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Violence and touch deprivation in adolescents
Abstract
The increasing incidence of violence among children and adolescents highlights the importance of identifying at-risk profiles as well as assessing interventions for preventing violence. Empirical research has suggested behavioral, central nervous system, and neurotransmitter/neurohormone dysregulation in violent individuals, including (1) an underaroused central nervous system characterized by right frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) hypoactivation, and (2) a neurotransmitter/neurohormone profile of lower norepinephrine, serotonin, and cortisol, and elevated dopamine and testosterone. The literature also suggests a disproportionate incidence of physical abuse and neglect or the lack of positive physical contact in violent individuals. In the studies we have conducted to date, there has been a relatively high incidence of anger and aggression in high school samples, even those that were relatively advantaged, as well as high levels of depression (one standard deviation above the mean), suggesting significant disturbance in these youth. Adolescents with these profiles also had less optimal relationships with their families, used illicit drugs more frequently, had inferior academic performance, and had higher depression scores. In our cross-cultural comparisons, preschoolers and adolescents were less physically affectionate and more aggressive in the United States versus France. Further, the U.S. youth received less physical affection as preschoolers, and as adolescents they engaged in more self-stimulating behaviors, perhaps to compensate for receiving less physical affection from their parents and peers. This supports the notion that less physical affection (or more physical neglect) can contribute to greater aggression. Massage therapy has been effective with violent adolescents, perhaps because the physical stimulation reduced their dopamine levels and increased their serotonin levels. Their aggressive behavior decreased and their empathetic behavior increased. These preliminary data need to be replicated in a larger sample with a more comprehensive set of measures in the context of identifying a diagnostic profile.
... There has been a significant decline in social touch over the past 2 decades with an increase in a culture of "low-no-touching" (Linden, 2015), a decrease amplified by Covid-19 (Field et al., 2020). The problematics of inappropriate social touch, abusive social touch, and the ethics of social touch are well documented (e.g., Field, 2014). This raises questions of the agency, control, and regulation of social touch (in workplaces, schools, healthcare settings etc.), much of which are entangled with the politics of power and gender (e.g., #MeToo) in both institutional and domestic settings (Field, 2002;Halley, 2007;Owen and Gillentine, 2011;Green, 2017;Pihkala et al., 2019). ...
... The problematics of inappropriate social touch, abusive social touch, and the ethics of social touch are well documented (e.g., Field, 2014). This raises questions of the agency, control, and regulation of social touch (in workplaces, schools, healthcare settings etc.), much of which are entangled with the politics of power and gender (e.g., #MeToo) in both institutional and domestic settings (Field, 2002;Halley, 2007;Owen and Gillentine, 2011;Green, 2017;Pihkala et al., 2019). Despite this social touch remains central to human experience (Bull et al., 2006;Field, 2014), communication (Gallace and Spence, 2010), and relational, psychological and physiological well-being (Jakubiak, and Feeney, 2017). ...
... This raises questions of the agency, control, and regulation of social touch (in workplaces, schools, healthcare settings etc.), much of which are entangled with the politics of power and gender (e.g., #MeToo) in both institutional and domestic settings (Field, 2002;Halley, 2007;Owen and Gillentine, 2011;Green, 2017;Pihkala et al., 2019). Despite this social touch remains central to human experience (Bull et al., 2006;Field, 2014), communication (Gallace and Spence, 2010), and relational, psychological and physiological well-being (Jakubiak, and Feeney, 2017). The impact of a lack of social touch on communication, relationships and well-being and health is well documented as having demonstrable negative connotations (Gallace and Spence, 2010;Field et al., 2020). ...
