile, dietary fiber content, lipid content, mineral composition, and presence of phytate, depend on the location in which they were grown. Other parameters, such as ash content, fatty acid profile, or various physical parameters, were uniform across locations (except for color parameters). The results support the notion that the nutritional characteristics of seeds are determined by the seeds' origin, and further analysis is needed to determine the exact mechanisms that control the changes in the seed nutritional properties of chia seeds.
... Whilst PUFAs like omega-6 and omega-3 are critical for good health, modern diets are high in omega-6 and there is some evidence suggesting high ratios (>10:1) of omega-6 to omega-3 can increase the risk of non-communicable disease (Simopoulos, 2016;Jandacek, 2017). Consumption of omega-6 and omega-3 in ratios of <4:1 (omega-6 to omega-3) are considered the most beneficial for reducing risk of non-communicable disease (Simopoulos, 2002(Simopoulos, , 2010. However, omega-6 is still an essential fatty acid and in a balanced diet can be protective against heart disease, type-2 diabetes and depression (Alabdulkarim et al., 2012). ...
First Nations people of Australia sustained complex grassland grain production systems prior to colonisation. The revival of these foodways could aid in mitigating the interlinked issues of land degradation, reduced landscape resilience and declining food security. For the Gamilaraay people, original custodians of the grasslands of north-west New South Wales and south-west Queensland, efforts are underway to bring their ancient food system into a modern context with authenticity and integrity. The aim of this transdisciplinary study was to investigate the nutritional quality of Australian native grains to identify functional properties that may help promote this nascent industry; complimented by using autoethnography to understand how the original custodians, like the Gamilaraay people, might equitably benefit. Ethnographic findings highlight that Gamilaraay people aspire to improve their health and wellbeing through economic development and consumption of native grains, particularly Elders who disproportionately suffer from non-communicable disease. However, many First Nations people have lived experiences of being systemically exploited and excluded, particularly in the food and agriculture space. To prioritise the interests of the Traditional Custodians, the species used in the biochemical assays were de-identified. Wholegrains from seven culturally significant species, with domesticated brown rice as control, were threshed, milled, and analysed in triplicate for proximate, elemental, non-starch fatty acids, and total free phenolic content. Compared to brown rice, protein was significantly higher in all native species (9.4–32.6 g/100 g); whilst carbohydrates were significantly lower (36.5–53.7 g/100 g). One of the native species had exceptionally high total phenolics (569 mg GAE/100 g) compared to brown rice (60 mg GAE/100 g). All native species had generally higher elemental content, with significantly higher levels of Ca, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mg, P, and K in two native species. All samples were dominated by unsaturated fats with significantly higher polyunsaturated fats in two native species. The generally low carbohydrates, high protein, good fats, high mineral content and high phenolic content suggests that native grains may be beneficial to human health by improving nutrient intake and protecting against non-communicable disease, thus marketable as functional foods. To ensure a flourishing industry where all of Australia benefits from these healthful grains, future research and industry development must be First Nations led.
... • The N-6 to N-3 ratio: Omega 6 and Omega 3 are two essential fats, categorized as PUFAs [37,38]. ...
Background & aims
Mental disorders are associated with dietary fatty acids and genome-wide association studies have found multiple risk loci robustly related to depression, anxiety, and stress. The aim of this study is to investigate the interaction of genetic risk score (GRS) and dietary fat quality indices on mental health.
Methods
This cross-sectional study included 279 overweight and obese women for N6/N3 ratio and 378 overweight and obese women for CSI aged 18–68 years. Using reliable and verified standard protocols, body composition, anthropometric indices, blood pressure, physical activity, and dietary fat quality were measured. Serum samples were used to determine biochemical tests. A genetic risk score (GRS) was calculated using the risk alleles of the three SNPs. A generalized linear model (GLM) was applied to assess the interactions between GRS and fat quality indices. Mental health was evaluated using Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21).
Results
The mean (± SD) age and BMI of our participants were 36.48 (8.45) and 30.73 (3.72) kg/m2 respectively. There was a marginally significant mean difference among tertiles of the CSI in terms of stress (P = 0.051), DASS-21 (P = 0.078) in the crude model. After adjusting for age, energy intake, physical activity and BMI in model 1, there was a positive interaction between GRS and T3 of N6/N3 ratio on anxiety (β = 0.91, CI = 0.08,1.75, P = 0.031), depression (β = 1.05, CI = 0.06,2.04, P = 0.037), DASS-21 (β = 2.22, CI= -0.31,4.75, P = 0.086).
Conclusion
Our findings indicate that higher ratio of N-6 to N-3 considering genetics were predictive of mental disorder in our population.
... A high omega-6 fatty acid diet inhibits the anti-inflammatory and inflammatory mitigating effects of omega-3 fatty acids [5]. In general, the PUFA/SFA > 0.4, and the n-6/N-3 PUFA ratio maintained at (4-6)/1 is appropriate for human fat intake [6,7]. Chicken is one of the most critical animal protein sources in people's dietary intake [8,9]. ...
Background
Fatty acids composition in poultry muscle is directly related to its tenderness, flavour, and juiciness, whereas its genetic mechanisms have not been elucidated. In this study, the genetic structure and key regulatory genes of the breast muscle fatty acid composition of local Chinese chicken, Gushi-Anka F2 resource population by integrating genome-wide association study (GWAS) and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) strategies. GWAS was performed based on 323,306 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) obtained by genotyping by sequencing (GBS) method and 721 chickens from the Gushi-Anka F2 resource population with highly variable fatty acid composition traits in the breast muscle. And then, according to the transcriptome data of the candidate genes that were obtained and phenotypic data of fatty acid composition traits in breast muscle of Gushi chickens at 14, 22, and 30 weeks of age, we conducted a WGCNA.
Results
A total of 128 suggestive significantly associated SNPs for 11 fatty acid composition traits were identified and mapped on chromosomes (Chr) 2, 3, 4, 5, 13, 17, 21, and 27. Of these, the two most significant SNPs were Chr13:5,100,140 (P = 4.56423e-10) and Chr13:5,100,173 (P = 4.56423e-10), which explained 5.6% of the phenotypic variation in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). In addition, six fatty acid composition traits, including C20:1, C22:6, saturated fatty acid (SFA), unsaturated fatty acids (UFA), PUFA, and average chain length (ACL), were located in the same QTL intervals on Chr13. We obtained 505 genes by scanning the linkage disequilibrium (LD) regions of all significant SNPs and performed a WGCNA based on the transcriptome data of the above 505 genes. Combining two strategies, 9 hub genes (ENO1, ADH1, ASAH1, ADH1C, PIK3CD, WISP1, AKT1, PANK3, and C1QTNF2) were finally identified, which could be the potential candidate genes regulating fatty acid composition traits in chicken breast muscle.
Conclusion
The results of this study deepen our understanding of the genetic mechanisms underlying the regulation of fatty acid composition traits, which is helpful in the design of breeding strategies for the subsequent improvement of fatty acid composition in poultry muscle.
... Per capita consumption of edible oils has significantly increased (Yadav et al., 2022). Deficiency of essential omega-3 fatty acid, altered omega-6 to 3 ratio and its impact on human health is well established (Simopoulos, 2002). Majority of the edible oil consumed in India are rich in omega-6 fatty acid, saturated fatty acids and have limited amount of omega-3 fatty acids. ...
