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Parenting and childhood anxiety: Theory, empirical findings, and future directions
Abstract
Theories of anxiety development suggest that parental acceptance, control, and modeling of anxious behaviors are associated with children's manifestations of anxiety. This paper reviews research published in the past decade on the relation between parenting and childhood anxiety. Observed parental control during parent-child interactions was consistently linked with shyness and child anxiety disorders across studies. Mixed support for the role of parental acceptance and modeling of anxious behaviors was found in observational studies. However, there was little evidence supporting the contention that self-reported parenting style was related to children's trait anxiety. Because of limitations associated with past research, inferences about the direction of effects linking parenting and child anxiety cannot be made. A conceptual framework based on recent models of anxiety development (e.g., Vasey & Dadds, 2001) is presented to aid in the interpretation of extant research findings and to provide suggestions for future research and theory development. Improved methodological designs are proposed, including the use of repeated-measure and experimental designs for examining the direction of effects.
... Particularly, we examined the contribution of parent's characteristics to explain child anxiety. The rationale of the present study stems from previous findings indicating that parenting styles are associated with child anxiety (see, for example, [17,18]). The present study uses the typology of Lovejoy et al. [19] for the two broad dimensions of parenting: supportive/engaged and hostile/coercive parenting. ...
... Therefore, w ined the role of parenting styles in the association between parental openness to ways of thinking and child anxiety. Although parenting styles have long been k be associated with children's outcomes [18,19,46], their underlying components been studied yet, specifically, cognitive processes associated with parenting style ...
... According to the findings, such a parent-child relationship does not relate to child anxiety and t does not prevent or reduce it. Since previous studies did not provide evidence association between high levels of supportive/engaged behaviors and reduced child anxiety [18], the present finding strengthens our understanding of the irrele ...
The quality of parent–child relationships plays a significant role in the development of child anxiety, especially regarding aspects of parental control, intrusive behavior, and a lack of warmth. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanisms of these parenting behaviors that are associated with the risk of child anxiety have yet to be revealed. The present study aims to examine the contribution of a cognitive aspect of parenting, i.e., openness to different ways of thinking, to the development of child anxiety through its impact on parenting style. A sample of 300 Israeli parents (72% women) over the age of 18 (M = 38.8, SD = 6.2), with at least one child over the age of 6 (M = 13.3, SD = 5.5 of oldest child), was recruited through social media platforms. Participants provided demographic information and filled out self-reported questionnaires dealing with child anxiety (using the Child Behavior Checklist), openness to different ways of thinking (using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index), and parenting style (using the Parental Behavior Inventory). The analysis confirmed the mediation role of hostile/coercive parenting style in the association between parental openness to different ways of thinking and child anxiety. However, the association between supportive/engaged parenting and child anxiety was non-significant. Apparently, openness to different ways of thinking allows for parents to consolidate parenting that does not resort to coercive and hostile behaviors, control, obedience, and severe strictness. As a result, the child develops self-regulation and coping mechanisms that reduce the risk for developing anxiety.
... In the past two decades, the phenomenon of overprotective parenting has gained increasing interest from scientific researchers, while also becoming increasingly debated in the popular literature (e.g., Haidt & Lukianoff, 2018). We focused on overprotective parenting, considering previous research demonstrating a consistent link with SA (e.g., Lieb et al., 2000;Wood et al., 2003). Maternal or paternal overprotection involves the provision of an excessive level of protection, considering the developmental level of the child (Thomasgard et al., 1995). ...
... To explain this relationship, a reciprocal influence model of the parent-child interaction has been proposed, where parents who perceive their children as more fragile or vulnerable may be more likely to engage in overprotective behavior (Thomasgard et al., 1995). In turn, this may prevent offspring from exposing themselves to social situations or acquiring social skills, increasing their dependency on the parents, hence reinforcing their vulnerability (Rapee & Spence, 2004;Wood et al., 2003). ...
... The results of the present study support previous research showing that adolescents experienced more SA symptoms when they perceived their parents to be overprotective (for reviews, see Rapee, 1997;Wood et al., 2003). As previous research suggests, parents who tend to react in an overprotective way to a child displaying negative emotions may inhibit their child from experimenting with several ER strategies (Bell & Calkins, 2000;Fox & Calkins, 2003). ...
The present study sought to examine the underlying mechanisms through which overprotective parenting relates to social anxiety symptoms in adolescents. Specifically, we tested whether the adolescents’ emotion regulation strategies of dysregulation, suppression, and integration, played an intervening role in the association between perceived maternal and paternal overprotection and social anxiety symptoms in adolescents. A sample of 278 Swiss adolescents filled out questionnaires assessing perceived overprotective parenting, social anxiety symptoms and emotion regulation. Results indicated that perceived overprotective parenting was significantly associated with adolescents’ social anxiety symptoms. Furthermore, structural equation modeling analyses indicated that emotional dysregulation, in particular, intervenes in the association between both maternal and paternal overprotection and social anxiety. These findings highlight emotion regulation difficulties as a potential mechanism underlying the association between parental overprotection and social anxiety, suggesting that adolescents’ maladaptive emotion regulation strategies as well as overprotecting parenting could be targeted when treating social anxiety symptoms.
... Parenting styles (PS) have been shown to have a significant impact on children's development (Baumrind & Mccandless, 1971), and a direct effect on child behaviors in the home environment Munoz-Silva et al. (2017). Parenting style is defined as a set of attitudes, goals, and patterns of parenting practices, which are thought to create an emotional climate for the parent-child relationship (Wood et al., 2003). The most influential research on PS is rooted in Baumrind's (1967) original conceptualizations of authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive PS and Maccoby and Martin's (1983) uninvolved PS. ...
... For example, the characteristics of authoritarian PS have been linked with more externalizing and internalizing problems in children (Fletcher et al., 2008). Specifically, it has been associated with a lack of independence (Baumrind & Mccandless, 1971), less cooperative behavior (Howenstein et al., 2015), and more anxiety and shyness (Wood et al., 2003). Authoritative parenting has been associated with more desirable child behavior including more social responsiblity, happier dispositions, greater emotional control and regulation, improved social skills, and less relational aggression (Howenstein et al., 2015;Kawabata et al., 2011;Luyckx et al., 2011). ...
... These results are consistent with past literature (e.g., Fletcher et al., 2008;Howenstein et al., 2015). Previous research has demonstrated that the harsh and negative parenting present in the authoritarian PS is associated with both externalizing (Fletcher et al., 2008) and internalizing behavior problems (Wood et al., 2003). Additionally, uninvolved parents tend to utilize more punitive discipline strategies with their children (Fletcher et al., 2008) which can lead to more externalizing issues (Luyckx et al., 2011). ...
It is well established that parenting influences child behavior at home, but less is known about the associations between parenting and teacher reports of child behavior at school, an environment more distal from the home context. This study investigated the presence of authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved parenting styles (PS) in a community sample of 321 parents with kindergarteners (Mage = 5.45 years) in the Northwestern United States. This study analyzed (1) which PS were present, (2) if PS was associated with family characteristics, (3) if teacher reported behavior problems in spring of children’s kindergarten year varied by PS, and (4) whether associations between PS and child behaviors were moderated by parenting stress. Study hypotheses were that PS would be associated with family characteristics, that teacher reported child behaviors would differ by PS, and that parenting stress would moderate the relationship between PS and behavior problems at school. Results indicated all PS were present. Chi-squares and ANOVA’s identified that PS were significantly associated with parenting stress and child problem behaviors. ANOVAs determined differences in parenting stress and problem behaviors depending on PS. ANOVAs revealed parenting stress moderated the relation between PS and child problem behavior. Few studies to date have analyzed the presence of all four PS among kindergarteners and the relationship this has with teacher-reported classroom behavioral concerns. This study sought to fill this gap as results have implications for targeted parenting prevention interventions to promote children’s social and behavioral adjustment during the transition to elementary school.
... -. (Muris & Merckelbach, 2001) Developmental models add to the understanding of the parent-childhood anxiety relationship but little is known about the precise dynamics of this relationship. Therefore, longitudinal studies, experimental designs or intervention designs are needed to establish the direction of effects in the parent-child relationship (reviews by Wood et al. 2003;Connell & Goodman, 2002). So far a handful of longitudinal studies give tentative evidence for the suggestion that parental factors could playa causal role in the development/maintenance of AD (Poulton et al. 2001;Gadeyne, Ghesquiere & Onghena, 2004;Chambers, Power & Durham, 2004;Dallaire & Weinraub, 2005). ...
... In addition the concept of equifinality is crucial when exploring pathways of influence in the parent-childhood anxiety linkage. (Wood, McLeod, Sigman, Hwang & Chu, 2003). Indeed this concept has been referred to in various developmental psychopathology approaches (Davies & Cicchetti, 2004;Muris, 2006). ...
... Indeed this concept has been referred to in various developmental psychopathology approaches (Davies & Cicchetti, 2004;Muris, 2006). The concept of equifinality is operationalised by Wood et al. (2003) when they suggest that: (1) there are multiple pathways to the same anxiety disorder, (2) a single factor such as parenting cannot account for the development of any given disorder. In other words environmental factors cannot explain the totality of the phenomenon. ...
p>The thesis investigates cognitive and family factors linked to childhood anxiety in a non-referred population taking a developmental approach. It examines whether children with symptoms of anxiety exhibit a threat-related cognitive bias. Attentional and interpretive biases are specifically looked at. It also examines maternal variables that would be influential to the child’s levels of anxiety. Maternal parenting behaviours, maternal mental health and maternal beliefs and attitudes towards the child are specifically looked at. Cognitive and maternal factors are integrated in the explanation of childhood anxiety. Whether links between maternal factors and childhood anxiety are mediated by the development of biased cognitive styles is explored.
A total of 129 children aged 7-14 years and their mothers participated in the study. Children are assessed on cognitive tasks tapping into attentional and interpretive biases. Their levels of anxiety are assessed with questionnaire reports completed by themselves and their mothers. Maternal parenting behaviours and maternal mental health variables are assessed with questionnaire reports completed by the mothers. Maternal beliefs and attitudes towards the child are assessed with the Expressed Emotion index following five minute interviews.
The results show that children with symptoms of anxiety exhibit a threat-related cognitive bias. In support of developmental theories of cognition and anxiety, threat-related attentional biases (Abs) emerged for children aged over 10 years. The results also single out maternal variables that are contributing to a child’s anxiety. The association between maternal parenting behaviours or maternal beliefs and attitudes and a child’s anxiety however is shown to not be consistent. In contrast maternal depression is found to be consistently associated with a child’s symptoms of separation anxiety independent of the age of the child. Support for a cognitive mediated pathway in which threat-related ABs are partially mediating a link between maternal overprotection and a child’s separation anxiety is found. These findings add to developmental models of childhood anxiety.</p
... Researchers have noted that theories have primarily sought to explain the development and maintenance of childhood anxiety in terms of single main effects (Lo et al., 2020a;Wood et al., 2003). Previous studies have mostly investigated the main effects of various factors affecting anxiety in children. ...
... Moreover, authoritative parenting has been associated with lower anxiety in children (Silva et al., 2007;Wolfradt et al., 2003). Nonetheless, most theoretical models have not explained much variance in anxiety in children (Wood et al., 2003). For instance, the effects of maladaptive emotion-focused coping and authoritative parenting on anxiety have been weak and inconsistent (Pinquart, 2017;Vulić-Prtorić & Macuka, 2006;Zhuang et al., 2020). ...