This qualitative exploratory research paper presents a Manifesto for Digital Social Touch in Crisis - a provocative call to action to designers, developers and researchers to rethink and reimagine social touch through a deeper engagement with the social and sensory aspects of touch. This call is motivated by concerns that social touch is in a crisis signaled by a decline in social touch over the past 2 decades, the problematics of inappropriate social touch, and the well documented impact of a lack of social touch on communication, relationships, and well-being and health. These concerns shape how social touch enters the digital realm and raise questions for how and when the complex space of social touch is mediated by technologies, as well the societal implications. The paper situates the manifesto in the key challenges facing haptic designers and developers identified through a series of interdisciplinary collaborative workshops with participants from computer science, design, engineering, HCI and social science from both within industry and academia, and the research literature on haptics. The features and purpose of the manifesto form are described, along with our rationale for its use, and the method of the manifesto development. The starting points, opportunities and challenges, dominant themes and tensions that shaped the manifesto statements are then elaborated on. The paper shows the potential of the manifesto form to bridge between HCI, computer science and engineers, and social scientists on the topic of social touch.
... However, some observational studies suggest that maternal touch may play an important role in children's social development. Touch deprivation in early development may contribute to violence in adults (Field, 2002(Field, , 2004(Field, , 2010. Studies conducted by Prescott (1979) also suggested that adult aggressive behaviors might have their origins in deprivation of affiliative tactile reward in infancy or adolescence. ...
... Also, touch is considered to be the initial mode of the mother-infant dialogue and precedes other modes of communicative sensory development, visual and auditory (Feldman et al., 2003;Hertenstein et al., 2006a, b). The fundamental role touch plays in communication continues through the first year of life (Field, 2001). Research has shown that mothers and infants communicate discrete emotions and specific information such as the presence or absence of a caregiver, security and many diverse types of information through touch (see Hertenstein, 2002). ...
... One important reason is that it is very difficult to examine the independent contribution of maternal touch to infant attachment while controlling for other confounds that correlate to early parenting behaviors such as eyes contact, vocal communication, caregiver's responsiveness, etc. As a result, though many scholars since John Bowlby have proposed that maternal touch plays an important role in infant' s attachment formation and correlational studies as well as longitudinal studies have also showed that the frequency of maternal touch is related to infant's attachment style (Beebe et al., 2010;Duhn, 2010;Egeland and Farber, 1984;Field, 2001;Grossmann et al., 1985;Weiss et al., 2000), we still couldn't get a conclusive "yes" on the relation. Fortunately, some experimental studies that directly manipulate maternal touch give us some confidence on the casual link between maternal touch and infant attachment. ...
For centuries, scholars have been puzzled by the distinct human prosociality. A variety of explanations have been proposed to unveil the mystery of it and nearly all these explanations have focused on the role of complex cognitive processes. In this paper, we propose a novel hypothesis that human prosociality is touch-scaffolded. We argue that early tactile stimulation such as maternal touch serves as the basic component that enables the emergence of nascent human prosociality. During this process, C-tactile afferents along with many neuropeptides, such as oxytocin and endogenous opioids, play pivotal roles in the touch - prosociality connection by facilitating the formation of an intimate caregiver-infant bond and the development of a positive social schema. Our model provides a different perspective on the development of human prosociality and builds a bridge between the human tactile system and high-level psychology - human prosociality.
... However, not everyone in society receives the amount of touch he or she desires or needs. In fact, research has shown that people who do not receive adequate amounts of touch develop various communication problems from reduced learning of speech (Thayer, 1986) to aggression (Field, 2002a). Field (2002b) noted that touch is extremely important for the emotional, physical, and psychological growth and development for children. ...
... In one study conducted by Field (1995), she found that when elderly individuals were trained to give massages to neglected and abused infants the elderly individuals' levels of anxiety and depression decreased while the elderly individuals' levels of overall mood improved. Ultimately, touch studies have indicate that touch is very important because a lack of touch leads to communication development problems (Field, 1995), depression (Field, 1995), eating disorders (Gupta & Schork, 1995), aggression (Field, 2002a), self-injury behaviors (Turp, 2000). However, development of reliable means of measuring individual perceptions of touch deprivation has not been done. ...
... It is probable that more appropriate touch from others would be beneficial for building one's self esteem. Similar to depression, Field (2002a) noted that touch can have an impact on how a person communicates and views themselves. Thus, touch can be fruitful for healthier self esteems. ...