... 40 These results suggest that the higher intake of ALA or LA generates a reduction in the activity in both desaturases. 40 In this sense, a high intake of LA (Western diet) could be influencing both the activity of desaturase enzymes and the levels of PUFAs in the blood, 41 as is the case of a high content of LA with lower levels of DHA, for example in breast milk. 42,43 These considerations support the proposal that a high intake of LA would result in an increase in ARA levels, as well as a reduction in the content of n-3 PUFAs (ALA and especially EPA or DHA) in the blood, 44,45 which could be related to the enhancement in the development of chronic diseases or inflammatory processes. ...
The synthesis rates of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in rodents and humans are not agreed upon and depend on substrate availability independently of the capacity for synthesis. Therefore, we aimed to assess the activities of the enzymes for n-3 and n-6 PUFA synthesis pathways in liver, brain, testicle, kidney, heart, and lung, in relation to their protein concentration levels. Eight-week-old Balb/c mice (n = 8) were fed a standard chow diet (6.2% fat, 18.6% protein, and 44.2% carbohydrates) until 14 weeks of age, anesthetized with isoflurane and tissue samples were collected (previously perfused) and stored at -80°C. The protein concentration of the enzymes (Δ-6D, Δ-5D, Elovl2, and Elovl5) were assessed by ELISA kits; their activities were assayed using specific PUFA precursors and measuring the respective PUFA products as fatty acid methyl esters by gas chromatographic analysis. The liver had the highest capacity for PUFA biosynthesis, with limited activity in the brain, testicles, and kidney, while we failed to detect activity in the heart and lung. The protein concentration and activity of the enzymes were significantly correlated. Furthermore, Δ-6D, Δ-5D, and Elovl2 have a higher affinity for n-3 PUFA precursors compared to n-6 PUFA. The capacity for PUFA synthesis in mice mainly resides in the liver, with enzymes having preference for n-3 PUFAs.
... In Western populations, there has been an observed increase in the consumption of omega-6 PUFAs, resulting in a skewed omega-6/omega-3 PUFA ratio of 20:1 [125]. This imbalance has been suggested to contribute to the rising incidence of cardiovascular, inflammatory, and oncological diseases [14]. ...
Cancer is a significant global public health issue and, despite advancements in detection and treatment, the prognosis remains poor. Cancer is a complex disease characterized by various hallmarks, including dysregulation in apoptotic cell death pathways. Apoptosis is a programmed cell death process that efficiently eliminates damaged cells. Several studies have indicated the involvement of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in apoptosis, including omega-3 PUFAs such as alpha-linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, and eicosapentaenoic acid. However, the role of omega-6 PUFAs, such as linoleic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and arachidonic acid, in apoptosis is controversial, with some studies supporting their activation of apoptosis and others suggesting inhibition. These PUFAs are essential fatty acids, and Western populations today have a high consumption rate of omega-6 to omega-3 PUFAs. This review focuses on presenting the diverse molecular mechanisms evidence in both in vitro and in vivo models, to help clarify the controversial involvement of omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs in apoptosis mechanisms in cancer.
... We created an abundance level score for each class by adding together concentrations of individual fatty acids that were grouped together (e.g., trans fatty acid class includes the combined concentrations for elaidic, palmitelaidic, and linoelaidic acids). Additionally, the omega 6:3 ratio, an important indicator of dietary health 12,69 , was included in the fatty acid analysis. ...
The association between fatty acids and prostate cancer remains poorly explored in African-descent populations. Here, we analyze 24 circulating fatty acids in 2934 men, including 1431 prostate cancer cases and 1503 population controls from Ghana and the United States, using CLIA-certified mass spectrometry-based assays. We investigate their associations with population groups (Ghanaian, African American, European American men), lifestyle factors, the fatty acid desaturase (FADS) genetic locus, and prostate cancer. Blood levels of circulating fatty acids vary significantly between the three population groups, particularly trans, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. FADS1/2 germline genetic variants and lifestyle factors explain some of the variation in fatty acid levels, with the FADS1/2 locus showing population-specific associations, suggesting differences in their control by germline genetic factors. All trans fatty acids, namely elaidic, palmitelaidic, and linoelaidic acids, associated with an increase in the odds of developing prostate cancer, independent of ancestry, geographic location, or potential confounders.
... Fatty acid desaturases and elongases are among the key enzymes for the biosynthesis of PUFAs (Meesapyodsuk et al. 2007). Among them, Δ6-, Δ5-and Δ4-desaturases, and elongases are membrane-bound desaturases and fatty acid metabolic enzymes, which behave as important factors in EPA and DHA biosynthesis (Simopoulos 2002). Δ5-desaturase uses eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA, 20:4n-3) as a substrate and allows the insertion of a double bond to produce EPA. ...
Channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, have limited ability to synthesize Ω-3 fatty acids. The ccβA-msElovl2 transgene containing masu salmon, Oncorhynchus masou, elongase gene driven by the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, β-actin promoter was inserted into the channel catfish melanocortin-4 receptor (mc4r) gene site using the two-hit two-oligo with plasmid (2H2OP) method. The best performing sgRNA resulted in a knockout mutation rate of 92%, a knock-in rate of 54% and a simultaneous knockout/knock-in rate of 49%. Fish containing both the ccβA-msElovl2 transgene knock-in and mc4r knockout (Elovl2) were 41.8% larger than controls at 6 months post-hatch (p = 0.005). Mean eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5n-3) levels in Elov2 mutants and mc4r knockout mutants (MC4R) were 121.6% and 94.1% higher than in controls, respectively (p = 0.045; p = 0.025). Observed mean docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n-3) and total EPA + DHA content was 32.8% and 45.1% higher, respectively, in Elovl2 transgenic channel catfish than controls (p = 0.368; p = 0.025). To our knowledge this is the first example of genome engineering to simultaneously target transgenesis and knock-out a gene in a commercially important aquaculture species for multiple improved performance traits. With a high transgene integration rate, improved growth, and higher omega-3 fatty acid content, the use of Elovl2 transgenic channel catfish appears beneficial for application on commercial farms.
... Western diet is composed of a high omega-6/omega-3 (16.7:1 w/w) ratio which is linked to the disease's high incidence in the US. Furthermore, omega-6 PUFAs are found to be involved in HD pathogenesis and progression [68]. As previously stated, a high omega-6/omega-3 ratio is linked to inflammation, osteoporosis, and cancer [69]. ...
Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by neuroinflammation, neuronal depletion and oxidative stress. They coincide with subtle chronic or flaring inflammation, sometimes escalating with infiltrations of the immune system cells in the inflamed parts causing mild to severe or even lethal damage. Thus, neurodegenerative diseases show all features of autoimmune diseases. Prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases has dramatically increased in recent decades and unfortunately, the therapeutic efficacy and safety profile of available drugs is moderate. The beneficial effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 PUFAs) are nowadays highlighted by a plethora of studies. They play a role in suppression of inflammation, gene expression, cellular membrane fluidity/permeability, immune functionality and intracellular/exocellular signaling. The role of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid (LA), gamma linolenic acid (GLA), and arachidonic acid (AA), on neuroprotection is controversial, as some of these agents, specifically AA, are proinflammatory, whilst current data suggest that they may have neuroprotective properties as well. This review provides an overview of the existing recent clinical studies with respect to the role of omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs as therapeutic agents in chronic, inflammatory, autoimmune neurodegenerative diseases as well as the dosages and the period used for testing.