... More recently, scholars have highlighted the importance of investigating the development and maintenance of mental health problems from a developmental psychopathology perspective, which proposes that the effect of a risk factor may depend on the context (Lo et al., 2020a;Wood et al., 2003). The current study endeavors to provide a fuller account of the development of anxiety symptoms by investigating whether authoritative parenting may provide an environmental context that moderates the impact of maladaptive emotion-focused coping using a sample of preadolescent children. ...
This one-year longitudinal study examined the potential buffering role of authoritative parenting in the relationship between maladaptive emotion-focused coping and anxiety in children. Participants were 128 preadolescent children (41.4% female) aged between 10 and 14 years (M = 12.15, SD = 1.30) in Hong Kong. The results of the latent moderated structural equations model revealed that T1 paternal authoritative parenting significantly moderated the association between T1 maladaptive emotion-focused coping and T2 anxiety while controlling for T1 anxiety, such that the association was weaker when T1 paternal authoritative parenting was higher. T1 maladaptive emotion-focused coping was positively related to T2 anxiety when T1 paternal authoritative parenting was low. This relationship was not significant when T1 paternal authoritative parenting was medium or high. Unexpectedly, the moderating role of T1 maternal authoritative parenting was not significant. These findings suggest that paternal authoritative parenting may function as a protective factor that ameliorates the unfavorable impact of maladaptive emotion-focused coping on anxiety in children.
... Overprotection/overcontrol (OP/OC) behaviors were defined as behaviors in which caregivers (including parents and other family members) are overly involved in children's daily activities and experiences, often caused by excessive anxiety about the children's safety (1,2). As suggested by past studies, multiple possible reasons may lead to OP/OC behaviors. ...
... The survey was conducted from September 2021 to October 2021, and all students completed the survey online through a famous platform in China, "Questionnaire Star". 1 To avoid the potential confounding impacts of other clinical conditions on the results, students with a previous diagnosis of any psychiatric disorder were excluded (n = 120). In addition, students with missing data (n = 47) or over the age of 25 (n = 3) were excluded. ...
... Since the new millennium, there has been growing interest in the potential impact of overprotective parenting on child development. Overprotective parents excessively regulate a child's activities and routines, are highly controlling and create dependence on the parent(s) (Wood et al. 2003;Ungar 2009). This stems from the belief that the environment is full of danger and that children need to be spared from adversity, disappointment, and discomfort. ...
... Also, scientific literature on overprotective parenting, often in relation to socio-emotional and behavioural development of children, has started to emerge. Studies have shown that overprotection by parents has been associated with internalising behaviour problems in children, including depression and anxiety, as well as externalising behaviour problems, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder (Wood et al. 2003;Bayer et al. 2006;McLeod et al. 2007;Gere et al. 2012;Kiel and Maack 2012;Roo et al. 2022). In adolescence, lower levels of self-efficacy and somatic symptoms have been reported (Janssens et al. 2009;Giverts and Segrin 2014). ...
Purpose:
Overprotective parenting and its impact on child development has gained increasing public attention. This study explored the association between overprotective parenting and behaviour during dental treatments and toothbrushing behaviour of 4 to 11-year-old-children.
Methods:
In this cross-sectional study, caregivers of 4-to-11-year-old children who visited a referral practice for dental treatment in Leiden, The Netherlands, completed a questionnaire about overprotective parenting, using the Parental Overprotection Measure (POM), and children's toothbrushing behaviour. The dentist and dental assistant used the Venham scale to assess children's behaviour during dental treatments. Associations between the POM and the Venham scale and toothbrushing variables, were analysed using multiple ordered logistic regression.
Results:
The sample included 96 children (mean age: 7.3 ± 2.1 years, 59 boys). Overprotective parenting (higher POM scores) was significantly associated with more disruptive behaviour of children during dental treatments (higher Venham categories) (OR: 1.08 (95% CI 1.04; 1.13)) and lower caregiver self-efficacy regarding toothbrushing (OR 0.96 (95% CI 0.93; 0.99)), after adjustment for confounders. No associations between overprotective parenting and toothbrushing frequency or skipping toothbrushing were found.
Conclusions:
Overprotective parenting has been associated with children's negative behaviour during dental treatments and lower caregiver self-efficacy regarding toothbrushing in primary school children who are treated in a referral practice for paediatric dental care.
... Overprotection/overcontrol (OP/OC) behaviors were defined as behaviors in which caregivers (including parents and other family members) are overly involved in children's daily activities and experiences, often caused by excessive anxiety about the children's safety Wood et al., 2003). There are multiple possible reasons which may lead to OP/OC behaviors: for example, some parents exhibited fear in fulfilling their parenting responsibilities, which may in turn leading to their OP/OC (Holmbeck et al., 2002); that lack of care by one parent can also lead to OP/OC by the other (Cella et al., 2014). ...
... Prior research has shown that perceived OP/OC from family members might limit children to develop a clear understanding of environmental dangers and might have negative effects on their mental health statuses (Affrunti & Woodruff-Borden, 2015;Miller et al., 2018). For instance, perceived OP/OC experiences were suggested to be possibly associated with decreased self-efficacy and increased vulnerability to perceived threats (Wood et al., 2003), the development of childhood anxiety (Holmbeck et al., 2002), as well as the onset of anorexia (Albinhac et al., 2019) in children and teenagers. In addition, OP/OC might be related to increased risks of depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (Williamson et al., 2017), and suicidal behaviors (Goschin et al., 2013). ...
The childhood experiences of being overprotected and overcontrolled by family members have been suggested to be potentially traumatic. However, the possible associated factors of these experiences among young people are still not well studied. This study aimed to investigate the possible associated factors of childhood overprotection/overcontrol (OP/OC) experiences in young populations in a relatively large, nationwide sample of Chinese university students. A total of 5,823 university students across nine different provinces in China were recruited and included in the data analyses. All participants completed the OP/OC subscale in a recently developed 33-item Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ-33) to assess their OP/OC experiences. Data were also collected on socio-demographic information and multiple psychological characteristics of all participants. Binary logistic regression was conducted to investigate the associated factors of OP/OC. The prevalence of childhood OP/OC was estimated as 15.63% (910/5,823) based on a cutoff of OP/OC subscale score ≥ 13. Binary logistic regression suggested that being male, being a single child, having depression, having psychotic-like experiences, lower family functioning, and lower psychological resilience were independently associated with childhood OP/OC experiences (all corrected-p＜0.05). The OP/OC was also positively associated with all the other trauma subtypes (abuses and neglects) in the CTQ-33. Post-hoc analyses suggested that OP/OC experiences were associated with depression in only females, and associated with anxiety in only males. Our results may provide initial evidence that childhood OP/OC experiences would have negative effects on young people's mental health which merits further investigations, especially in clinical populations.
... Samtidig vurderede de klinisk angste børn deres foraeldre som mindre accepterende end kontrolbørnene. Et gennemgående fund i disse studier er en sammenhaeng mellem overbeskyttende foraeldreadfaerd og angstlidelser hos børn, mens sammenhaengen mellem en kritisk og afvisende foraeldreadfaerd og angst hos børn synes svagere og måske i højere grad har en sammenhaeng med depression , Wood et al., 2003. ...
... Forfatterne fandt, at mødre hjalp de børn mest, der udviste angst, uafhaengigt af deres eget barns kliniske status. På trods af den uafklarede årsags-virkningssammenhaeng mellem børns angst og foraeldres adfaerd, tyder studier (Rapee, 1997;Wood et al., 2003) generelt på, at foraeldreadfaerd kan spille en rolle i udviklingen og vedligeholdelsen af angstlidelser hos børn. ...
Hvorfor udvikler nogle børn angst, mens andre børn kan møde verden uden angst? På trods af at angst er en naturlig og adaptiv del af ethvert barns udvikling, risikerer ca. 10 % af alle børn at udvikle en angstlidelse. Angsten bliver en lidelse, når den forstyrrer et barn i at udvikle sig gennem deltagelse i et alderssvarende børneliv. Gennem de seneste årtier er forskere i stigende grad begyndt at undersøge, hvilke faktorer der har indflydelse på udviklingen og vedligeholdelsen af angst. På baggrund af et udviklingspsykopatologisk perspektiv har man udviklet modeller, der søger at indfange kompleksiteten i angstlidelserne. Heri indgår barnets genetiske dispositioner, det tidlige samspil med forældre, negative livsbegivenheder, emotionsregulering, indre kognitive mekanismer som opmærksomhedsbias og fortolkning af omverdenen samt aktuelle familiemønstre. I artiklen gives et kort review af de væsentligste risikofaktorer, som man via forskning ved er særlig betydningsfulde for udvikling og vedligeholdelse af angst i barndommen, og det diskuteres, hvilke implikationer denne viden bør få for behandling af børn med angst.
... One main category of parenting behaviors theorized to moderate the relation between BI and later anxiety is parental control behaviors such as overcontrol, overprotection, and intrusiveness. Parental control behaviors, that make up authoritarian styles of parenting, are thought to increase behaviorally inhibited children's risks of developing anxiety because exposure to such caregiving behaviors may reduce children's sense of selfcontrol, mastery, and independent problem-solving skills (Wood, McLeod, Sigman, Hwang, & Chu, 2003), and prevent them from developing effective self-regulatory skills including emotion regulation and proactive control. As such, behaviorally inhibited children with lower levels of self-regulation as a result of excessive parental control behaviors are more likely to develop anxiety problems. ...
... In addition to negative forms of parental control, positive parenting behaviors involving gentle encouragement, responsiveness, and acceptance (or opposite of rejection) are theorized to prevent behaviorally inhibited children from developing anxiety problems, as these parenting behaviors promote children's emotion regulation and independent problemsolving (Degnan et al., 2010;Wood et al., 2003). In a cross-sectional study involving 11-to 15-year-old children, van Brakel, Muris, Bögels, and Thomassen (2006) found that parent-child attachment quality moderated the relation between BI and anxiety symptoms, such that higher levels of selfreported BI predicted higher levels of anxiety problems among children who reported being insecurely attached relative to those who reported secure attachment. ...
Behavioral Inhibition is a temperament identified in the first years of life that enhances the risk for development of anxiety during late childhood and adolescence. Amongst children characterized with this temperament, only around 40 percent go on to develop anxiety disorders, meaning that more than half of these children do not. Over the past 20 years, research has documented within‐child and socio‐contextual factors that support differing developmental pathways. This review provides a historical perspective on the research documenting the origins of this temperament, its biological correlates, and the factors that enhance or mitigate risk for development of anxiety. We review as well, research findings from two longitudinal cohorts that have identified moderators of behavioral inhibition in understanding pathways to anxiety. Research on these moderators has led us to develop the Detection and Dual Control (DDC) framework to understand differing developmental trajectories among behaviorally inhibited children. In this review, we use this framework to explain why and how specific cognitive and socio‐contextual factors influence differential pathways to anxiety versus resilience.
... Specifically, it is suggested that children's cognitive representation of themselves, others, and the world develops within parent-child relationship. The negative conflict resolution strategies that disrupt parent-child relationship is likely to lead to children's maladaptive cognitive beliefs, such as underestimating their control over others and the environment, overestimating threats in the surrounding environment (Rapee, 2001), as well as low self-efficacy (Wood et al., 2003). Thus, the negative strategies (e.g., harsh discipline) used by parents in the context of parent-child conflict may contribute to increasing the likelihood of GAD symptoms. ...