... Although affection can be and is communicated in nontactile ways as well (Floyd, 2006a), touch is especially strongly connected to mental, physical, and relational well-being (see, e.g., Floyd & Deiss, 2012). The skin is the largest and first to develop of the human sense organs (Field, 2006), and touch is the only one of the five senses essential to human survival (Field, 2002); thus it was chosen as the focus of this study. ...
... Although affection can be and is communicated in nontactile ways as well (Floyd, 2006a), touch is especially strongly connected to mental, physical, and relational well-being (see, e.g., Floyd & Deiss, 2012). The skin is the largest and first to develop of the human sense organs (Field, 2006), and touch is the only one of the five senses essential to human survival (Field, 2002); thus it was chosen as the focus of this study. ...
... The less the affectionate contact between mothers and infants in a culture, the more violent that culture. Later research has noted similar associations; for instance, Field (2002) reported that, compared to European adolescents, adolescents in the United States receive less affectionate touch and are also more aggressive (see also Field, 1999, for evidence of the same associations among preschool children). Prescott (1980) later hypothesized that violence and other destructive behaviorsincluding drug and alcohol abuse-in adulthood stem partly from attempts to compensate for touch deprivation in early childhood, although evidence for those associations was not strong. ...
This article articulates the construct of affection deprivation, the condition of wanting more tactile affectionate communication than one receives. Individual- and group-level variance on the construct is investigated and its social and health correlates are identified in a survey of 509 adults from all 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and 16 foreign countries. Affection deprivation shows no correlation with age and no relationship with ethnicity, but men report significantly higher average affection deprivation than women. Moreover, as affection exchange theory predicts, affection deprivation shows positive linear associations with loneliness, depression, stress, alexithymia, preoccupied and fearful avoidant attachment styles, and numbers of personality disorders, mood and anxiety disorders, and secondary immune disorders. Affection deprivation shows negative linear associations with general health, happiness, social support, relationship satisfaction, and attachment security. These findings support the claims of affection exchange theory that the provision and receipt of affection contribute to health and wellness in both mental and physical ways.
... However, not everyone in society receives the amount of touch he or she desires or needs. In fact, research has shown that people who do not receive adequate amounts of touch develop various communication problems from reduced learning of speech (Thayer, 1986) to aggression (Field, 2002a). Field (2002b) noted that touch is extremely important for the emotional, physical, and psychological growth and development for children. ...
... In one study conducted by Field (1995), she found that when elderly individuals were trained to give massages to neglected and abused infants the elderly individuals' levels of anxiety and depression decreased while the elderly individuals' levels of overall mood improved. Ultimately, touch studies have indicate that touch is very important because a lack of touch leads to communication development problems (Field, 1995), depression (Field, 1995), eating disorders (Gupta & Schork, 1995), aggression (Field, 2002a), self-injury behaviors (Turp, 2000). However, development of reliable means of measuring individual perceptions of touch deprivation has not been done. ...
... It is probable that more appropriate touch from others would be beneficial for building one's self esteem. Similar to depression, Field (2002a) noted that touch can have an impact on how a person communicates and views themselves. Thus, touch can be fruitful for healthier self esteems. ...
... JPay (digital communications), food and property packages, visiting expenses, commissary, GTL (phone), medical, and education were the primary expenses families reported. In addition to such expenses, the money families send to their incarcerated loved ones for essential commissary hygiene and food items is typically eroded through mandatory state deductions, 9 including cost of incarceration and restitution. Indeed, families heavily subsidize cost of incarceration in Washington. ...
... She may also have to struggle for years with 8 One parent whose son was incarcerated in a WA DOC facility reports arguing with a spouse over when to leave the prison visiting room, due to the spouse's anxiety about work obligations: "Our marriage fell apart while our son was incarcerated" (SFC Officer Discussions 2016-2021). 9 Per RCW 72.09.480, the following deductions are applied to money sent by family: 20% cost of incarceration, 5% victim compensation, 10% for savings (depending on sentence), 20% legal financial obligations (if applicable), and 20% child support (if applicable). ...