... PUFAs should be within well-defined limits. Despite the significant reduction, we are still far from the optimal level, which should range between 1:1 and 4:1 (Simopoulos, 2002;2010). However, it should be noted that this value is recommended for the specific diet, and therefore, this reduction can still be considered a contribution to the nutritional improvement of the product. ...
The quality deterioration of meat products due to lipid oxidation could be controlled by utilizing agri-food by-products rich in antioxidants. This study evaluated the effect of adding hazelnut skin and dry tomato peel to pork burgers against oxidation phenomena. Three types of burgers were prepared: a control (C) with a basic formulation, and two formulations with 2.5% hazelnut skin (HS) or with 2.5% dry tomato peel (DTP). Microbiological, sensorial, and physio-chemical analyses were performed during 7 days of refrigerated storage (0–4 °C). Results showed a high inhibition of oxidation in HS burgers at all sampling times, both raw and cooked burgers, while in DTP burgers this phenomenon occurred only when cooked. Both by-products provided a significant amount of fiber, increased the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content, and improved the omega-6/omega-3 ratio.
... In a study carried out by Jude et al. [26], the use of fish oil caused a significant increase in the omega-3 acid level in plasma and erythrocytes (especially DHA and EPA) and a decrease in AA. In humans, like in dogs, EPA is more readily incorporated into cell membranes [17]. A study conducted by LeBlanc et al. [42] showed a decrease in the level of AA and an increase in the levels of EPA and DHA in the control group receiving sunflower oil with high LA content and concurrently ALA in the amount of 1.2 g/kg of the diet. ...
The aim of this study was to determine the effect of supplementation with ethyl esters of linseed oil on the fatty acid profile in hair sebum, blood serum and erythrocyte membranes in healthy dogs. The material for the study included hair and blood samples of adult beagle dogs. The experiment was performed in two periods: summer and winter. Each time it lasted 16 weeks. During the first 8 weeks, the dogs received a supplement, the amount of which was determined individually so that the ratio of α-linolenic acid (ALA) to linoleic acid (LA) together in the feed and supplement was 1:1. Hair coat and blood samples were collected on days 0, 56 and 112; i.e., before the start of supplementation, after 8 weeks of supplementation and 8 weeks after supplementation was completed. The study included a determination of the fatty acid profile with a particular emphasis on polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 in hair sebum, blood serum and erythrocyte membranes. As a result of supplementation, a significant decrease in saturated acids and an increase in unsaturated acids was observed in hair sebum both in summer and winter and especially in omega-3 fatty acids; i.e., α-linolenic (ALA) and its derivatives eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The same relationships were observed in blood serum and in erythrocyte cell membranes in all the studied periods. Additionally, 8 weeks after the end of supplementation, the level of polyunsaturated fatty acids was still higher compared to the period before supplementation. Moreover, the supplementation resulted in a favorable decrease in the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 acids in the tested samples, which persisted even after the withdrawal period.
Background: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common cause of chronic liver disease without pharmacological treatment yet. There is also a lack of specific dietary recommendations and strategies to treat the negative health impacts derived from NAFLD. Objective: This scoping review aimed to compile dietary patterns, foods, and nutrients to ameliorate NAFLD. Methods: A literature search was performed through MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Results: Several guidelines are available through the literature. Hypocaloric Mediterranean diet is the most accepted dietary pattern to tackle NAFLD. Coffee consumption (sugar free) may have a protective effect for NAFLD. Microbiota also plays a role in NAFLD; hence, fibre intake should be guaranteed. Conclusions: A high-quality diet could improve liver steatosis. Weight loss through hypocaloric diet together with physical activity and limited sugar intake are good strategies for managing NAFLD. Specific dietary recommendations and a Mediterranean plate have been proposed to ameliorate NAFLD.
n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), are essential nutrients for vertebrate development and physiology. Microorganisms, such as microalgae, produce n-3 PUFAs that are transferred to higher predators in the aquatic food web. However, recent studies have demonstrated that various aquatic invertebrates possess the biosynthetic enzymes required for n-3 PUFA production, raising the possibility that n-3 PUFAs are also produced in certain aquatic invertebrates. In contrast to aquatic invertebrates, it remains unclear whether and how PUFAs are produced in terrestrial invertebrates, including collembolans, one of the most widespread microarthropods in soil ecosystems. In this study, we investigated the biosynthetic capacity of n-3 PUFAs in litter-dwelling Collembola, Sinella dubiosa. We detected EPA in Sinella dubiosa reared on Brewer's yeast, which produced only saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids. Furthermore, metabolic analysis using isotope-labeled fatty acids revealed that oleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids were metabolized to EPA in Sinella dubiosa. Given that collembolans are food for predatory arthropods and their nutrients are transferred to higher predatory vertebrates in the soil food web, we propose that Collembola serve as an EPA source in soil ecosystems.
Background
Observational studies have indicated an association between polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and chronic pain, but the potential causal link remains controversial. Here, we aimed to investigate whether a causal relationship exists between the concentration of circulating PUFAs and chronic pain as well as the direction of this association.
Methods
We collected statistical data from relevant genome-wide association studies to explore the causal link between four PUFAs, along with the ratio of omega-6 fatty acids (FAs) to omega-3 FAs (omega-6:3 ratio), and chronic pain in eight specific body parts. We used the inverse-variance weighting (IVW) method for two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis and conducted supplementary analyses using four other methods (MR-Egger, weighted median, weighted mode, and simple mode). To verify the robustness of the MR study, we performed multiple sensitivity analyses.
Results
The results revealed a negative correlation between omega-3 FAs [IVW, OR 95% CI: 0.952 (0.914, 0.991), p = 0.017] and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) [IVW, OR 95% CI: 0.935 (0.893, 0.978), p = 0.003] with abnormal and pelvic pain. Furthermore, a positive correlation was observed between the omega-6:3 ratio [IVW, OR 95% CI: 1.057 (1.014, 1.101), p = 0.009] with abdominal and pelvic pain. Additionally, we found a negative correlation between omega-3 FAs [IVW, OR 95% CI: 0.947 (0.902, 0.994), p = 0.028] and lower back pain or sciatica. However, no causal relationship was found between the concentration of circulating PUFAs and pain in other body parts, including the face, throat and chest, joints, limbs, lower back, and gynecological parts. The robustness of these MR results was verified through multi-validity and retention method analyses.
Conclusion
Our analysis suggests that higher circulating concentrations of omega-3 FAs and DHA and a lower omega-6:3 ratio are associated with a reduced risk of abdominal and pelvic pain. Additionally, a higher concentration of circulating omega-3 FAs is linked to a reduced risk of lower back pain and/or sciatica. These findings have major implications for the targeted prevention and treatment of chronic pain using PUFAs.
The experiment was carried out to investigate the effects of supplementation with microalgae ( Schizochytrium sp . ) on the nutritional characteristics of milk and Camembert cheese from dairy goats. The yield and composition of milk and cheese and the sensory quality of cheese were not affected by the supplementation. As the level of supplementation increased, the concentration of docosahexaenoic acid and total n‐3 fatty acids increased, whereas the ratio of n‐6/n‐3 and total saturated fatty acids decreased in the milk and cheese. In conclusion, supplemented goats, especially goats that received 35 g/head/day produced milk and cheese with better fatty acid composition for human consumption, without affecting the production and composition.