... Specifically, mother's corporal punishment was positively related to the initial levels of GAD symptoms. It is possible that high levels of mothers' corporal punishment decrease the child's sense of self-efficacy, which in turn leads to feelings of anxiety (Wood et al., 2003). Specifically, mothers' corporal punishment may communicate to the children that they do not have the skills to successfully navigate challenges in stressful and emotional situations, which increases children's tendency to worry about their abilities, and thus increases the levels of GAD symptoms in child. ...
The current study aimed to examine the development of generalized anxiety disorder symptoms and the influences of child-level factors (gender and temperament) and family-level factors (family socioeconomic status, marital satisfaction, parenting stress, and parent-child conflict resolution strategy) on the initial levels and changes of generalized anxiety disorder symptoms during middle childhood. Participants were 323 children and their parents in China. Child generalized anxiety disorder symptoms, temperament, family socioeconomic status, marital satisfaction, parenting stress, and parent-child conflict resolution strategy were measured based on maternal and paternal reports. The latent growth curve modeling techniques were used to examine the trajectories of generalized anxiety disorder symptoms and how child- and family-level factors were related to the development of generalized anxiety disorder symptoms. The results showed that child generalized anxiety disorder symptoms increased in the period of middle childhood. Children who had higher levels of generalized anxiety disorder symptoms at the beginning of this period had a higher level of negative affectivity, had fathers with a high level of parenting stress, and experienced more maternal corporal punishment and nonviolence discipline. Children who became more anxious across this period had a higher level of negative affectivity. The findings of our study provided valuable insights into child generalized anxiety disorder symptoms during middle childhood. This study highlighted the need for interventions aimed at decreasing child generalized anxiety disorder symptoms by interfering with both child- and family-related factors.
... Parenting style is a key factor in shaping children's development (Wood et al., 2003) (Darling & Steinberg, 2017). The influence of good parenting can help children grow and develop well in all aspects of their lives, such as physical, emotional, social and cognitive development (Evans et al., 2020) (Van IJzendoorn & Juffer, 2006). ...
This research explores the relationship between parenting styles and child development in the community context. It delves into the various parenting styles, including authoritarian, democratic, permissive, and others, and examines their distinctive characteristics and effects on children's physical, emotional, social, and cognitive development. The study acknowledges the significance of the family environment in shaping a child's growth and development. It emphasizes that positive parenting practices, such as a balanced and democratic approach, tend to foster a healthy and independent developmental trajectory. However, it also underscores the influence of various factors such as culture, education, personal experiences, and socioeconomic context in determining parenting choices and practices. Furthermore, the research highlights the role of the broader community and the surrounding environment in influencing parenting styles. It discusses how schools, peer groups, and media contribute to the formation of parenting patterns. The practical implications of this research are substantial. The findings can be used to develop parent education programs, psychological support services, and community awareness campaigns aimed at promoting healthy parenting practices. Policymakers can also consider the research outcomes in designing policies that support families in adopting positive parenting approaches. Despite its valuable insights, the study acknowledges certain limitations, including sample constraints and the use of secondary data. Thus, there is room for further in-depth and extensive research in this area. In conclusion, this research significantly contributes to our understanding of parenting styles and their impact on child development in the community. It lays the foundation for efforts to promote healthier parenting practices and better child development in the future
... When the literature is examined, it is seen that there are many factors that affect the development of mathematics anxiety. In this context, mathematics anxiety is influenced by the student characteristics, the school system, the teacher characteristics, friends circle, gender, socioeconomic structure, exams and familial characteristics (Alexandra & Cobb, 1984;Aydın & Keskin, 2017;Bekdemir, 2007;Devine, Fawcett, Szűcs & Dowker, 2012;Furner and Duffy, 2002;Mata, Monteiro, and Peixoto, 2012;Ramirez, Shaw, & Maloney, 2018;Şimşek, Çetinkaya, & Alptekin, 2017;Vukovic, Roberts, & Wright, 2013;Wood, McLeod, Sigman, Hwang, & Chu, 2003;Yenilmez & Özbey, 2006). ...
Purpose: The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between the mathematics anxiety of primary school fourth-grade students and their mathematics achievement and to determine the factors that create mathematics anxiety. Design/Methodology/Approach: Explanatory sequential design, one of the mixed-method designs, was employed in the study. The sample of the study consisted of 636 fourth-grade students studying at 14 schools in the central district of Erzincan in the 2018-2019 academic year and 27 students selected for semi-structured interviews. The data of the study were collected through the "Mathematics Anxiety Scale" and "Mathematics Anxiety Semi-Structured Interview Form" developed by the researcher. In the analysis of the data obtained within the scope of the research, descriptive statistics, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), LSD test statistics, a pairwise comparison technique, Pearson moment multiplication correlation, multiple linear regression analysis and content analysis were used. Findings: When the results of the study were examined, it was found that primary school fourth-grade students' scores on the math anxiety exam dimension are high, there is no significant difference between the mean scores of mathematics anxiety in terms of gender variable, there is a negative relationship between the mathematics anxiety levels of students and their mathematics lesson achievement, and the mathematics anxiety level of the students predicts the mathematics lesson achievement. Highlights: It was determined that the factors that create the mathematics anxiety of primary school fourth-grade students are teacher-related, student-related, family and friend-related, lesson-related, and exam-related.
... Next, narrative therapy, cognitive behavior therapy, sand play therapy, and other related theories and technologies will enhance their self-efficacy and resilience and improve their poor coping style to decrease the anxiety level of preschool children. (2) Regarding mother-child attachment, the counsellor can interpret and reinterpret the early attachment relationship for the mother and ease the negative impact of negative emotional experiences in the early adult attachment relationship with the principle of multifrequency and slow progress (Wood et al., 2003). Corresponding to the interactive dimension of education investment, counsellors can help mothers realize the relevant problems in the current education model through the symbolic meaning of sand tools in the form of a motherchild sand table (Dykas & Cassidy, 2011). ...
We identified 316 pairs of parents of preschool children and used the questionnaire method to investigate the influence of mother–child and father-child attachment on preschool children's anxiety and the mediating role of early adult attachment experience and parental involvement. The results showed the following:The mother–child attachment and anxiety dimensions of father-child attachment positively predict preschool children's anxiety.
Overinvested adult early attachment experience and the interactive dimension of parenting investment play a mediating chain role in the relationship between mother–child attachment and preschool children's anxiety.
The overinvested dimension of early adult attachment partially mediated the relationship between the anxiety dimension of father-child attachment and preschool children's anxiety, and the mediating role of parenting investment in the influence of father-child attachment on preschool children's anxiety was not established.
... Other environmental influences that can contribute to the development of a specific phobia include stressful life events and daily hassles not related to the feared event (e.g. parental divorce, death in the family; Asselmann & Beesdo-Baum, 2015;Coelho et al., 2020) and overprotective, intrusive and controlling parenting styles (Raknes et al., 2017;Rapee et al., 2009;Wood et al., 2003). Magee (1999) argues that aversive life events may create an environment of threat and an expectation of harm which children generalise to relatively harmless objects (e.g. ...
Biophobia refers to a fear of living things, which leads to alienation from nature. The literature examining the underlying mechanisms and treatment of biophobia is sparse.
This review aims to increase the readers' understanding of biophobia by examining the more extensive literature on specific phobias, namely animal phobia, as it most closely resembles biophobia.
Fear, anxiety and disgust play an important role in specific phobias. Their triggers and functions are reviewed in the context of animal phobia.
Theoretical models for specific phobias suggest that phobias develop because genetically linked behavioural patterns interact with normal development fears and environmental factors. Phobias are then maintained by cognitive and behavioural mechanisms.
Exposure therapy, the gold standard treatment for specific phobia, functions to override the maladaptive stimulus–stimulus and stimulus‐response associations responsible for animal and other specific phobias. Its delivery and efficacy are reviewed.
We recommend that readers interested in biophobia use the existing knowledge on animal phobia and specific phobia in general to treat biophobia and generate research hypotheses for future study.
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... For many years, parenting style's role in children's and adolescents' problem behavior was the main focus of research [63,64]. In particular, studies have examined the role of parenting styles in internalizing and externalizing problem behavior [65], both during childhood [66,67] and adolescence [68,69]. ...
In this study, we adopted parenting styles as a multidimensional and latent construct that includes different aspects of parenting, rather than solely focusing on a single parenting style. In a Web-based survey with 1203 Greek parents, we identified parenting styles and their SDQ reports on their children. According to our results by Latent Profile Analysis, we must use a more complex approach concerning parenting styles. We identified a "Highly Authoritative style" profile with high levels of authoritative, low levels of authoritarian and middle levels of permissive parenting styles. We additionally identified a profile called "Relaxed Authoritative style", with still high but lower levels of authoritative style, low but slightly heightened levels of authoritarian style, and middle levels of permissive style. A further profile, named "Permissive Focused Authoritative style", had a mix of high levels of authoritative, moderate levels of permissive, and elevated levels of authoritarian parenting styles. Finally, in a profile named "Inconsistent Parenting style", we identified parents with a blend of still high, but the lowest of all four levels of authoritative and highest levels of permissive and authoritarian parenting styles. When combining the four identified parenting patterns with the SDQ results, we identified the "highly authoritative parenting style" profile to be the least connected to internalizing or externalizing problems of the respective children.
... The development and maintenance of anxiety in adolescents may be related to genetics, socioeconomic status, negative life events, and cognitive factors (Rapee et al., 2009). For example, children with anxiety disorders are more likely to have a parent with an anxiety disorder (Lieb et al., 2000) or overprotective parents (Wood et al., 2003). In addition, anxiety in children and adolescents correlates with a greater number of negative life events (Rapee & Szollos, 2002) and low family socioeconomic status (Cronk et al., 2004). ...
Introduction: Anxiety is one of the most common psychological problems in children, with an increasing trend during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study examines the mediating role of intolerance of uncertainty and cognitive emotion-regulation strategies in the relationship between stress and anxiety symptoms of children and early adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: We conducted the study with 234 elementary school students (128 females) aged 11 to 15 years. The students completed the COVID-19 Stress Scale, Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale, Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale for Children, and the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. To determine whether stress affects anxiety symptoms both directly and indirectly through intolerance of uncertainty and cognitive emotion-regulation strategies, we performed a mediation analysis with gender as a covariate. Results: Our results confirmed cognitive emotion regulation and intolerance of uncertainty as important cognitive vulnerability factors for anxiety in children and adolescents. A stressful experience contributes directly to anxiety and indirectly through higher intolerance of uncertainty and less adaptive strategies. The results serve to further improve prevention and intervention programs for children and adolescents which focus on correcting maladaptive cognitive emotion-regulation strategies and increasing tolerance of uncertainty.
... Parenting is also associated with processes relevant across the spectrum of psychopathology (Wood et al., 2003), such as emotion regulation (Aldao et al., 2010;Carver et al., 2017). For example, when children show intense negative emotional responses to change or limits, they may evoke aversive parental reactions that intensify their negative emotions, and inconsistent parenting that negatively reinforces emotion dysregulation (Scaramella & Leve, 2004). ...
Parenting can protect against the development of, or increase risk for, child psychopathology; however, it is unclear if parenting is related to psychopathology symptoms in a specific domain, or to broad liability for psychopathology. Parenting differs between and within families, and both overall family-level parenting and the child-specific parenting a child receives may be important in estimating transdiagnostic associations with psychopathology. Data come from a cross-sectional epidemiological sample (N = 10,605 children ages 4-17, 6434 households). Parents rated child internalizing and externalizing symptoms and their parenting toward each child. General and specific (internalizing, externalizing) psychopathology factors, derived with bifactor modeling, were regressed on parenting using multilevel modeling. Less warmth and more aversive/inconsistent parenting in the family, and toward an individual child relative to family average, were associated with higher general psychopathology and specific externalizing problems. Unexpectedly, more warmth in the family, and toward an individual child relative to family average, was associated with higher specific internalizing problems in 4-11 (not 12-17) year-olds. Less warmth and more aversive/inconsistent parenting are broad correlates of child psychopathology. Aversive/inconsistent parenting, is also related to specific externalizing problems. Parents may behave more warmly when their younger children have specific internalizing problems, net of overall psychopathology.