Families of prisoners incarcerated in the Washington Department of Corrections
... Touch is a fundamental tool in human communication (Knapp, Hall, & Horgan, 2013) and a crucial factor of physiological and psychological wellbeing (Field, 2019). Children with an experience of touch deprivation are struggling to learn how to speak (Thayer, 1986), behave more aggressively (Field, 2002b) and have problems sleeping or performing well in academic tasks as compared to children who are not touch deprived (Hart, Field, Hernandez-Reif, & Lundy, 1998). Similar findings exist for adults: They have more aggressive tendencies (Field, 2002b) and are more likely to account for impairments in psychological wellbeing. ...
... Children with an experience of touch deprivation are struggling to learn how to speak (Thayer, 1986), behave more aggressively (Field, 2002b) and have problems sleeping or performing well in academic tasks as compared to children who are not touch deprived (Hart, Field, Hernandez-Reif, & Lundy, 1998). Similar findings exist for adults: They have more aggressive tendencies (Field, 2002b) and are more likely to account for impairments in psychological wellbeing. For example, women reporting touch deprivation in their childhood and current life are more likely to develop an eating disorder (Gupta, Gupta, Schork, & Watteel, 1995). ...
Touch is a crucial factor of physiological and psychological health in humans. A lack of touch in contrast is associated with adverse implications on mental health. A new “Longing for Interpersonal Touch Picture Questionnaire (LITPQ)” was developed and tested for its concurrent, predictive, discriminant and face validity as well as its relation to psychological distress. Six different types of touch were depicted and touch frequency and touch wish concerning different interaction partners assessed. A sample of 110 participants aged 18–56 years completed the LITPQ as well as an existing touch deprivation questionnaire and a questionnaire on mental health. Frequency and wish for touch were higher for close interaction partners than for strangers. For 72.7% of the participants, their touch wish exceeded the reported touch frequency. The LITPQ correlated moderately with the existing questionnaire for touch deprivation and was independent of relationship status or gender but positively correlated with depressiveness, anxiety and somatization. Measuring longing for touch is a very complex task considering the many aspects of subjective touch perception and confounds in the method of self‐report of touch. In our view, the LITPQ provides promising insights into this matter.
... This neglect of research on anger may be due to the fact that emotions (e.g., anger) are too ethereal and complex to study empirically as compared to behaviors (e.g., violent behavior) (Underwood, 2003). Since the mid 1990s, however, research on anger in the field of social science has begun to make progress (Lemerise & Dodge, 2008), providing the evidence of associations between anger and various negative outcomes, including bullying behavior (Bosworth, Espelage, & Simon, 1999), gang involvement (Lemus & Johnson, 2008), substance abuse (Field, 2002;Ryan, Miller-Loessi, & Nieri, 2007), low academic performance (Field, 2002), date aggression (Kinsfogel & Grych, 2004), and peer rejection (Hubbard, 2001). Responding to the prevalent concern regarding the negative consequences of anger, the present study considered anger as a critical element of socialemotional functioning and sought to identify factors contributing to the negative impact of anger among adolescents as predicted from an attachment perspective. ...
... This neglect of research on anger may be due to the fact that emotions (e.g., anger) are too ethereal and complex to study empirically as compared to behaviors (e.g., violent behavior) (Underwood, 2003). Since the mid 1990s, however, research on anger in the field of social science has begun to make progress (Lemerise & Dodge, 2008), providing the evidence of associations between anger and various negative outcomes, including bullying behavior (Bosworth, Espelage, & Simon, 1999), gang involvement (Lemus & Johnson, 2008), substance abuse (Field, 2002;Ryan, Miller-Loessi, & Nieri, 2007), low academic performance (Field, 2002), date aggression (Kinsfogel & Grych, 2004), and peer rejection (Hubbard, 2001). Responding to the prevalent concern regarding the negative consequences of anger, the present study considered anger as a critical element of socialemotional functioning and sought to identify factors contributing to the negative impact of anger among adolescents as predicted from an attachment perspective. ...