Background: Many recent studies have documented that polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) as a safe supplement raise seizure thresholds. However, the evidence of seed oil supplements on seizure susceptibility remains controversial, and among them, Echium seed oil (EO) is a mixture of ω-3 and ω-6 PUFAs. Objectives: This study aimed to test the effects of the sub-chronic administration of EO on intravenous pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) seizure threshold, considering its antioxidant activity and biochemical parameters. Methods: Fifty male mice were divided into five groups (10 in each), including control (no treatment), vehicle (sesame oil), and EO (1, 3, and 5 g/kg) groups. Vehicle and EO were administered p.o. once a day for four weeks. Then, the intravenous PTZ induced-seizure threshold was determined. Finally, the serum concentration of lipid, creatinine, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) was assessed. Results: Pretreatment with EO raised the seizure threshold dose-dependently compared to the vehicle. Pretreatment with EO had no adverse effect on the serum concentration of ALP, AST, ALT, creatinine, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL), but at the dosages of 3 and 5 g/kg decreased the concentration of cholesterol, very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) (P < 0.05), and triglyceride (TG) (P < 0.01). Also, 1 and 3 g/kg of EO improved the activity of SOD (P < 0.01). Conclusions: Pretreatment with EO increases the seizure threshold without negative impacts on the liver and kidney biomarkers, correlated with its positive effects on antioxidant activity and serum lipid profiles.
Preoperative nutritional status is an important and modifiable risk factor of a patient's recovery and outcome after radical cystectomy. There are multiple malnutrition screening tools and treatment options. In this review, we discuss the best indicators of this condition and how to optimize nutrition status prior to radical cystectomy.
Aim
This systematic literature review with meta‐analysis aimed to determine the effect of omega‐3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on prostaglandin levels and pain severity in women with dysmenorrhoea and identify adverse side effects.
Methods
A literature search was conducted in Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, MEDLINE complete, CINAHL and AMED databases (PROSPERO CRD42022340371). Included studies provided omega‐3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids compared to a control in women with dysmenorrhoea and reported pain and/or prostaglandin levels. A random effects meta‐analysis with Cohen's d effect size (95% confidence interval) was performed in SPPS for studies that reported pain outcomes. Study quality was assessed using the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Quality Criteria Checklist.
Results
Twelve studies ( n = 881 dysmenorrhoeal women) of predominantly neutral quality (83%) were included that provided daily supplementation of 300–1800 mg omega‐3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids over 2 or 3 months. Meta‐analysis ( n = 8 studies) showed a large effect of omega‐3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( d = −1.020, 95% confidence interval −1.53 to −0.51) at reducing dysmenorrhoea pain. No studies measured prostaglandin levels, 86% of studies measuring analgesic use showed a reduction with omega‐3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and few studies reported mild adverse side effects in individual participants.
Conclusions
Findings suggest that daily supplementation of 300–1800 mg omega‐3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids over 2–3 months are generally well tolerated and reduces pain and analgesic use in women with dysmenorrhoea. However, the neutral quality of research is limited by methodological issues and the mechanism of action remains to be determined.
Oleogels based on the combination of oleogelators and vegetable oils are a fat substitute alternative to obtain commercial fats (CF) with reduced saturated fatty acids (SFA), high polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and without trans fats (TFA). This study evaluated oleogelation to develop beeswax/shellac wax (BW/SW) with linseed (LO) and canola (CO) oil-based oleogels with a solid gel-like texture and high PUFA. The oleogelation conditions were optimized, and then oleogels were characterized. The optimal conditions were: oleogelator percentage of 10% (w/w), BW/SW ratio of 70/30 (%w/w), heating time of 30min, and heating temperature of 92 and 100 °C for BW/SW-LO and BW/SW-CO oleogels, respectively. The BW/SW-LO and BW/SW-CO oleogels presented firmness values of 423.6 ± 2.81 and 288 ± 2.99g, respectively, with a solid-like rheological behavior comparable to gel. Also, oleogels showed a lower SFA content (12.5 and 9.35%, respectively) than CF (35.9%), and no TFA was produced during oleogelation. The BW/SW-LO oleogel presented a higher PUFA content (68.4%) than the BW/SW-CO oleogel (29.1%). In addition, the oleogels showed peroxide values during storage below the maximum acceptable limit for edible fats and oils. Therefore, oleogels with a healthy fatty acid profile and low lipid oxidation are excellent alternatives to replace CF, offering promising food applications.
Depression, anxiety, cognitive impairment, and pain are the most common mental symptoms exhibited in a wide range of diseases. Recent progress in neuroscience has led to better understanding of those dreadful symptoms; currently, state-of-the-art brain research attempts to untangle this complex phenomenon through preclinical, clinical, and computational approaches. This E-Book complies the most recent studies published in the Special Issue “Crosstalk between Depression, Anxiety, Dementia, and Chronic Pain: Comorbidity in Behavioral Neurology and Neuropsychiatry 2.0”, discussing the most recent cutting-edge research and its integrative potential of interdisciplinary arena for new study design and methodology in behavioral neurology and neuropsychiatry.
Background: Previous studies on prenatal polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and children's neurodevelopment have shown inconsistent results, and evidence from the Asian population is scarce. Objective: To investigate the association between maternal erythrocyte PUFAs and neurodevelopment in children in the Chinese population. Methods: We included 242 mother-child pairs from the Yuexiu birth cohort. The composition of maternal erythrocyte fatty acids during pregnancy was measured by gas chromatography. Each PUFA was divided into 3 tertiles. Neurodevelopment in children was evaluated with the Ages and Stages Questionnaire at 2 years of age, including 5 domains of development: communication, gross motor, fine motor, problem solving, and personal-social skills. Results: Maternal eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) [OR (95% CI): 0.34 (0.15, 0.74) for tertile 2, and 0.31 (0.13, 0.70) for tertile 3] was associated with a reduced risk of potential developmental delay in gross motor skills. Conversely, arachidonic acid (AA) [OR (95% CI): 2.54 (1.17, 5.70) for tertile 3] was associated with an increased risk of potential developmental delay in personal-social skills. The ratio of AA/EPA [OR (95% CI): 2.64 (1.18, 6.15) for tertile 3] was associated with an increased risk of potential developmental delay in gross motor skills. No significant association was found between other PUFAs and neurodevelopment. Conclusion: This birth cohort has first shown a beneficial association between maternal EPA and gross motor skills of children. Meanwhile, maternal AA and the ratio of AA/EPA have negative associations with neurodevelopment in children.
The commercial activity of the grey mullet (known as Tainha: TAI) and Tambaqui (TAM) generates tons of waste that can be turned into valuable resources. Therefore, this work aimed to chemically characterize and quantify the fatty acids profiles of the two fishes. GCMS quantification was performed by using calibration curves built from a standard that contains 19 FAME. The analysis revealed that visceral wastes from both fishes contain 16 fatty acids (FA) consisting of saturated (SFA), monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA). However, their compositions were different as FA side chains in TAI and TAM contain 12 to 20 and 13 to 22 carbon atoms, respectively. Also, the SFA amount in TAI was greater than in TAM. On the other hand, TAM is richer in MUFA and PUFA compared to TAI. Both have similar chemical compositions of ω-3 and ω-6 in PUFA and ω-5, ω-7, and ω-9 in MUFA.