... Parental acceptance, control, and modeling may be associated with anxiety symptoms in children. 11 A recent study underlined that parental anxiety control might be necessary, especially in the development of anxiety in the child. 12 Parental anxiety might be a risk factor for the child's anxiety disorder. ...
... Theoretical models of child anxiety emphasize the role of parent behaviors in the development and maintenance of anxiety (see Drake & Ginsburg, 2012, for a review), but to date there are no theories that integrate cultural aspects into these models (Varela & Hensley-Maloney, 2009). In particular, the literature suggests that parental overcontrol, which is used synonymously with overprotection, provides the strongest link to child anxiety in White populations (McLeod et al., 2007;Rapee, 1997;Wood et al., 2003). Parent overprotection has been defined as a parent behavior demonstrating an excessive amount of regulation of child appropriate routines, actions, and behaviors (Bögels & Brechman-Toussaint, 2006;McLeod et al., 2007). ...
Anxiety is one of the most common experiences in children, and Hispanic children are at a high risk for developing anxiety symptoms and disorders. Previous research has shown that parental overprotective behaviors increase anxiety in White children, and the findings on the effects of overprotection on Hispanic children are mixed. In Hispanic populations, cultural stressors may also affect families and may be related to increased anxiety in youths; however, the research examining this variable is nonexistent. The present exploratory study examined the relationship of overprotective parenting practices, parental cultural stress, and child anxiety in clinical (n = 22) and community samples (n = 22) of Hispanic families. Overprotective parenting was conceptualized by three types of parenting behaviors, including parental control, parental supervision, and parent separation problems. The findings revealed that Hispanic parents of clinically anxious children endorsed more controlling practices than parents of non-clinically anxious youth. When examining parental correlates of anxiety symptoms in Hispanic youths, parent cultural stress, as well as two parental overprotective practices, specifically parental control and parent separation problems were independent predictors of anxiety symptoms in this population. Clinical interventions with Hispanic parents should emphasize both stress-reduction strategies and supportive parenting techniques to reduce overprotective behaviors, which result in increased anxiety in their children.
... Large-scale clinical and normative developmental studies have stated that there are strong links between depression, anxiety, internalizing problems and parent-child interaction (Wood et al., 2003). The results of this study also concludes that these associations are present Several studies (Hudson & Rapee, 2002) have also suggested that children's internalizing behaviors have been associated with parenting styles such as over-protectiveness. ...
Background: The early years of a person's life are crucial, as major developmental changes and personality development occur during that time, and parenting style is a major contributor to the development of children's lives and their mental growth. The aim of this research was to summarize the parenting styles research trend and highlight the areas that researchers have studied so far. The findings of this study will shed light on the perceptions and insights surrounding parenting styles. Methods: This study analyzed empirical research and trends in parenting published in scientific journals in the Scopus database during the period of 2013 through 2017. Content analysis was carried out to investigate research studies pertaining to parenting styles. There were a total of 220 articles that were judged to be in line with the purpose of the study after reviewing their content and research methodology. It has been carried out to highlight the research gaps present in the already-present literature in order to cover those gaps with our future study focuses. Results: The findings showed a high publication rate of articles related to parenting styles in terms of the significance and gravity of its role in an individual's disposition and temperament building. The complexity of factors underlying effective and ineffective parenting styles has received little attention; much research is based solely on parent-child relationships without exploring the parents' perspectives and the experiences that have influenced and shaped them. Conclusions: It emphasizes the factors affecting parents' personalities that need to be explored as well as the interventions that ought to be worked upon to increase the effectiveness of parenting and, in turn, the psychosocial prosperity and well-being of individuals.
... It is particularly important to distinguish between the drives of maternal worries about COVID-19 in parenting early childhood children, since the "anxious maternal worry" type (i.e., worry derived from maternal stress and fear about COVID-19) might induce parental overprotection and confinement of the child, while the "caring maternal worry" (i.e., worry derived from maternal care and support) may not hinder the autonomy granting to the child. Our findings observed in the context of COVID-19 worry may reflect the fundamental differences between overprotective/ overcontrolling parenting and authoritative parenting which, especially in early childhood, may account for the etiology of children's anxiety disorders (Möller et al., 2016;Wood et al., 2003;Yaffe, 2021b). Since stressful life conditions and events might exacerbate parental maladaptive behaviors and practices (Gindt et al., 2021), investigating parental worries in the context of parenting styles could be a useful way of assessing family psychological vulnerabilities that might adversely affect young children's emotional risk of COVID-19 consequences in the family. ...
This cross-sectional study explores the relationship between maternal feelings, maternal parenting styles, and mothers’ worry about COVID-19’s detrimental consequences on preschool children’s health and well-being. The study is among the first to concentrate on this reference specific group, whose characteristics might be particularly vulnerable to COVID-19’s adversities. One hundred and four mothers of at least one preschool-age child completed an online questionnaire battery, which included the Parental Feelings Inventory, the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ), and the parental worry about COVID-19 scale. Negative maternal feelings (i.e., anger, anxiety/sadness) were associated with authoritarian and indulgent parenting practices, especially verbal hostility, while maternal happiness was associated with more authoritative practices, especially warmth and support. The hierarchical multiple regression model explained about 42% of variance of the overall maternal worry about COVID-19 from maternal negative feelings and parenting styles, with maternal authoritative parenting and maternal anxiety/sadness as the significant predictors that uniquely explain maternal worry about COVID-19. These results are discussed in terms of positive and negative maternal worry, which partially reflect the differences between overprotective and authoritative parenting in early childhood.
... Existing theoretical frameworks suggest that one potential mediator may be child cognition (e.g. Wood et al., 2003). Intolerance of uncertainty (IU) is a cognitive schema that refers to the dispositional tendency to respond negatively to uncertainty due to its perceived association with negative outcomes, regardless of the likelihood of their occurrence (Carleton, 2016;Dugas et al., 2004). ...
Challenging parenting behaviour (CPB) refers to parental encouragement of behaviours where children push their own limits through engaging them engage in safe risks, such as rough-and-tumble play (Bögels & Phares, 2008). Preliminary evidence suggests that CPB reduces the risk of child anxiety however, little is known about the relationship between CPB and specific forms of anxiety disorders and the factors that influence this relationship. The present study aims to examine current maternal and paternal CPB in relation to symptoms of generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) in emerging adulthood, and to identify whether intolerance of uncertainty (IU) and cognitive avoidance (CA) sequentially mediate this relationship. A sample of 190 UK-based adults (aged 18–25) completed a battery of online self-report measures. Greater maternal CPB, but not paternal CPB, was found to predict lower symptoms of SAD, but not GAD. IU and CA did not sequentially mediate the relationship between CPB and symptoms of GAD or SAD. This study suggests that CPB may be associated with certain forms of anxiety disorders such as SAD, but further investigation is needed to understand the mechanisms between CPB and anxiety in young people.
... On the other hand, expectations related to macro systems (social and cultural environment) and microsystems (caregivers; e.g. child rearing practices; Wood, McLeod, Sigman, Hwang, & Chu, 2003) grounded by stereotypes, which may involve punishment or reinforcement , may have guided males to disclose fears less often than females (Muris, Meesters, & Knoops, 2005). In response to these differences, empowerment for both female and male children through interventions at school (e.g. ...
Children’s fears have received scholarly attention for well over 50 years. A considerable amount of literature has focused on such fear variables as fear intensity and fear prevalence scores and age and gender differences. We used meta-analysis to systematically review the findings related to gender differences in children’s fear intensity scores and fear prevalence scores and to examine the moderator effect of sample, year of study, and type of instrument on gender differences. Research studies that used the Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSSC) or an updated version of the FSSC, were included in this meta-analysis. The findings from 58 intensity and 17 prevalence studies suggest that females have 11.4% higher total fear scores than males and females have 7.2% more fears than males. Results of sub-group analyses indicate that moderator variables of sample, year of publication, and type/version of FSSC cause significant variability in gender differences.
... atmosphere, and parenting style (e.g., Fearon et al., 2013;Manikandan, 2014;Moglia, 1987;Olszewski et al., 1987;Zhang et al., 2015). Among these, parenting behaviors, that is, the specific kinds of parental interactions with children that include both the goal-oriented behaviors adopted by parents when performing their parental duties and non-goaldirected parental behaviors such as body language and tone of voice (Darling & Sternberg, 1993;Wood et al., 2003), have a critical influence on children's development (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). According to Wang and colleagues (Pomerantz & Wang, 2009;Wang et al., 2007Wang et al., , 2012, parental autonomy support refers to parenting behaviors characterized as encouraging children's individuality and sense of self-determination; for example, adopting children's perspective, encouraging an exchange of opinions, supporting their initiative, and allowing children to make choices on their own. ...
Based on the close association between parenting behaviors, regulatory focus, and creativity demonstrated by previous literature, we posited that regulatory focus plays a mediating role between parenting behaviors and creativity. This study explored the relationship between parenting behaviors and creativity, with specific attention paid to the mediating role of regulatory focus. A total of 680 middle school students completed the questionnaires on parental autonomy support, parental psychological control, and regulatory focus and a verbal task from the Torrance tests of creative thinking. The correlation analysis revealed that parental autonomy support and promotion focus positively correlated with all creativity indexes (i.e., fluency, flexibility, originality, and total score), while parental psychological control and prevention focus negatively correlated with all creativity indexes. Further, the path model analysis suggested that promotion focus positively predicted creativity, while prevention focus negatively predicted creativity. In addition, parental autonomy support positively predicted creativity through the mediation of both promotion focus and prevention focus, while parental psychological control negatively predicted creativity through prevention focus. The mediation effect analysis revealed that all the mediation effects were significant. In general, regulatory focus plays a mediating effect in the relationship between parenting behaviors and creativity. Our findings supplement previous research by revealing the mediating effect of regulatory focus in the parenting behaviors-creativity link, and highlight the importance of environmental variables, such as family support, on the development of adolescents’ creativity.
... and 17.73% found participation in competitive activity as factor contributing to anxiety. 11 they stated that putting undue pressure on children for performance in class leads to development of anxiety and granting autonomy was associated in decreasing anxietyamong children. Ollendick H T, Yule W, Ollier K (1991) 12 also reported that genetic and temperamental factors, parental influences, conditioning events, are associated with the onset of social anxiety disorder among children. ...
... Accommodation is often performed by close others in order to reduce distress (Calvocoressi et al., 1999) and those who are accommodated may be inadvertently sent the message that they are incapable of managing their distress. This is consistent with research showing that parent over-control is related to limited sense of personal competence (Bögels and Brechman-Toussaint, 2006;Wood et al., 2003). One's sense of competence is a critical factor in enacting health-promoting behaviours (e.g. ...
Background
Many people with anxiety do not seek therapy due to negative views of treatment. Although close others (e.g. romantic partners, family members, close friends) are highly involved in treatment decisions, the role of specific relational behaviours in treatment ambivalence has yet to be studied.
Aims
This study examines the relationship between social predictors (perceived criticism and accommodation of anxiety symptoms by close others) and treatment ambivalence.