... Subsequently, she and her colleagues carried out a massage therapy intervention and reported that aggressive adolescents who received massage therapy decreased hostility and aggressiveness compared to their counterparts who received relaxation therapy (Diego et al., 2002). Field (2002a) suggested the difference in response was due to a reduction of dopamine level and an increase of serotonin level as a result of massage therapy effects on aggression. Based on the compelling results of massage therapy on children's aggression, Field and her colleagues (1994;2002b) advocates more positive physical touch in nurseries and preschools. ...
... As suggested by Field (2002a), some forms of tactile stimulation, such as touch that children receive through daily parenting might have some effects on reducing physical aggression. However, since the present study is not a longitudinal study, it is possible that a child's aggressiveness makes parents less physically affectionate. ...
The present study, based on Tiffany Field`s model of violence and intimacy as well as other previous research, examines the relationship between parents` physical affection and their child`s aggressive behavior. One hundred seventy-five mothers and 124 fathers of Japanese preschoolers answered a questionnaire that included a parental physical affection scale developed for this study. Children`s aggressive behaviors were rated by their teachers on the hostile-aggressive subscale of the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire. Consistent with Field`s model and previous studies, the results of logistic regression analyses indicated that children who received more physical affection from mothers or fathers during daily parenting were less likely to be aggressive at preschool. When the mother`s and the father`s physical affection scores were simultaneously entered in the equation, only the father`s score was significant. Implications and limitations of the research are discussed.
... An important area where risk factors can linger is family functioning. Theory and research suggest that the interaction between child and caregiver is one of the most important predictors of problem behavior, with negative reinforcement and negative emotional bonding between child and caregiver increasing the probability of disruptive and antisocial behavior (e.g., T. Field, 2002; Stormshak, Speltz, DeKlyen, & Greenberg, 1997). In this respect, Bronfenbrenner (2005) suggested that a mutual emotional attachment between child and caregiver leads to an internalization of activities and feelings of affection that caregivers display, which in turn motivates the child to engage in the social environment. ...
... Teacher training colleges should focus their curriculum more on handling and supporting children with EBD in regular classrooms. As relational problems between children and caregivers turn out to be an important contributor to placement in a more restricted educational environment, special attention could for example be given to current knowledge of treatment concerning the sequela of biobehavioral problems associated with inadequate caretaker relationships (T. Field, 2002; Fisher & Stoolmiller, 2008), to extend the theoretical background of teachers concerning this topic. Besides teachers' efforts to assist children with EBD in inclusive settings, it is also of great importance that caregivers take part in children's education and treatment (Hosp & Reschly, 2002). ...
The aim of this study is to determine the discriminating special needs characteristics of children with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) that predict restrictiveness of placement in special education. The focus is on dynamic factors instead of static factors. To this end, 235 children with EBD in special schools and 111 children with EBD in regular education were compared in terms of behavioral, emotional, academic, and environmental variables. Measurements used were the Child Behavior Checklist and Teacher’s Report Form, information in the children’s assessment reports, and the Dutch Family Home Environment Scale. In a logistic regression analysis, eight variables were found to be relevant predictors for placement in special schools instead of regular education. Relational problems between child and caregiver, academic performance, and the age at which the child received youth care for the first time were identified as the three predictors that could most affect the inclusion of children with EBD in regular education. Implications of these findings for future research and practice are discussed.
... Positive emotions evoked through gentle strokes (e.g., grooming) seem to mediate socializing behavior [124] and appear to play a crucial role in autism [125]. Furthermore, touch deprivation is linked to depression and violence [126,127]. On the other hand, cultural groups have different rules about who, how, and how often members can touch each other. Violations of these rules can have social and legal consequences, such as touch or body contact that is perceived as being inappropriate or unwanted. ...
Communication between people is characterized by a broad range of nonverbal cues. Transferring these cues into the design of robots and other artificial agents that interact with people may foster more natural, inviting, and accessible experiences. In this position paper, we offer a series of definitive nonverbal codes for human-robot interaction (HRI) that address the five human sensory systems (visual, auditory, haptic, olfactory, gustatory) drawn from the field of communication studies. We discuss how these codes can be translated into design patterns for HRI using a curated sample of the communication studies and HRI literatures. As nonverbal codes are an essential mode in human communication, we argue that integrating robotic nonverbal codes in HRI will afford robots a feeling of “aliveness” or “social agency” that would otherwise be missing. We end with suggestions for research directions to stimulate work on nonverbal communication within the field of HRI and improve communication between human and robots.