The aim of this study was to investigate the microbial and physico-chemical characteristics of cold smoked sea bass (CSSB), a novel italian fish product. The microbiological analyses showed the presence of bacterial contamination from the raw material, the environment, and the production process. The microbial spoilage population was dominated by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) associated with Gram-negative fermenting bacteria, including Photobacterium phosphoreum and psychrotrophic Enterobacteriaceae. Brochotrix thermospacta and Aeromonas spp. were also present; in contrast, mould and yeast were not detected (<2 CFU/g). High levels (6–7 log CFU/g) of LAB and total bacteria count (TBC) were observed from day 45 of storage; however, their presence does not seem to have influenced the total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), which always remained below 35 mg N/100 g. Consequently, the product is acceptable until day 60 of storage, considering that the malonaldehyde index (TBARS) was lower than 6.5 nmol/g. Pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes were not detected. Currently, there is a growing demand for seafood due to its high quality and nutritional value. Cold smoked sea bass offers a source of macro- and micronutrients essential for the proper functioning of the human body. It is also rich in protein and omega-3 fatty acids. The WHO and FAO evaluated the benefits and risks and concluded that there is convincing evidence of health benefits from fish consumption, such as a reduction in the risk of heart failure and improved neurodevelopment in infants and young children when fish is consumed by the mother before and during pregnancy. The CSSB analysed in this study demonstrated to have health benefits due to long-chain omega-3 PUFAs and other nutrients, such as proteins, minerals, and vitamin D, which are sometimes difficult to obtain from other sources. The results show that CSSB has a high nutritional value and excellent microbial quality.
The seaweed Dictyota dichotoma is an untapped marine resource and majority of the compounds from this seaweed is still unexplored. The present study was designed to explore the antioxidant effects of D. dichotoma. The preliminary screening of phytocompounds from different solvent extracts was quantitatively analysed. The results showed that ethyl acetate extracts of D. dichotoma contain more amounts of phenols (24.1 ± 0.5 mg GAE/g extract), tannin (12.14 ± 0.2 mg GAE/g extract) and flavonoids (26.0 ± 5.8 mg RE/g extract). The antioxidant activity of D. dichotoma solvent extract was studied by DPPH and H2O2 scavenging assay. Among the extracts tested, the ethyl acetate extract has shown the highest DPPH radical scavenging (IC50-458.24 ± 2.98 µg/mL), and H2O2 (IC50-20.57 ± 13.82 µg/mL) activity. The presence of various bioactive compounds in the extract was confirmed by FTIR-ATR and GC-MS analysis. The FTIR-ATR spectra analysis exhibited alkane, carboxylic acid and aromatic amine in the extracts. The ethyl acetate extracts of GC-MS analysis showed major phytocompounds of n-Hexadecenoic acid, tri, tetra, penta, and octadecanoic acid. Hence, this study could be used to fractionate the promising bioactive compounds from the extracts and lead to the developing of novel drugs with potential biomedical applications.
Omega−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are essential components required for normal cellular function and have been shown to exert many preventive and therapeutic actions. The amount of n−3 PUFAs is insufficient in most Western people, whereas the level of n−6 PUFAs is relatively too high, with an n−6/n−3 ratio of >18. These two classes of PUFAs are metabolically and functionally distinct and often have important opposing physiological functions; their balance is important for homeostasis and normal development. Elevating tissue concentrations of n−3 PUFAs in mammals relies on chronic dietary intake of fat rich in n−3 PUFAs, because mammalian cells lack enzymatic activities necessary either to synthesize the precursor of n−3 PUFAs or to convert n−6 to n−3 PUFAs. Here we report that adenovirus-mediated introduction of the Caenorhabditis elegans fat-1 gene encoding an n−3 fatty acid desaturase into mammalian cells can quickly and effectively elevate the cellular n−3 PUFA contents and dramatically balance the ratio of n−6/n−3 PUFAs. Heterologous expression of the fat-1 gene in rat cardiac myocytes rendered cells capable of converting various n−6 PUFAs to the corresponding n−3 PUFAs, and changed the n−6/n−3 ratio from about 15:1 to 1:1. In addition, an eicosanoid derived from n−6 PUFA (i.e., arachidonic acid) was reduced significantly in the transgenic cells. This study demonstrates an effective approach to modifying fatty acid composition of mammalian cells and also provides a basis for potential applications of this gene transfer in experimental and clinical settings.
omega-3 fatty acids, alpha-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, beta-carotene and glutathione determined in leaves of purslane (Portulaca oleracea), grown in both a controlled growth chamber and in the wild, were compared in composition to spinach. Leaves from both samples of purslane contained higher amounts of alpha-linolenic acid (18:3w3) than did leaves of spinach. Chamber-grown purslane contained the highest amount of 18:3w3. Samples from the two kinds of purslane contained higher leaves of alpha-tocopherol, ascorbic acid and glutathione than did spinach. Chamber-grown purslane was richer in all three and the amount of alpha-tocopherol was seven times higher than that found in spinach, whereas spinach was slightly higher in beta-carotene. One hundred grams of fresh purslane leaves (one serving) contain about 300-400 mg of 18:3w3; 12.2 mg of alpha-tocopherol; 26.6 mg of ascorbic acid; 1.9 mg of beta-carotene; and 14.8 mg of glutathione. We confirm that purslane is a nutritious food rich in omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants.
Immunohistochemistry of human atherosclerotic arteries demonstrates expression of the intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) on endothelial cells, macrophages, and smooth muscle cells of the plaques. Normal arterial endothelial cells and intimal smooth muscle outside plaques give weaker or negative reactions; these differ from the strong endothelial expression in small vessels. Quantitative color-image analysis of the endothelial layer shows increased expression of ICAM-1 in all subtypes of atherosclerotic lesions, except fibrous plaques. Endothelial expression of ICAM-1 may be involved in the recruitment of monocytes to the lesion, as suggested by its role in the entry of leukocytes, including monocytes, into foci of inflammation. Collaboration with other mechanisms, particularly chemoattractant factors, may be important for this effect. ICAM-1 enhanced monocyte recruitment is a potential mechanism for the growth of an atherosclerotic plaque.
The relation of trans-fatty acid intake to fasting serum lipid concentrations was evaluated in a cross-sectional study of 748 men aged 43-85 y. Multiple-linear-regression analysis was used to adjust for age, body mass index, waist-to-hip circumference ratio, smoking status, physical activity, alcohol intake, total energy, dietary cholesterol and linoleic acid, and previous serum cholesterol concentration. Trans-fatty acid intake was directly related to total serum (r = 0.07, P = 0.04) and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) (r = 0.09, P = 0.01), and inversely related to high-density-lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (r = 0.08, P = 0.03). Trans-fatty acid intake was positively associated with the ratios of total to HDL cholesterol (r = 0.11, P = 0.002) and LDL to HDL cholesterol (r = 0.12, P = 0.001). The estimated ratios of total to HDL cholesterol were 4.4 and 4.9 for persons at the 10th (2.1 g/d) and 90th (4.9 g/d) percentiles of trans-fatty acid intake, respectively. On the basis of results from other studies, these ratios would correspond to a 27% increase in risk of myocardial infarction.