Method
Community members who met diagnostic criteria for an anxiety-related disorder ( N = 65) and students who showed high levels of anxiety ( N = 307) completed an online study. They were asked to imagine they were considering starting cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for their anxiety and complete a measure of treatment ambivalence accordingly. They then completed measures of perceived criticism and accommodation by close others. Linear regression was used to examine the predictive value of these variables while controlling for sample type (clinical/analogue) and therapy experience.
Results
Greater reactivity to criticism from close others and greater accommodation of anxiety symptoms by close others were associated with greater treatment ambivalence in those with anxiety. These predictors remained significant even when controlling for therapy history and sample type.
Conclusions
When it comes to treatment attitudes, relational context matters. Clients demonstrating ambivalence about starting therapy may benefit from discussion about the impact of their social environment on ambivalence.
... Negative parenting is characterized by hostility, rejection and disapproval (Rapee, 1997;Wood et al., 2003). According to de Vente et al. (2011), parents high in FNCE may criticize their child and show more disapproval in order to let their child behave appropriately. ...
Background
Parents’ fear of negative evaluation (FNE) has been proposed to play a role in the intergenerational transmission of social anxiety. We investigated whether (1) parents’ own FNE, a core belief of social anxiety, extends to their child’s environment resulting in fear of negative child evaluation (FNCE); and (2) parents’ FNCE mediates the association between parents’ social anxiety, parenting behavior and children’s social anxiety.
Methods
In this cross-sectional study, fathers ( n = 84) and mothers ( n = 92) from 99 Caucasian families completed questionnaires on social anxiety, FNE, FNCE, and parenting (intrusiveness, negative parenting and encouragement of social daring) when their child was 7.5 years old. Child social anxiety was measured by questionnaires (child and parent report).
Results
For both parents, FNE mediated the association between their social anxiety and FNCE. Furthermore, FNCE mediated the relation between both parents’ social anxiety and intrusiveness and the relation between mothers’ social anxiety and negative parenting. In addition, FNCE mediated the relation between fathers’ social anxiety and children’s social anxiety (parents’ report only) directly and through intrusive parenting.
Conclusions
Our study suggests that parents’ FNE extends to their children’s environment and provides support for the role of FNCE in various pathways of intergenerational transmission of social anxiety during middle childhood.
... Parent modeling of anxiety is a risk suspected to be applicable in all forms of anxiety but more specifically relevant in social anxiety where modeling of shyness and hesitation when interacting with strangers may predict the development of the condition (de Rosnay et al., 2006). A mother with anxiety is more likely to employ parenting practices that promote social anxiety in children such as promoting avoidant solutions to problems (de Rosnay et al., 2006;Murray et al., 2008;Wood et al., 2003). Antisocial personality disorder in fathers during childhood was also found to increase the odds of having SAD in this study. ...
Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is one of the most underrecognized and undertreated common mental disorders. This study aimed to describe its epidemiology and to understand the association between childhood adversities and SAD in the context of Portugal's collectivist culture. Data about SAD, childhood adversities, socio-demographic variables were collected from a nationally representative sample using well-validated scales employed for the World Mental Health Survey. Logistic and linear regression models were carried out to explore the association between childhood adversities and SAD prevalence and age of onset. The estimated lifetime prevalence of SAD was 4.68% and the 12-month prevalence was 3.14%. The mean age of onset was 13.6±8.79. People with a college education had 3.42 higher odds of having SAD compared to people with no education or a primary school education. Most childhood adversities significantly increased the odds of a lifetime prevalence of SAD. Parental Maladjustment increased the odds of SAD when gender, age, and education were adjusted. The study findings show a high prevalence of SAD in Portugal and confirms that females, younger people, students, and single people are more likely to have SAD. The study highlights the need to address experiences of parental maladjustment in interventions for people with SAD in Portugal.
... In general, parental rejection is associated with a higher level of anxiety in children (Kazarian et al., 2010;Louis et al., 2010;Rohner et al., 2009). However, in specific research, parental overprotectiveness has been linked to children's anxiousness (Ginsburg et al., 2004;Moore et al., 2004;Wood et al., 2003). In the Middle East and Asia, there is a direct relationship between parental acceptance and academic achievement among children (Duriez et al., 2007). ...
Academic achievements of school children are being affected by both emotional and cognitive factors. The present study was aimed at exploring the impact of study anxiety and parent-child relation on academic achievement of school children. For this purpose, Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension, an indigenous tool Study Anxiety Scale and Parent-Child Relationship Scale was administered on the sample of 419 school children; 201 boys; and 218 girls from 6 Government Schools of Lahore. Results indicated that higher study anxiety and perceived rejection and distant in parent-child relation cause lower academic achievement among school children. Results also showed that the girls are higher in both study anxiety and academic achievement than boys and boys perceived more parental rejection than girls. Results are discussed in a cultural context proposing a model showing possible links between different ecological factors and study anxiety.
... The extent of exploration of an animal is balanced against its level of neophobia. Neophilic animals are quick to approach and explore a novel object, while neophobic animals are slow to do so [53]. Neophobic responses are important because they reduce exposure to danger but, on the other hand, they also constrain explorative behavior and thus opportunities for learning and cognitive development. ...
Human-dog attachment is a special relationship and has been studied from various perspectives. Attachment or social bonding has a positive effect on the psychological and physiological wellbeing of a dog owner, increasing physical health and quality of life. Attachment is idiosyncratic, induced by neuroendocrinological functions like an oxytocin increase after an interaction, but also based on subjective perceptions of the quality of bonding and relationship. Dog-owner attachment was measured in this study using the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale in its validated German version as a tool to compare owner perception with factual movement data of their dog. The question posed was whether the perceived dog behaviour impacted on the attachment score as assessed through the LAPS. The authors could show that perceived problematical or unwanted conduct, like hunting behaviour, had a negative effect on LAPS scores whereas perceived obedient behaviour had a positive effect upon attachment. The authors found that actual walking data of the dogs were not in congruence with owner assessments. Thus, owner reports alone possibly will not be a sufficient measure of dog-human relationships and animal behaviour.
... Even adolescents and young adults who perceive their parents as rejecting, controlling and coercive, reported higher emotional dysregulation, and suppression of sadness and worry, and more social withdrawal, which are related to anxiety symptoms (Gardner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2018). In our group of children, rejection may follow a similar pattern, hindering children's development of emotional managing skills, consequently influencing their vulnerability to anxiety (Niditch & Varela, 2012;Wood et al., 2003). Similarly, children raised in a household where they are confronted with controlling behaviors that hinder autonomy and identity development will probably feel insecure in a new context, such as novel social interactions, and will probably be prone to infer adverse outcomes for their actions (Johnco et al., 2021). ...
The relation between the understanding of the mind as being constructive, anxiety, and parental factors is not fully elucidated. Interpretive diversity understanding represents an understanding that people can have a different interpretation of the same situation due to differences in beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge. We aim to bring together two approaches to this concept: the interpretive theory of mind (ToMi), and the constructivist theory of mind (ToMc) and relate them to anxiety symptoms and parental practices during middle childhood (8-12 years). In two studies, we used a restricted view paradigm to assess ToMi, a questionnaire to assess ToMc (the Constructivist Theory of Mind Interview, short written version in Study 1, and extended interview in Study 2) and parental and child reports of parental practices, as well as children’s anxiety symptoms. Results revealed that the two interpretive diversity understanding tasks were positively associated (Study 2). Overall, warm parental practices were positively associated with ToM tasks and a significant predictor for the ToMc interview answers. On the other hand, parental rejection and overprotection were negatively associated with performance on the ToMi task, with the ToMc score and positively with anxiety symptoms. Understanding the relationship between ToM, anxiety, and parental practices is essential for preventing early social and emotional difficulties during middle childhood.
Anxiety disorders, including separation anxiety disorder, selective mutism, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia, and generalized anxiety disorder, are among the most prevalent psychological disorders in children and adolescents. Adolescence is a period characterized by numerous changes in academic, occupational, familial, and peer‐relational contexts, developmental processes that play important roles in the development and maintenance of anxiety disorders. This entry reviews the developmental epidemiology and assessment of adolescent anxiety disorders. Moreover, it discusses interpersonal processes in the development and maintenance of anxiety, and it reviews issues of comorbidity and treatment of adolescent anxiety disorders.
Sensory over-responsivity (SOR) is linked with elevated anxiety and reduced family wellbeing. Family accommodation of anxiety relates with greater symptom severity and reduced intervention outcome. This study examined the contribution of child SOR and co-occurring anxiety symptoms to family accommodation and its consequences. Ninety families of typically developing children (ages 4–13 years), completed an online survey including the Sensory Profile 2, Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED), and Family Accommodation Sensory Scale (FASENS). FASENS scores include frequency of accommodation, child impact, and family impact.
Children with elevated anxiety symptoms had significantly higher sensory and FASENS scores. Stepwise linear regression indicated that only SOR symptoms significantly predicted the frequency of sensory family accommodation, while both SOR and anxiety symptoms predicted the impact of family accommodation upon child and family well-being.
Both SOR and anxiety symptoms in children predict the impact of sensory family accommodations on child and family well-being.
A heightened sensitivity to unpredictable threat has been identified as a potential transdiagnostic mechanism of psychopathology. The majority of supporting research has been conducted in adults, and it is unclear whether psychophysiological indicators of sensitivity to unpredictable threat are comparable in youth during developmental periods associated with increased risk for psychopathology. In addition, no studies have examined whether sensitivity to unpredictable threat is correlated between parents and their offspring. The present study examined defensive motivation (startle reflex) and attentional engagement (probe N100, P300) in anticipation of predictable and unpredictable threat in a sample of 15-year-old adolescents (N = 395) and a biological parent (N = 379). Adolescents, compared to their parents, demonstrated greater startle potentiation and probe N100 enhancement in anticipation of unpredictable threat. In addition, overall startle potentiation in anticipation of threat was correlated between the adolescents and their parents. Adolescence is a key developmental period characterized by heightened defensive motivation and attentional engagement in anticipation of both predictable and unpredictable threat. Sensitivity to threat might index is one mechanism of vulnerability that is at least partially shared between parents and their offspring.
Introduction:
Despite the well-accepted view on the importance of parental warmth and parental hostility for adolescent development, few studies have examined the joint interactive effects of these two key aspects of parenting. Furthermore, research comparing maternal and paternal parenting is limited, with the father-daughter relationship during adolescence remaining one of the more understudied familial contexts. Given that family processes are key for the intergenerational transmission of inequality, these parent-child relationships may be especially important for youth at risk for exposure to violence.
Objectives:
Using a sample of juvenile female offenders, this study examined the associations between the perceived warmth and hostility in the father-daughter and mother-daughter relationships on daughters' depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, romantic partner warmth, romantic partner hostility, and the daughter's sense of agency. We hypothesized that high perceived parental warmth would moderate the effects of parental hostility by protecting daughters from the negative effects of parental hostility, with stronger effects for the father-daughter than the mother-daughter relationship.
Results:
In contrast, our paternal relationship findings across four of the five outcomes suggest a moderation in the opposite direction - that is, high perceived father warmth exacerbates the deleterious effects of father hostility on daughters' depressive symptoms, anxiety, romantic partner warmth, and romantic partner hostility. Maternal warmth, and not hostility, had a direct association with these four outcomes, with stronger explanatory power shown for the father-daughter than the mother-daughter model. Higher agency was associated with maternal hostility only.
Conclusion:
Our findings suggest that daughters might be modeling and internalizing the relationship with their fathers (for better or worse) when they perceive it as warm and supportive. Consequently, adolescent girls whose fathers exhibit hostile behavior may benefit from emotional distancing from their fathers.