... Montagu (1986) centres his text on touching around the 'human significance of the skin', exploring and documenting the tactile needs and experiences of babies and children. Preliminary results suggest that adolescents who received less affectionate touch in childhood have higher depression scores and are more aggressive (Field 2002). Touch deprivation has been shown numerous times to be detrimental to human health, in some cases even attributed to the death of babies and small children (Field 2014;Montagu 1986). ...
Prevailing understandings of the nurse's touch tend to be focused on its consoling, instrumental and communicative utility. What seems to be missing is an exploration of the ethical and existential significance of the nurse's touch. As an aspect of nearly every human experience, touch has a depth and breadth of meanings that are hard to compass. We experience the world through our bodies, feeling our way through our lives. In the nurse's world, touching contact with the person in care is often considered to be a fundamental gesture, inherent to nursing practices. Still, touch is often hidden, subsumed by the tasks of nursing themselves. In order to explore the meaningfulness of the nurse's touch, I start with considering the sense of touch itself, exploring possibilities of the nurse's touch. The experience of the nurse's touch is investigated further through phenomenological reflection on descriptive accounts of the nurse's touch from poetry, fictional prose, neonatal nurse interviews, as well as scholarly and personal accounts. These examples show insights into the nurse's touch as a site for an ethical encounter.
... Parental support, such as having parents that listen, and ease of access to emotional support, is a protective factor against adolescent anxiety, [13] and is inversely related to various forms of substance use [2,10,[14][15][16][17]. Conversely, just as high parental support is a protective factor for substance use, low parental support has been found to be associated with greater levels of substance use [12,18]. ...
Abstract Background Parental support (PS) and parental monitoring (PM) are known protective factors against adolescent substance use (SU). However, little is known about whether PS and PM may affect SU outcomes differently by gender and age. This study examined the relationship between PS and PM and adolescent SU, specifically alcohol and tobacco use, stratified by gender and age group. Methods Middle and high school students (n = 2351, 48.5% Female) completed surveys of self-reported SU, perceived PS and PM, and socioeconomic background. Age group was defined dichotomously as grade 7–8 Middle school and grade 9–10 High school students. PS and PM were each measured using previously validated tools. SU was measured by lifetime and past 30 days cigarette/alcohol use. One-way ANOVA and binary logistic regression models were completed. Odds ratios and means were reported. Results PS and PM were significantly and negatively related to all outcome variables regardless of gender and age group. Mean differences in PS and PM were insignificant between age groups. Between genders, PM scores were significantly higher for girls (14.05) compared to boys (13.48) (p
... As such, it is not surprising that touch deprivation is associated with negative outcomes. For example, in children, touch deprivation is associated with struggles in learning to speak [45], sleep problems and school performance [46] and aggression [47]. In adults, touch deprivation is associated with higher mood and anxiety symptoms [48], depression [49], perceived loneliness [37] and worse wellbeing more generally [15]. ...
Social touch has positive effects on social affiliation and stress alleviation. However, its ubiquitous presence in human life does not allow the study of social touch deprivation ‘in the wild’. Nevertheless, COVID-19-related restrictions such as social distancing allowed the systematic study of the degree to which social distancing affects tactile experiences and mental health. In this study, 1746 participants completed an online survey to examine intimate, friendly and professional touch experiences during COVID-19-related restrictions, their impact on mental health and the extent to which touch deprivation results in craving touch. We found that intimate touch deprivation during COVID-19-related restrictions is associated with higher anxiety and greater loneliness even though this type of touch is still the most experienced during the pandemic. Moreover, intimate touch is reported as the type of touch most craved during this period, thus being more prominent as the days practising social distancing increase. However, our results also show that the degree to which individuals crave touch during this period depends on individual differences in attachment style: the more anxiously attached, the more touch is craved; with the reverse pattern for avoidantly attached. These findings point to the important role of interpersonal and particularly intimate touch in times of distress and uncertainty.