To test whether a fat reduced diet rich in soluble dietary fibre, antioxidant vitamins, and minerals reduces complications and mortality after acute myocardial infarction.
Randomised, single blind, controlled trial.
Primary and secondary care research centre for patients with myocardial infarction.
505 patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction. Those with definite or possible acute myocardial infarction and unstable angina based on World Health Organisation criteria were assigned to diet A (n = 204) or diet B (n = 202) within 24-48 hours of infarction.
Both groups were advised to follow a fat reduced diet. Group A was also advised to eat more fruit, vegetables, nuts, and grain products.
Mortality from cardiac disease and other causes. Serum lipid concentrations and compliance with diet.
Blood lipoprotein concentrations and body weight fell significantly in patients in group A compared with those in group B (cholesterol fell by 0.74 mmol/l in group A v 0.32 mmol/l in group B, 95% confidence interval of difference 0.14 to 0.70, and weight by 7.1 v 3.0 kg, 0.52 to 7.68). The incidence of cardiac events was significantly lower in group A than group B (50 v 82 patients, p less than 0.001). Group A also had lower total mortality (21 v 38 died, p less than 0.01) than group B.
Comprehensive dietary changes in conjunction with weight loss immediately after acute myocardial infarction may modulate blood lipoproteins and significantly reduce complications and mortality after one year.
In this paper we compare the fatty acid content of egg yolks from hens fed four different feeds as a source of docosahexaenoic acid to supplement infant formula. Greek eggs contain more docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 omega 3) and less linoleic acid (LA, 18:2 omega 6) and alpha-linolenic acid (LNA, 18:3 omega 3) than do fish-meal or flax eggs. Two to three grams of Greek egg yolk may provide an adequate amount of DHA and arachidonic acid for a preterm neonate. Mean intake of breast milk at age 1 mo provides 250 mg long-chain omega 3 fatty acids. This amount can be obtained from less than 1 yolk of a Greek egg (0.94), greater than 1 yolk of flax eggs (1.6) and fish-meal eggs (1.4), or 8.3 yolks of supermarket eggs. With proper manipulation of the hens' diets, eggs could be produced with fatty acid composition similar to that of Greek eggs.
Intakes of partially hydrogenated fish oil and animal fats have declined and those of palm, soybean, sunflower, and rapeseed oils have increased in northern Europe in the past 30 y. Soybean and rapeseed oils are currently the most plentiful liquid vegetable oils and both have desirable ratios of n−6 to n−3 fatty acids. However, soybean and rapeseed oils are commonly partially hydrogenated for use in commercial frying to decrease susceptibility to oxidative degradation. This process leads to selective losses of α-linolenic acid (18:3n−3). Intake of linoleic acid (18:2n−6) has risen in many northern European countries. In the United Kingdom, intakes have increased from ≈10 g/d in the late 1970s to ≈15 g/d in the 1990s. The intake of α-linolenic acid is estimated to be ≈1–2 g/d but varies with the type of culinary oil used. There are few reliable estimates of the intake of long-chain n−3 fatty acids, but those are generally ≈0.1–0.5 g/d. The increased use of intensive, cereal-based livestock production systems has resulted in a lower proportion of n−3 fatty acids in meat compared with traditional extensive production systems. Overall, there has been a shift in the balance between n−6 and n−3 fatty acids over the past 30 y. This shift is reflected in the declining concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid and rising concentrations of linoleic acid in breast milk.
Several sources of information suggest that man evolved on a diet with a ratio of ω6 to ω3 fatty acids of ∼ 1 whereas today this ratio is ∼10:1 to 20–25:1, indicating that Western diets are deficient in ω3 fatty acids compared with the diet on which humans evolved and their genetic patterns were established. Omega-3 fatty acids increase bleeding time; decrease platelet aggregation, blood viscosity, and fibrinogen; and increase erythrocyte deformability, thus decreasing the tendency to thrombus formation. In no clinical trial, including coronary artery graft surgery, has there been any evidence of increased blood loss due to ingestion of ω3 fatty acids. Many studies show that the effects of ω3 fatty acids on serum lipids depend on the type of patient and whether the amount of saturated fatty acids in the diet is held constant. In patients with hyperlipidemia, ω3 fatty acids decrease low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol if the saturated fatty acid content is decreased, otherwise there is a slight increase, but at high doses (32 g) they lower LDL cholesterol; furthermore, they consistently lower serum triglycerides in normal subjects and in patients with hypertriglyceridemia whereas the effect on high-density lipoprotein (HDL) varies from no effect to slight increases. The discrepancies between animal and human studies most likely are due to differences between animal and human metabolism. In clinical trials eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the form of fish oils along with antirheumatic drugs improve joint pain in patients with rheumatoid arthritis; have a beneficial effect in patients with ulcerative colitis; and in combination with drugs, improve the skin lesions, lower the hyperlipidemia from etretinates, and decrease the toxicity of cyclosporin in patients with psoriasis. In various animal models ω3 fatty acids decrease the number and size of tumors and increase the time elapsed before appearance of tumors. Studies with nonhuman primates and human newborns indicate that DHA is essential for the normal functional development of the retina and brain, particularly in premature infants. Because ω3 fatty acids are essential in growth and development throughout the life cycle, they should be included in the diets of all humans. Omega-3 and ω6 fatty acids are not interconvertible in the human body and are important components of practically all cell membranes. Whereas cellular proteins are genetically determined, the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) composition of cell membranes is to a great extent dependent on the dietary intake. Therefore appropriate amounts of dietary ω6 and ω3 fatty acids need to be considered in making dietary recommendations, and these two classes of PUFAs should be distinguished because they are metabolically and functionally distinct and have opposing physiological functions. Their balance is important for homeostasis and normal development. Canada is the first country to provide separate dietary recommendations for ω6 and ω3 fatty acids.
Lee, et al, have demonstrated that fish — oil ingestion leads to decreased production of leukotriene B4 (LTB4) derived from arachidonate through the 5-lipoxygenase pathway with the new production of leukotriene B5 (LTB5) from EPA(1). Since LTB4 is a potent inflammatory and chemotactic compound, a decrease in its production could favorably affect the clinical manifestations of an inflammatory disease like rheumatoid arthritis. It was not surprising, then, when we observed improvement in certain clinical manifestations of rheumatoid arthritis which were significantly correlated with decreased production of neutrophil LTB4 in patients receiving fish — oil(2).