Background:
Evidence has suggested a bidirectional association between both the effects and onset of asthma and anxiety. The direction of this association in children and adolescents is less clear. The study evaluates whether anxiety in children is associated with the development of later asthma or, by contrast, whether asthma in children precedes anxiety.
Methods:
Parental reports from 9369 children at two age points (4-5 and 14-15 years old) and from baby (B) (recruited at birth in 2004) and kindergarten (K) (recruited at 4-5 years of age in 2004) cohorts of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC) were analyzed. Asthma cases were defined as reports of doctor-diagnosed asthma and the use of asthma medication or/and wheezing. Scores of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) defined anxiety.
Results:
We found a unidirectional association between asthma in children aged 4-5 years and future anxiety development in weighted generalized linear adjusted models (B cohort OR (CI 95%) = 1.54 (1.14-2.08); K cohort OR (CI 95%) = 1.87 (1.40-2.49)). Children with asthma (no anxiety at 4 years) had a higher prevalence of anxiety in adolescence compared with nonasthmatics (B cohort = 26.8% vs 17.6%: K cohort = 27.7% vs 14.3%). Anxiety in childhood was not associated with the development of asthma from 6 years old to adolescence.
Conclusion:
Australian children with asthma have a greater risk of developing anxiety from 6 to 15 years old. This suggests that early multidisciplinary intervention may be required to support children with asthma to either prevent the increased risk of anxiety and/or promote optimal anxiety management.
This research is a causal study that examines the moderator role of parental exam anxiety in the relationship between eighth-grade students' exam anxiety and high school entrance exam success. Participants of the study consisted of a total of 353 eighth-grade students attending seven different middle schools in the North region of Türkiye. Personal Information Form, Test Anxiety Scale for Parents and Children were used as data collection tools. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients were calculated for descriptive analysis of tha data. Bootstrap method was used to estimate sampling distributions. In the study, 5000 bootstrap were used and the confidence intervals were determined as %95. Analyses showed that parental exam anxiety played a moderator role in the relationship between children’s exam anxiety and high school entrance exam scores.
Bu araştırmanın amaçlarından biri ebeveynlerdeki çocukluk çağı travma yaygınlığını belirlemektir. Çocukluk çağı travmasına maruz kalan ebeveynlerin sağlıklı aile-ebeveyn olmadaki risk faktörlerini incelemek ise diğer amaçtır. Çalışmanın örneklemini, kolay örnekleme yöntemiyle ulaşılan 5-17 yaş aralığında çocuğu olan 411 ebeveyn (314 anne, 97 baba) oluşturmuştur. Katılımcılara Demografik Bilgi Formu, Çocukluk Çağı Travmaları Ölçeği (ÇÇTÖ) ve Sağlıklı Aile Ebeveynlik Envanteri (SAEE) çevrimiçi ortamda uygulanmıştır. Araştırma verilerinin analizinde frekans analizi ve Pearson ki-kare testi kullanılmıştır. Bulgulara göre ebeveynlerin ihmale/istismara uğrama oranları %6.8 ile %16.3 arasında değişmektedir. Duygusal ihmale maruz kalan ebeveynlerle duygusal ihmale maruz kalmayan ebeveynler arasında SAEE’nin tüm alt boyutlarında anlamlı farklılık saptanmıştır. Ayrıca tüm ihmal ve istismar türlerinde SAEE’nin depresyon ve rol memnuniyeti alt boyutlarında fark olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Sonuç olarak, çocukluk çağı travmalarının bireylerin hayatını etkilediği, bu etkinin ebeveynlik rolüne de yansıdığı görülmektedir. Bu deneyimlerin nesilden nesile aktarıldığı düşünüldüğünde ailelerle çalışan uzmanların çocukluk çağı travmalarını gözardı etmemesi gerekir.
Parenting is a critical influence on the development of children across the globe. This handbook brings together scholars with expertise on parenting science and interventions for a comprehensive review of current research. It begins with foundational theories and research topics, followed by sections on parenting children at different ages, factors that affect parenting such as parental mental health or socioeconomic status, and parenting children with different characteristics such as depressed and anxious children or youth who identify as LGBTQ. It concludes with a section on policy implications, as well as prevention and intervention programs that target parenting as a mechanism of change. Global perspectives and the cultural diversity of families are highlighted throughout. Offering in-depth analysis of key topics such as risky adolescent behavior, immigration policy, father engagement, family involvement in education, and balancing childcare and work, this is a vital resource for understanding the most effective policies to support parents in raising healthy children.
Parenting is an inherently stressful experience for individuals across sociodemographic backgrounds; parenting in the context of a child anxiety or depressive disorder can exacerbate stress levels. Yet, such effects from child to parent are not unidirectional; there is a strong intergenerational link among anxiety and depression, suggesting a complex interplay of genetic and environmental experiences that contributes to child, parent, and overall family well-being. Few parenting behaviors are uniformly associated with more/fewer internalizing symptoms in children though parent warmth has been negatively associated with anxiety and depression in youth across ages, genders, and cultures (Rothenberg et al., 2020). In contrast, parent psychological control has been consistently associated with greater levels of internalizing symptoms across diverse samples of youth. Given the role of the family in youth anxiety and depression, prevention and intervention programs have integrated parents in a variety of ways with mixed results. Future work that examines the complex interplay of child, parent, family, and broader cultural variables using increasingly sophisticated methodological and statistical approaches is needed to move the field forward in substantive ways.
The aim to conduct this research was to enlighten the impact of parenting style on an adolescent individual's self-esteem and to examine whether there is a gender difference in this case or not. There are a total of 160 numbers of participants, with equal number of males and females in the sample set. The tool that'd be using here is a modified short version of the Parental Authority Questionnaire (1991) developed by Buri, J. R. and The Rosenberg self-esteem scale by Morris Rosenberg (RSES) in the year 1965. The current research proved a significant gender difference in self-esteem of participants and whenever there will be higher permissive parental style, it will result in high self-esteem of adolescents, and high authoritative parental style will result in low self-esteem of the same. dolescence can be understood as the critical link between childhood and adulthood. It is the stage when the youth extend their relationships beyond parents and family and are immensely influenced by peers and the outside world. Adolescence is the years between the onset of puberty and the establishment of social independence (Steinberg, 2014). The world health organization (WHO), defines adolescence as any person between ten to nineteen years of age. One of the most dynamic, broad and influential period of human development is that of the adolescent transition. The term adolescent is derived from the Latin word 'Adolescere', which means to grow or to grow to maturity. Parenthood is a word that has a Latin origin that means 'to give birth'. In this way, parenthood is a quality that is joined to any being, particularly a person that an individual gave birth to. All the more explicitly, life as a parent implies really focusing on posterity and caring for them. Positive parenthood is taking significant consideration of one's posterity and guaranteeing that they experience childhood in a protected and blissful environment which are accomplished, and realize the distinction between good and bad. As we all know parenthood is crucial and very important for developing and morality of a child. Parents can provide moral guidance on all aspects of life be it good or negative and good parents are willing to answer their kids question about what is good for them and what are not in any given situation. Parents should provide children with love throughout their lives and also teach them to love others, in many ways they can become the model for how children behave and
For more than two years, young families have been confronted with a large number of restrictions and following burdens as a result of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. In fact, it became evident, that the current circumstances are particularly stressful for child's mental health. With regard to the child's mental health in times of a pandemic, additional factors within the family, such as maternal attachment representations as well as coping strategies and parental behavior, may play an important role. This study aims to investigate the interplay of maternal attachment representation, coping strategies, parental behavior and child's mental health during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. In this longitudinal study, previously collected data regarding maternal attachment representation and newly attained data from the SARS-CoV-2-pandemic-assesment (lack of coping strategies, children's mental health and parental behavior) were combined and analyzed. The data were collected in an online survey since beginning of the pandemic, including N = 73 mothers. A path model was calculated in form of multiple linear regression. A path model could be confirmed, which indicates that insecure maternal attachment representation predicts lack of coping strategies during the pandemic [ b = 5.55, 95%-CI = (4.51; 6.55), p = 0 .001]. Furthermore, lack of coping strategies predicts harmful parental behavior during the pandemic [ b = −0.77, 95%-CI = (−1.27; −0.21), p = 0 .007], which in turn predicts children's mental health problems, namely behavioral problems [ b = −0.08, 95%-CI = (−0.14; −0.01), p = 0 .027]. Presence of short-time work and decrease in income since beginning of the pandemic were used as control variables. This means that since the pandemic mothers with insecure attachment representation have an increased risk of having only a few coping mechanisms available, leading to harmful parental behaviors and ultimately affecting the mental health of their children. In conclusion, the pandemic could potentially have a particularly negative influence on mothers with an insecure attachment type and therefore on their children. Therefore, tailored interventions for families should be offered that both focus on the different types of mental health problems in children and support parents in their coping skills.
Between 15% to 20% of youth meet diagnostic criteria for anxiety, yet most do not receive treatment due to workforce shortages, under-detection, or barriers that dissuade families from seeking services in traditional settings. Equine-assisted services (EAS) include several promising approaches to reach populations who do not access traditional therapies. Few studies using rigorous methods have been conducted on EAS for youth. This study examined feasibility and outcomes of a 10-session Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)-based adaptive riding intervention (hereafter called Reining in Anxiety) delivered by trained equine professionals.
Forty-one youth 6-16 years of age were recruited from GallopNYC, an adaptive horseback riding center in the NYC metro area. Youth were randomized to an experimental group (n=22) or services as usual (n=19), a standard adaptive riding group (services as usual or SAU). Severity of anxiety symptoms, anxiety in close relationships, and emotional self-efficacy were assessed at baseline and at the end of treatment.
Fidelity to the manual was excellent, ranging from 88.9% to 100%. There was a non-significant trend in the experimental group towards greater improvement with higher number of sessions completed. Youth in the Reining in Anxiety group displayed significant reductions in anxiety (t=4.426, df=38, p=0.042) and improvement in emotional self-efficacy at posttest (t=4.132, df =38, p=0.049) in comparison to the SAU group. No significant differences were found between groups for anxiety in close relationships.
This study suggests that a CBT-based adaptive riding intervention delivered by non-mental health equine professionals following a detailed manual can reduce youth anxiety symptoms and be delivered with fidelity by riding instructors. These findings have implications for families seeking non-traditional services.