... Touch-deprivation is an acutely understudied but potentially critical social/behavioural/ psychological/physiological health issue [1][2][3], due to it being linked with developmental delays [4,5], depression [6], aggression [7], and self-harm behaviours [8]. The modern world has become susceptible to touch-deprivation due to the fast growth of virtual communications (Field et al. reported a naturalistic observational study at airport gate waiting areas that indicated the existence of a certain form of touch-deprivation as 68% of their waiting time was spent on mobile/cell phones [9].) and the social "taboo against touch" e.g., fear of breaking the laws regarding physical contact in schools [10]. ...
COVID-19 has brought not only fear and anxiety, but also legitimate restrictions of communication and consequential touch-deprivation in our daily lives. Couples’ relational wellbeing continues to be impacted by these COVID-19 related stressors. Protecting both personal and relational wellbeing is therefore particularly important at this time. Using a preventative intervention approach, the current paper argues the theoretical benefit of the Positive Massage programme and reports a qualitative analysis of stressed but healthy couples’ experience of engaging in the programme. Thirty-four participants completed 3 weekly classes and home-based practice of massage exchange. Data from an open text online questionnaire completed every week of the programme and again 3 weeks afterwards were analysed using thematic analysis. The identified themes included “holistic stress relief”, “relationship-promotion”, and “selves-care skill”. Couples perceived Positive Massage as an effective mutual support skill to relax and help one another by de-stressing, both emotionally and physically through verbal and nonverbal communication, creating gratitude, deeper connection and self-efficacy via quality time together and pleasurable touch. Theoretically and experientially, Positive Massage can be an effective preventative selves-care skill. Promoting the concept of selves-care and its practical application through Positive Massage would be beneficial for couples’ personal and relational wellbeing in a touch-deprived era.
... Formal studies of these phenomena began in the mid-twentieth century with observations of the positive effects of pleasant touch on infant growth and development (Widdowson, 1951) and the mental and physical health of older adults (Montagu, 1971), and has broadened greatly to encompass observational (including imaging) and experimental studies of the benefits of pleasant touch, including massage, on people of all ages and states of health, including psychiatric and cancer patients and autistic children (Morhenn et al., 2012;Field, 2014Field, , 2019Cascio, 2016;Walaszek et al., 2017;von Mohr et al., 2018). It is not surprising that touch deprivation has significant adverse effects on human well-being beyond infancy, being associated with increased anxiety, violence, depression, and hypervigilance (Field, 2002;Elhai et al., 2016;Sailer and Ackerley, 2017;Brummelman et al., 2018). ...
Primates are long-lived, highly social mammals who maintain long-term social bonds and cohesive social groups through many affiliative mechanisms, foremost among them social touch. From birth through adulthood, social touch – primarily mutual grooming – creates and maintains relationships of trust and reliance, which are the basis for individual physical and emotional well-being and reproductive success. Because social touch helps to establish, maintain, and repair social alliances in primates, it contributes to the emotional stability of individuals and the cohesion of social groups. In these fundamental ways, thus, social touch supports the slow life histories of primates. The reinforcing neurochemistry of social touch insures that it is a pleasurable activity and this, in turn, makes it a behavioral commodity that can be traded between primates for desirable rewards such as protection against future aggression or opportunities to handle infants. Social touch is essential to normal primate development, and individuals deprived of social touch exhibit high levels of anxiety and lower fertility compared to those receiving regular social touch. Understanding the centrality of social touch to primate health and well-being throughout the lifespan provides the foundation for appreciating the importance of social touch in human life.
... Touch can be intentional (Connor & Howett, 2009) or functional (Bush, 2001) but is also used to convey affection, is central to the provision of comfort (Connor & Howett, 2009) and can be used to convey reassurance in times of distress (Holt-Lunstad, Birmingham, & Light, 2008). The importance of human touch can be seen in evidence that suggests the absence of affectionate touch or physical neglect can contribute to higher levels of aggression in adolescents (Field, 2002). ...