Background There is conflicting evidence on the benefits of foods rich in vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol), n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and their pharmacological substitutes. We investigated the effects of these substances as supplements in patients who had myocardial infarction. Methods From October, 1993, to September, 1995, 11324 patients surviving recent (less than or equal to 3 months) myocardial infarction were randomly assigned supplements of n-3 PUFA (Ig daily, n=2836), vitamin E (300 mg daily, n=2830), both (n=2830), or none (control, n=2828) for 3.5 years. The primary combined efficacy endpoint was death, non-fatal myocardial infarction, and stroke. Intention-to-treat analyses were done according to a factorial design (two-way) and by treatment group (four-way). Findings Treatment with n-3 PUFA, but not vitamin E, significantly lowered the risk of the primary endpoint (relative risk decrease 10% [95% CI 1-18] by two-way analysis, 15% [2-26] by four-way analysis). Benefit was attributable to a decrease in the risk of death (14% [3-24] two-way, 20% [6-33] four-way) and cardiovascular death (17% [3-29] two-way, 30% [13-44] four-way). The effect of the combined treatment was similar to that for n-3 PUFA for the primary endpoint (14% [1-26]) and for fatal events (20% [5-33]). Interpretation Dietary supplementation with n-3 PUFA led to a clinically important and satistically significant benefit. Vitamin E had no benefit. Its effects on fatal cardiovascular events require further exploration.
Background
ω3 Fatty acids may inhibit neuronal signal transduction pathways in a manner similar to that of lithium carbonate and valproate, 2 effective treatments for bipolar disorder. The present study was performed to examine whether ω3 fatty acids also exhibit mood-stabilizing properties in bipolar disorder.
Methods
A 4-month, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, comparing ω3 fatty acids (9.6 g/d) vs placebo (olive oil), in addition to usual treatment, in 30 patients with bipolar disorder.
Results
A Kaplan-Meier survival analysis of the cohort found that the ω3 fatty acid patient group had a significantly longer period of remission than the placebo group (P=.002; Mantel-Cox). In addition, for nearly every other outcome measure, the ω3 fatty acid group performed better than the placebo group.
Conclusion
ω3 Fatty acids were well tolerated and improved the short-term course of illness in this preliminary study of patients with bipolar disorder.
The Workshop on the Essentiality of and Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDIs) for Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids was held at The Cloisters, National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda, Md., USA, April 7–9, 1999. The workshop was sponsored by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism-NIH, the Office of Dietary Supplements-NIH, The Center for Genetics, Nutrition and Health, and the International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids, and cosponsored by several industry groups1.
Background:
It has been hypothesized that depletion of cell membrane n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), particularly docosahexanoic acid (DHA), may be of etiological importance in depression.
Methods:
We measured the fatty acid composition of phospholipid in cell membranes from red blood cells (RBC) of 15 depressive patients and 15 healthy control subjects.
Results:
Depressive patients showed significant depletions of total n3 PUFA and particularly DHA. Incubation of RBC from control subjects with hydrogen peroxide abolished all significant differences between patients and controls.
Conclusions:
These findings suggest that RBC membranes in depressive patients show evidence of oxidative damage. Possible interpretations, and implications for the etiology and treatment of depression, are discussed.
The advanced lesions of atherosclerosis represent the culmination of a specialized form of chronic inflammation followed by a fibroproliferative process that takes place within the intima of the affected artery. Proliferation of smooth muscle cells and generation of connective tissue occur. Proliferation results from interactions between arterial smooth muscle, monocyte-derived macrophages, T lymphocytes, and endothelium. The initial lesion of atherosclerosis, the fatty streak, begins as an accumulation of monocytederived macrophages and T lymphocytes, which adhere and migrate into the intima of the affected artery. Smooth muscle cells, which are present in the intima or which migrate into the intima from the media, then replicate. Monocyte-derived macrophages and T cells also replicate during lesion formation and progression due to the production of cytokines and growth-regulatory molecules. These molecules determine whether there is proliferation and lesion progression or inhibition of proliferation and lesion regression. Several growthregulatory molecules may play critical roles in this process, including platelet-derived growth factor (PGDF), transforming growth factor beta, fibroblast growth factor, heparinbinding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor, and others. PDGF may be one of the principal components in this process because protein containing the PDGF B-chain has been demonstrated within activated lesion macrophages during every phase of atherogenesis. The presence of this growth factor and its receptors on lesion smooth muscle cells creates opportunities for smooth muscle chemotaxis and replication. Smooth muscle proliferation depends upon a series of complex signals based upon cellular interactions in the local microenvironment of the artery. The intracellular signalling pathways for mitogenesis versus chemotaxis are being investigated for smooth muscle. The roles of the cytokines and growth-regulatory peptides involved in these cellular interactions represent critical points of departure for intervention and the development of new diagnostic methods. In addition, magnetic resonance imaging has been developed to demonstrate the fine structure of lesions of atherosclerosis in peripheral arteries not subject to cardiac motion. This noninvasive methodology holds great promise for the future of these approaches.
To determine the safety and benefit of n-3 fatty acid therapy in the prevention of early restenosis after coronary angioplasty, we conducted a randomized, unblinded study comparing a conventional antiplatelet regimen (325 mg of aspirin and 225 mg of dipyridamole per day; control group) with a similar regimen supplemented with 3.2 g of eicosapentaenoic acid per day (treatment group). Treatment began seven days before angioplasty and continued for six months afterward. All angiographic analyses were blinded and performed by a method that was validated by comparison with quantitative coronary angiography. In 82 male patients, 103 coronary lesions were dilated. Both groups had similar base-line clinical and angiographic characteristics. The incidence of early vessel restenosis, as determined on a second angiogram three to four months after angioplasty, was 36 percent in the control group and 16 percent in the treatment group (P = 0.026). The incidence of restenosis per patient was also significantly lower in the treatment group (46 vs. 19 percent). Both multiple logistic regression and Mantel-Haenszel statistical analyses demonstrated a significant independent benefit of treatment with n-3 fatty acids. No important bleeding complications developed in the treated patients. These results, in a male population at relatively high risk for restenosis, suggest that a dietary supplement of n-3 fatty acids, administered for one week before and for six months after coronary angioplasty, is safe and reduces the occurrence of early restenosis after that procedure. Whether this beneficial effect also applies to other populations is unknown.
A comparison has been made of the tissue fatty acids in domestic bovids and bovids from free-living and undisturbed habitats. In the domestic state, the proportion of polyunsaturated to non essential fatty acids was of the order of 1/50, whereas in the free-living animal it was 1/2.3. There also seemed to be a greater diversity of polyunsaturated acids in free-living species. These differences may arise partly because oil-rich vegetation which is available to free-living animals has been eliminated from the diet of domestic animals raised on grassland. Since man's tissue lipids approximate to the domestic pattern on which he is dependent, the question arises as to whether the total domestic development of water-rich vegetation is nutritionally detrimental and that a resultant low balance of polyunsaturated to saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids may be related to arterial disease.
Several studies have indicated dietary fish oil (FO) as a protective agent in colon carcinogenesis. Rectal cell proliferation as an intermediate biomarker of cancer risk was shown to be reduced by dietary FO in patients with adenomatous polyps and healthy subjects consuming a low-fat diet. Because the synthesis of prostaglandins (PG) which seem to be involved in this process is dependent on the ratio of n-3:n-6 fatty acids in the diet, the present study was designed to investigate whether this FO effect is also detectable in volunteers eating a high-fat diet (50% of energy) with a low n-3:n-6 ratio of 0.25. Twelve healthy volunteers received in addition to a controlled basal diet either FO (4.4 g n-3 fatty acids/day) or corn oil supplements (double-blind, crossover) for two 4-week periods. No significant differences between the two study periods were found for rectal cell proliferation as assessed by bromodeoxyuridine immunohistochemistry and ornithine decarboxylase activity, as well as for mucosal PGE(2) release and mucosal membrane fatty acid composition. The results emphasize the importance of dietary n-3:n-6 ratio in determining the effects of FO on rectal cell proliferation.