Children from lower socioeconomic status (SES) families are at increased risk for anxiety problems, though knowledge of the pathways by which SES predicts children's anxiety outcomes remains scant. Limited work suggests SES as a moderator of links between early development and anxiety outcomes but has not used a longitudinal framework or a multimethod approach. In this preregistered study, SES was tested as a simultaneous moderator of putatively biologically (error-related negativity [ERN]) and contextually (authoritarian parenting) based pathways of anxiety risk from ages 3 (Mage = 3.59), 4 (Mage = 4.57), and 5 (Mage = 5.52) [N = 121; 59% female]. Families were largely White and Non-Hispanic and reported a broad range of income (less than $15,000 to $90,001 or greater) from 2014 to 2017. We hypothesized that putatively biological pathways would be the strongest predictors of child outcomes at high SES and that putatively contextual pathways would be the strongest predictors of child outcomes at low SES. Consistent with expectations, smaller ERN across ages 3 and 4 was associated with greater anxious behaviors at age 5, but only at high SES. SES did not moderate parenting-based pathways of risk. Results are partially consistent with previous work suggesting that putatively biological pathways are more robust predictors of child outcomes at high SES than at low SES. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
Anxiety problems are seen as early as 1-2 years of age. Among others, parenting and child temperament are considered as the most important factors affecting anxiety in early childhood. In the current study, the unique roles of parent-ing (maternal overprotectiveness and warmth) and temperament (behavioral inhibition and negative emotionality), parenting-temperament interactions, and mediating role of ambivalent attachment between behavioral inhibition and anxiety were investigated. One-hundred mother-child (18-36-month-old) dyads participated in this study. Children's anxiety and temperament were measured through mother-reported scales, attachment was measured by observation via home visits, and parenting dimensions were measured via both mother-reported scales and observation. The results revealed that behavioral inhibition and over-protectiveness were positively associated with toddlers' anxiety, whereas there were no significant direct associations of negative emotionality and warmth with anxiety. However, the interaction between behavioral inhibition and warmth predicted toddler's anxiety; that is, if behaviorally inhibited children had mothers who were low on warmth, those children were more likely to exhibit anxiety symptoms compared to children with low behavioral inhibition, whereas anxiety levels did not change for children of warm mothers. Ambivalent attachment mediated the relationship between behavioral inhibition and anxiety. The nature of parent-child interactions is discussed based on toddlerhood anxiety. K E Y W O R D S anxiety, behavioral inhibition, mother-child attachment, negative emotionality, overprotec-tiveness, warmth
Attachment theory leads to the suggestion that the supportive function of attachment relations may be most salient during early adolescent transitions, such as the child's transition into junior high. To test these effects, questionnaire measures of attachment to parents, emotional autonomy, perceived self-competence, depression, and anxiety were completed by forty-seven 12-year-olds at three times: the last semester of sixth grade, the first 2 months of seventh grade (in a junior high school), and the last semester of seventh grade. Correlational results revealed that attachment to parents was significantly and positively correlated with measures of self-perceived competence, especially during the child's transition into junior high (Time 2). Also, attachment to parents was found to be significantly but negatively related to adolescent feelings of depression and anxiety. These results support the expected emergence, during transitional periods, of the buffering effect of parent-adolescent attachment for adolescent feelings of competence and emotional well-being.
The current study reported on links between fourth-grade children's
academic competence and behavioral adjustment and mothers' and
fathers' psychological autonomy, controlling for effects of parental
limit-setting and warmth. In a sample of 91 two-parent families, parents'
warmth and limit-setting were observed while interacting with their
fourth-grade child, and children reported on their parents' psychological
autonomy. Fourth-grade teachers rated children's academic competence and
behavioral adjustment in the classroom. Fathers' psychological autonomy
was a unique correlate of greater academic competence and fewer signs of
depression in the classroom, after accounting for the effects of fathers'
warmth and limit-setting. Discussion focuses on the role of fathers'
psychological autonomy in promoting adjustment in late childhood.
In recent years, researchers have examined factors that ‘‘determine’’ parenting beliefs, styles, and behaviours. One potential determinant of parenting is the child him/herself. Child characteristics, such as temperament, have been cited as evocative infuences on parenting beliefs and behaviours. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the longitudinal relations between children’s social wariness/inhibition and parents’ beliefs about how to best socialise their children. Questionnaire data on child temperament and parenting practices were collected from the parents (mothers and fathers) of sixty 2-year-olds; identical data were collected 2 years later. Observations of inhibited behaviour were taken at two years. Results indicated that few differences existed between mothers’ and fathers’ expressed parenting styles at ages 2 and 4 years. Second, parental perceptions of child shyness at age 2 were: (a) stable to age 4; and (b) predicted a lack of encouragement of independence at age 4. Third, parents’ expressed lack of encouragement of independence, although stable from 2 to 4 years, failed to predict child shyness at age 4. The findings support the conjecture that young children’s dispositional characteristics predict subsequent maternal and paternal behaviour.
Describes historical use of surveys to assess parents' global child-rearing attitudes and reviews the structure and content of the 83 parent attitude questionnaires published from 1899 through 1986 designed to quantify variations in parental attitudes and, presumably, parental behavior. Inspection of the surveys' psychometric properties reveals marginally acceptable levels of reliability and questionable validity. One suspected source of problems with the instruments, the use of vague and ambiguous items, was confirmed in a study of mothers' reactions to one survey. In addition to instrument errors, conceptual problems associated with assumptions about the structure of parental attitudes and how attitudes relate to parental behavior are discussed. Alternative methods for assessing parental social cognitions and individual differences in parents are advocated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Mothers of aggressive-externalizing (AGG), withdrawn-internalizing (WTH), and socially average children in kindergarten (
n = 155), Grade 2 (
n = 137), and Grade 4 (
n = 167) were compared to determine whether they differed in their use of behavioral control and forms of psychological control involving threats to self-esteem. Using teacher and peer ratings of socioemotional adjustment, target groups were formed; there were 22 average, 13 WTH, and 10 AGG children. Mothers and children were observed interacting in a variety of situations. Compared to mothers of average children, mothers of WTH children were behaviorally and psychologically overcontrolling (made more imperative compliance commands and were less responsive to their children), while mothers of AGG children were behaviorally undercontrolling (made fewer requests and play directives). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Despite broad consensus about the effects of parenting practices on child development, many questions about the construct parenting style remain unanswered. Particularly pressing issues are the variability in the effects of parenting style as a function of the child's cultural background, the processes through which parenting style influences the child's development, and the operationalization of parenting style. Drawing on historical review, the authors present a model that integrates 2 traditions in socialization research, the study of specific parenting practices and the study of global parent characteristics. They propose that parenting style is best conceptualized as a context that moderates the influence of specific parenting practices on the child. It is argued that only by maintaining the distinction between parenting style and parenting practice can researchers address questions concerning socialization processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although anxiety disorders are commonly found in children and adolescents, these disorders often go undiagnosed and untreated. Unfortunately, suffering from an anxiety disorder during childhood or adolescence puts an individual at higher risk for developing anxiety disorders and other psychiatric conditions in adulthood. This article will review the phenomenology, longitudinal course, neurophysiology and treatment of children and adolescents with anxiety disorders. Recent research supports a combination of genetic and environmental factors contributing to the occurrence of anxiety disorders in youth. Advances in technology, particularly in neuroimaging, have allowed for progress to be made regarding the characterization of the biological underpinings of emotion processing. Moreover, methodologically rigorous treatment research in both the psychosocial and pharmacological realms has provided data suggesting that cognitive-behavioral therapy and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, or a combination of the two, are perhaps the most effective treatments for youths suffering from anxiety disorders. There is a clear need for increased awareness by clinicians and educators of the long-lasting impact of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Furthermore, future research in the accurate identification of anxiety symptoms that are not developmentally appropriate and the long-term, effective treatments of early onset anxiety disorders are necessary in hopes of improving the outcomes of youths in adulthood.
This chapter discusses behavioral genetics research into the etiology of anxiety. It outlines top-down and bottom-up family study designs, as well as twin, sibling, and adoption studies. The chapter also discusses research into anxiety phenotypes (fear and phobia symptoms, anxiety symptoms, anxiety and depression symptoms, separation anxiety disorder (SAD), and overanxious disorder (OAD), and draws conclusions about the genetic influence on anxiety in childhood.
This chapter reviews the principles and premises of operant conditioning, before exploring the utility of these principles in understanding the onset and maintenance of phobic and anxiety disorders. It examinesthese principles and their utility in the treatment of these disorders, and explores developmental issues associated with operant factors in the onset,maintenance, and treatment of these disorders.
This chapter reviews the tenets of the developmentalpsychopathology perspective and to consider their implications forunderstanding the development, maintenance, and amelioration of childhoodanxiety disorders. Subsequently, based on these tenets, the chapterdescribes a broad framework for conceptualizing the various pathwaysassociated with the development of childhood anxiety disorders.
This chapter provides a summary of anxiety sensitivity (AS) in children, showing that significantprogress has been made toward demonstrating an early risk factor for anxiety. The chapter reviews theoretical, measurement, and research issues on high AS, and aims to summarize existing knowledge and stimulate additional research on AS in children
The 1956 adaptation for children of Taylor's Manifest Anxiety Scale, the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, was revised to meet current psychometric standards. A 73-item revision draft was administered to 329 school children from grades 1 to 12. Based on item-analysis criteria for rbis greater than or equal to .4 and .30 less than or equal to p less than or equal to .70, 28 anxiety items were retained along with 9 of the original 11 Lie scale items. A cross-validation sample of 167 children from grades 2, 5, 9, 10, and 11 produced a KR20 reliability estimate of .85. Anxiety scores did not differ across grade or race. Females scored significantly higher than males. For the Lie scale, significant differences appeared by grade and race. No sex differences were obtained on the Lie scale. The resulting scale appears useful for children in grades 1 to 12 and may aid in future studies of anxiety as well as assisting the clinician in the understanding of individual children.
Although high levels of anger and low levels of parental agreement are generally associated with poor adolescent functioning, this may not always be the case. In particular, from the child's perspective, when one parent is angry on a large number of issues, parental agreement may be dysfunctional because the second parent is unavailable to buffer the stress produced by the first parent. When the level of parental anger about parent–child issues is low, higher levels of parental agreement may serve to clarify for the child which issues are important. Seventy boys and 77 girls indicated the extent and level of anger with which each of 44 issues was discussed with each parent. Teachers' ratings, school records, and self-reported depression were organized into a set of internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and role performance. For boys, but not for girls, the predicted interaction of perceived parental anger and perceived parental agreement was significant on measures from each class of dependent v...
Reports an error in the original article by C. Gerlsma et al (Clinical Psychology Review, 1990, Vol 10[3], 251-277). Corrections are made to the 1st and 3rd formulas on page 257 and to Table 1, page 258, and Table 1, page 261."
The purpose of this study was to empirically examine the emotional distancing and buffering hypotheses. The sample was composed of 231 seventh graders (133 females and 98 males). Each adolescent completed a battery of questionnaires yielding measures of perceived attachment to mother and father, pubertal status, family expressiveness and cohesion, and feelings of depression and social anxiety. The emotional-distancing hypothesis was supported in that perceived attachment to parents was found to diminish with advanced pubertal maturity. The buffering hypothesis was also supported in that adolescents who perceived greater attachment to parents reported less depression and social anxiety as well as more positive perceptions of family expressiveness and cohesion. However, pubertal maturity did not appear to moderate the buffering effects of attachment. Results are discussed in terms of the need to further explore socialization processes associated with the child's transition into early adolescence.
Assessed differences between families with a child diagnosed with anxiety disorder and control families on self-report measures of parenting and independent observers' ratings of family interaction. Children rated their parents, and parents rated themselves on the parental variables of warmth/acceptance and psychological autonomy/control. Similar constructs were rated by independent observers of family interaction generated via a revealed differences discussion task. Parents of children with anxiety disorders were rated by observers as less granting of psychological autonomy than controls. In addition, children with anxiety disorders rated both their mothers and fathers as less accepting than control children rated their parents. Results are discussed in terms of socialization, family systems, and attachment theories regarding the tolerance and acceptance of different and/or negative emotions within families. The possible relation of family interaction styles to the internalizing disorders in childhood is explored.
The present study investigated the relationship between parental rearing behaviours on the one hand and ‘psychopathology’ (i.e. fearfulness and problem behaviour) on the other hand in a group of clinically referred children. In order to examine this issue, children completed the child version of the EMBU (i.e. an inventory for assessing their parents' rearing practices) and the Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSSC) (Ollendick, 1983). Parents filled in the parent version of the EMBU and the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL) (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1983). It was found that some subscales of both the parent and the child version of the EMBU were unreliable in terms of internal consistency. By means of a factor analytic procedure, two new EMBU scales were created: ‘positive rearing behaviour’ and ‘negative rearing behaviour’. Results further revealed a low degree of agreement between parents and children in reports of parental rearing behaviours. No association was found between parental rearing practices and fearfulness/internalizing problem behaviour. However, a positive relationship did emerge between negative rearing practices and externalizing problem behaviours. Finally, parental rearing behaviours in children with anxiety disorders were similar to those in clinically referred children who did not suffer from a severe type of psychopathology. Children with disruptive behaviour disorders, however, exhibited an aberrant pattern of rearing practices: in these children relatively more negative and less positive upbringing behaviours were observed.
Constructing Panic: The Discourse of Agoraphobia. Lisa Capps and Elinor Ochs. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995. 244 pp.
"This paper advocates a validational process utilizing a matrix of intercorrelations among tests representing at least two traits, each measured by at least two methods. Measures of the same trait should correlate higher with each other than they do with measures of different traits involving separate methods. Ideally, these validity values should also be higher than the correlations among different traits measure by the same method." Examples from the literature are described as well as problems in the application of the technique. 36 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
Differences in the rate and quality of parent-child communication in parents of socially anxious and normal children 9–12-years- old were examined. Socially anxious and control children were videotaped with their parents completing a puzzle task under three conditions, mother with child, father with child, and mother and father with child. Videotapes were coded for six types of verbalizations. Group differences were found in parents for frequency of total verbalizations, as well as frequency of types of verbalizations, with parents of anxious children using fewer total verbalizations, less positive feedback, and more negative feedback than control group parents. No difference was observed in the three observation conditions. Like their parents, socially anxious children engaged in fewer total verbalizations, and used more negative feedback and less positive feedback than control group children. Sequential analyses revealed that parents and children in the control group displayed similar patterns of communication in that they showed a strong tendency to mirror the quality of the other's verbalizations. Socially anxious children, like the control group children, tended to mirror the verbalizations of their parents. In contrast, parents of socially anxious children did not show the same similarities in responsiveness. Implications of the findings are discussed.
The history of research on childhood socialization in the context of the family is traced through the present century. The 2 major early theories (behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory) are described. These theories declined in mid-century, under the impact of failures to find empirical support. Simple reinforcement theory was seriously weakened by work on developmental psycholinguistics, attachment, modeling, and altruism. The field turned to more domain-specific mini-theories. The advent of microanalytic analyses of parent–child interaction focused attention on bidirectional processes. Views about the nature of identification and its role in socialization underwent profound change. The role of "parent as teacher" was reconceptualized (with strong influence from Vygotskian thinking). There has been increasing emphasis on the role of emotions and mutual cognitions in establishing the meaning of parent–child exchanges. The enormous asymmetry in power and competence between adults and children implies that the parent–child relationship must have a unique role in childhood socialization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
developmental psychopathology, rapidly emerging as the organizational framework for the study of behavior problems in children and adolescents, has as its goal the understanding of psychopathology in the full context of human development / this framework represents the integration of several scientific traditions in child psychology and experimental psychopathology, as well as clinical traditions in psychiatry and psychology / purpose of this chapter is to delineate the central assumptions of this approach and to examine its implications for clinical practice and research, particularly for behavior therapy
the origins, tenets, and potential applications of developmental psychopathology will be described / this chapter will focus on childhood and adolescence
explore implications for classification and diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and research, trying to find common ground between behavior therapy and developmental psychopathology (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although developmental psychopathologists are invested in understanding high-risk conditions and mental disorders across the life span (Cicchetti & Cohen, 1995b), in this chapter we limit ourselves to a consideration of child and adolescent disorders and their treatment because this volume focuses on research and practice as they pertain to children and adolescents. However, when applicable, we discuss long-term follow-up studies and disorders beyond the adolescent years. The literatures related to child maltreatment and depression, the areas that we use to illustrate our approach to developmental psychopathology, are extensive. Therefore, we have limited our discussion of relevant research findings to those studies that meet adequate methodological standards and that incorporate developmental considerations into their design. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Attempted (a) to replicate or modify parent-child relationships found in 2 previous studies by D. Baumrind (see record
1967-05780-001) and D. Baumrind and A. E. Black (see record
1967-10271-001); and (b) to differentiate further among patterns of parental authority and measure their effects upon the behavior of preschool children. Data were based upon observational procedures, and were analyzed for boys and girls separately. Ss were 146 white preschool children and their families. Results include the following: (a) authoritative parental behavior was clearly associated with independent, purposive behavior for girls but only associated with such behavior for boys when the parents were nonconforming; (b) authoritative parental control was clearly associated with all indexes of social responsibility in boys compared to authoritarian and permissive parental control, and with high achievement in girls, but not with friendly, cooperative behavior; and (c) contrary to expectations, parental nonconformity was not associated with lack of social responsibility in either boys or girls. (45 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This book brings together some of the foremost experts to review and integrate the current research and theory on the major factors that shape anxiety disorders in childhood and throughout the life span. The book is divided into three parts: Part I provides a framework for conceptualizing the developmental psychopathology of anxiety and introduces foundational issues, including developmental variations in the prevalence and manifestation of anxiety. Part II covers a diverse array of factors that precede, precipitate, maintain, intensify, protect against, and ameliorate anxiety, as well as some of the processes by which they may operate. Part III offers integrative discussions of these varied factors and processes in the context of specific anxiety disorders that affect children. Researchers and clinicians alike will find this collection of chapters of interest. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews the individual and group treatment of clients who present with a history of childhood sexual abuse (CSA). Almost all of the literature regarding the individual treatment of these clients is based on clinical reports; very little is experimentally based. Most of the reports of group treatment are of a similar nature, although some outcome research data are included. The clinical consensus, in terms of the issues, stages, goals and techniques of therapy, is described. An overview is provided of the identification of clients who may have a history of CSA, including guidelines for assisting disclosure. The issues raised for therapists in treating these clients are addressed. Much of the material reviewed refers to the treatment of female incest victims. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Data from 2,699 high school children, their teachers, and their parents in 8 communities (Canberra, Brisbane, Winnipeg, Phoenix, Berlin, Hong Kong, Taipei, and Osaka) generally confirmed the hypotheses that children's self-esteem and low anxiety are associated with familial harmony and parental nurturance, poor interpersonal competence with parental protectiveness, and contamination of perspective in the same-source correlations. Children's views of the family appeared to be the more valid, on the basis of correlations with their independently assessed personality characteristics. There was general uniformity over cultures in magnitudes of the correlations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We have previously studied the relationship between dominance rank and physiology among male olive baboons (Papio anubis) living freely in a national park in Africa. In stable hierarchies, such males have distinctive secretory profiles of glucocorticoids and of testosterone. We find that these endocrine features are not, in fact, purely markers of social dominance; instead, they are found only among dominant males with particular stylistic traits of social behavior. One intercorrelated stylistic cluster revolved around the intensity with which the male is involved in sexual consortships (e.g., frequency of copulation, of grooming, degree to which feeding is suppressed by being in consortship). Males most involved in such consortships had the lowest basal cortisol concentrations and smaller cortisol stress-responses. A second stylistic cluster revolved around the degree of social affiliation (e.g., rate of grooming and interacting positively with non-estrus females and infants). Males who were highly affiliated had low basal cortisol concentrations and an attenuated cortisol stress-response. A third cluster revolved around the degree to which males could distinguish between highly threatening interactions with rivals and neutral or mildly threatening ones. Males most adept at this had lower basal cortisol concentrations. These behavioral/endocrine clusters were independent of each other. This suggests that the same adaptive physiological feature (e.g., low basal cortisol concentrations) may arise from different and independent personality styles. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Investigated whether parental expressed emotion (EE) status relates to measures of family environment and marital adjustment among the parents of 94 disruptive behavior disorder (DBD) children (mean age 11.64 yrs), 45 obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) children (mean age 13.64 yrs), and 11 normal controls (mean age 13.19 yrs). The components that make up the construct of EE are presence (high EE) or absence (low EE) of criticism and overinvolvement. Ss completed a battery of tests, including the Family Environment Scale and Dyadic Adjustment Scale. Achievement orientation in mothers was related to high EE. Familial conflict and psychiatric disorders in the parents were also related to high EE. There was a preponderance of psychiatric disorders (79%) in the parents of DBD and OCD children, compared to 26% of the parents of controls. Low EE was related to absence of psychopathology and to a more functional family and marital environment.
Distress and ad lib alcohol consumption after interactions with child confederates were investigated in parents of children with externalizing disorders—attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), conduct disorder (CD), or oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Sixty subjects interacted with boys trained to act like either normal children or children with ADHD/CD/ODD. Interactions with deviant confederates resulted in feelings of inadequacy and produced negative affect but had no effect on alcohol consumption. Post hoc analyses showed that parents with a family history of alcohol problems (FH+) showed increased drinking after interaction with a deviant confederate, compared with FH+ parents who interacted with the normal confederate. FH- parents showed the opposite pattern of results. (Am J Addict 1998; 7:103–114)
This article argues for the value in socialization research of focusing explicitly on the construct of parental psychological control of children—control that constrains, invalidates, and manipulates children's psychological and emotional experience and expression. The article traces the history of the construct and distinguishes psychological control theoretically and empirically from more behaviorally oriented control. 2 new measures of psychological control are developed. Data from 3 separate studies are presented which indicate that psychological control can be adequately measured across demographically varied samples and mode of measurement. In both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, psychological control, particularly as perceived by preadolescents and adolescents, is consistently predictive of youth internalized problems (depression) and, in some cases, externalized problems (delinquency). In contrast, behavioral control is related primarily to externalized problems.
The hypothesis that perceived failure experiences at school would increase the likelihood of aversive parent-child interactions after school was supported in a study of 167 fourth, fifth, and sixth graders. Children completed measures of mood, school events, and parent-child interaction 3 times each day for 2 consecutive days. Reports of social and academic failure experiences at school (e.g., peer problems and difficulty with schoolwork) were associated with increases in child self-reports of demanding and aversive behavior toward parents that evening. There was no evidence of the reverse effect, aversive child behavior did not predict an increase in reports of negative events the next day. When children rated more academic failure events at school, they also described their parents as more disapproving and punishing after school. However, this effect was only partially mediated by increases in the child's aversive behavior. It is argued that the findings cannot be explained solely by a response bias caused by the child's general mood or frame of mind that day. First, school-to-home mood spillover effects were controlled in the analyses. Second, reports of problems at school were not associated with other aspects of parent-child interaction (e.g., the parent's positive behavioral and emotional involvement with the child). In addition to its substantive findings, the study illustrates use of an unbiased method for assessing child responses to daily stressors.
In this paper, we define psychotherapy as a modality of treatment in which the therapist and patient(s) work together to ameliorate psychopathologic conditions and functional impairment through focus on the therapeutic relationship; the patient's attitudes, thoughts, affect, and behavior; and social context and development. The possible mechanisms of action and active ingredients of psychotherapy in children and adolescents are discussed, with an emphasis on the above-noted domains. The adult psychotherapy literature strongly supports the central roles of the therapeutic relationship and therapeutic empathy; this has been much less intensively explored in the child and adolescent psychotherapy literature. Similarly, there have been few studies examining the mediation of treatment effects by impact on specific domains. Ideally, treatment studies should gather data that can be informative about the impact of putative mediating and moderating psychosocial and biological variables on outcome and course. The results of such studies can aid further refinements in both theories of etiology and improvement in treatments for children and adolescents.