• Human physiology during evolution would have been adapted to the nature of wild foods, yet there is a striking qualitative and quantitative difference between the fat in wild or extensive meat consumption compared to what we eat today.
• The total proportion of ω-3 has fallen 10-fold from a range of 12–16% of the fatty acids in wild bovids to 1.0–2.6% in currently sold meat.
• The intensively reared animal carcass ratio is >1 often with between four and nine times the calories coming from fat compared to protein so that a chicken thigh eaten today provides the consumer with 100 more calories from fat than it did in the 1970s.
• Most of the fat is of a saturated type and there is a discernable loss of ω-3 fatty acids in the meat of beef and poultry so that the ω6/ω-3 ratio in chickens as purchased was found to be about 9 compared to wild birds in which it is approximately 2.
• A high level of fat infiltration in muscle which is purchased as meat has happened because of the intensive conditions of high-energy diets, growth promotion and absence of exercise which encourages weight gain as fat and fat infiltration at the expense of muscle loss.
• Human physiology is adapted to wild foods; so drift from the genetic adaptation background contributed to the rise in the Western cluster of non-communicable diseases and the current concern with obesity, metabolic syndrome and mental ill health.
In this article, Dr. Simopoulos proposes that, in developing food guides for various populations, attention be directed to the dietary patterns that prevailed early in the evolutionary history of that population and its current health status. She emphasizes that the dietary aspects of the environment have changed much more over the centuries than has the human genome. Because of the diverse genetic patterns in various cultures, she argues that universal dietary recommendations are not applicable and that, to be effective, food guides must incorporate the unique dietary components in which the group has evolved and thrived.
(C) Williams & Wilkins 1995. All Rights Reserved.
This article presents a review of the recent findings on the role of insulin resistance in obesity, the importance of fatty acid composition of muscle cell membranes in modulating insulin action, and dietary factors that require consideration.
(C) Williams & Wilkins 1994. All Rights Reserved.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) of lean meat from domesticated and wild ruminants (cattle, sheep, goat, sambar deer and buffalo) and non-ruminants (pig, horse and kangaroo) have been examined by capillary gas-liquid chromatography. Ten different PUFA were found in all specimens with linoleic acid accounting for at least 50% of the total, and arachidonic and linolenic acids being the next most abundant. The total PUFA content for the ruminants ranged from 9 % in beef to 31 % in sambar deer and for the non-ruminants from 25 % in pig to 43 % in horse. In all species the meat phospholipids (PL) were rich in PUFA (range 24–46% of PL fatty acids), whereas the triglycerides were relatively more saturated (PUFA content range 2–17%). Overall, horse and kangaroo meat had the combination of lowest fat and highest PUFA content, whilst beef and sheep had the highest fat and lowest PUFA content. These results indicate that significant reductions in total fat intake and increases in the proportion of polyunsaturated fat in the diet could be achieved without necessarily requiring a diet low in meat.
Patients with familial hypercholesterolemia (type IIa) were given 30 ml cod liver oil (CLO) as dietary supplement daily for 6 weeks. The effects on platelets, bleeding time, coagulation and blood and platelet lipids were examined. The major findings were a reduced collagen-induced platelet aggregation and a decrease in thrombin-stimulated thromboxane B2 generation in platelets in vitro. The primary bleeding time was not significantly prolonged. Statistically significant increase in ***eicosapentaenoic add/arachidonic acid ratios in the main platelet phospholipids were also observed. These changes did not correlate with any of the changes in platelet behavior observed after CLO intake. The serum total and HDL cholesterol and triglycerides were not altered during the trial.
Advances in molecular and recombinant DNA technology have led to exquisite studies in the field of genetics and the recognition in a much more specific way, through DNA sequencing, of how unique each one of us is, and the extent to which genetic variation occurs. The importance of the effects of genetic variation has been extensively studied and applied by pharmacologists in drug development and evaluation of drug metabolism and adverse reactions to drugs. In the past two decades, physicians, geneticists, and nutritionists have begun to study the effects of genetic variation and gene−nutrient interactions in the management of chronic diseases, such as coronary heart disease, hypertension, cancer, diabetes and obesity; and the role of nutrients in gene expression. A new era is being ushered in that may be called ‘nutrigenetics/nutrigenomics’. The new genetics has enormous implications for nutrition research both in the prevention and management of chronic diseases. Because families share both genes and environment (in this case, diet), similarity may result from either. Much research has been carried out to define the contribution of each and their interaction in the development of the individual. Knowledge of genetic susceptibility to disease will help identify those at higher risk for disease, as well as their response to diet. The prospect of targeting specific dietary treatment to those predicted to gain the most therapeutic benefit clearly has important clinical and economic consequences, particularly in diseases of high prevalence such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, osteoporosis, and possibly cancer. With the unfolding genomic and technological revolution, continuing investments in research offers unprecedented opportunities to understand disease processes, prevent intrinsic and environmental risks to health and develop new approaches to improve the quality of life worldwide. Furthermore, knowledge of genetic susceptibility to disease will help identify those at higher risk for disease, as well as their response to diet. As a result, there will be a need for the development of novel foods targeted to individuals, families and subgroups within populations. Although the emphasis of new genetics has been on pharmacogenetics, it is the responsibility of the nutrition scientists to expand in parallel the relationship of genetics and nutrition and establish nutrigenetics/nutrigenomics as a major discipline in nutrition in the 21st century.
Let X be the solution of an Itô differential equation with jumps over . Under some auxiliary assumptions on the parameters of the equation, we characterize the support of the law of X in the Skorohod space as the closure of the set of solutions to piecewise ordinary differential equations. This gives an analogue in the Poisson space to the classical Stroock-Varadhan support theorem.
To identify the arrhythmogenic and the antiarrhythmic eicosanoids, cultured, spontaneously beating, neonatal rat cardiac myocytes were used to examine the effects of various eicosanoids added to the medium superfusing the cells at different concentrations on the contraction of the myocytes. Superfusion of the myocytes with the prostaglandins (PGD(2), PGE(2), PGF(2 alpha)) or the thromboxane (TXA(2))-mimetic, U 46619, induced reversible tacharrhythmias characterized by an increased beating rate, chaotic activity and contractures. These effects are concentration-dependent. PGF(2 alpha) and U 46619 were much more potent than PGD(2) or PGE(2) in the production of tachyarrhythmias. Prostacyclin (PGI(2)) induced a marked reduction in the contraction rate of the cells with a slight increase in the amplitude of the contractions and showed a protective effect against the arrhythmias induced by PGF(2 alpha) and TXA(2) (U 46619). PGE(1) exerted a dose-dependent dual effect on the contraction of the myocytes. At low concentrations (<2 mu M), PGE(1) reduced the contraction rate of the cells with an increase in the amplitude of the contractions and effectively terminated the tachyarrhythmias induced by arrhythmogemic agents, such as isoproterenol, ouabain and U 46619. At higher concentrations (>5 mu M), PGE, caused cell contractures and chaotic activity In contrast, the lipoxygenase products [leukotriene (LT) B-4, LTC4, LTD4 & LTE4] of arachidonic acid (AA) had no significant effect on the myocyte contractions.