The novel coronavirus, COVID‐19, was first reported in Wuhan, China, in late 2019 and in March 2020, the World Health Organisation declared the outbreak a pandemic (World Health Organization, 2020). What quickly became clear is that COVID‐19 spreads rapidly between people who are in close contact (Nussbaumer‐Streit et al., 2020) and so, in efforts to stem the tide of infection, public health messages about the importance of maintaining physical distance were consistent and clear. Initial government advice to vulnerable populations was to self‐isolate and practice social distancing (Extance, 2020).
... Touch can communicate, e.g., convey security, trust, belonging, care and support in stressful situations (Weiss, 1995). Research has also shown that caring touch promotes good social interaction and positive behavior (Dobson et al., 2002;Goodwin, 2017) and reduces aggressive behavior (Diego et al., 2002;Field, 1999Field, , 2002Field, , 2014. While research has demonstrated the positive effects of touch on children's health and wellbeing, the issue of how teachers relate to touch between educators and children has largely been unresearched, particularly in Sweden. ...
Physical touch between educators and children in preschool settings is a sensitive issue in many countries. The aim of the study is to examine how future and newly graduated preschool teachers relate to touch between preschool teachers and children in the Swedish preschool context. The study was conducted using: 1) a questionnaire study (n = 204) and 2) semi-structured interviews (n = 20). The results illustrate the informants’ desire to combine physical care of children with awareness of and respect for children’s bodily integrity.
... Bonding between parent and child is also crucial to the emotional and psychological development of children (Bolton, 1983). The absence of bonding and physical contact relates directly to serious emotional and psychological problems leading to antisocial behavior later in life (Field, 2002). Violence observed in the home contributes to children acting in violent ways outside the home. ...
... In older children, touch contributes to social development and communicative competence (Jones & Yarbrough, 1985). Field's (2002) findings suggest that reduced touch communication can lead to development of aggressive behaviors, while Thayer (1986) found reduced vocabulary abilities among children who were touch-deprived. Similarly, MacLean (2003) found that lack of touch during infant development can result in delayed development of cognitive skills. ...
The aim of this research was to explore the use of tactile communication in daily interactions with friends and parents. The participants were 429 students. The questionnaire consisted of: behavioral measures ; touch-attitude scale ; well-being ; internet use ; and demographic variables. Females showed more positive touch-attitudes, reported more touch behaviors in communication with same sex peers and parents, and reported more confidential talks with both friends and parents. Males and females did not differ regarding the use of touch in communication with the opposite sex. Participants used more tactile behavior in communication with parents than with friends. Those who used tactile communication more with parents, also reported more tactile communication with friends, and more confidential talks with both friends and parents, and rated higher the importance of the Internet in communication. Students with high levels of well-being showed more positive touch-attitudes, reported more tactile communication with both friends and parents and reported more confidential talks with friends.
... Research has mainly been conducted on regular massage in child and adolescent psychiatry, where studies have shown a positive effect on emotional and behavioural functioning in children and adolescents with depression, anorexia and bulimia. Less aggressive behaviour in adolescents with ADHD who received massage has also been observed (Field 2002, Field et al. 2005. ...
WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT THE SUBJECT?: There is little research on the implementation of tactile massage in child and adolescent psychiatry that describes children's and adolescents' experiences and outcomes. There is also limited knowledge of providing tactile massage in child and adolescent psychiatry. WHAT DOES THIS PAPER ADD TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE?: This paper describes 10 nurses' experiences of tactile massage as a nursing intervention in child and adolescent psychiatry. The nurses considered tactile massage a non-verbal nursing intervention that could complement other available treatments. It reveals their reflections on the impact of tactile massage on their nursing and on themselves as a person, including the belief that they had developed deepened self-reflection and attentiveness. The nurses highlighted the importance of providing a trusting environment and collaborating with the children and adolescents. They both experienced and observed that tactile massage triggered various physical and mental processes in the children and adolescents, such as improvement in sleep disturbances, an ability to relax in body and mind and a deeper connectedness with their own bodies and feelings. The nurses described instructing next of kin in the use of tactile massage, which they believed could serve as a tool at home, mainly as a way for next of kin to help their children to relax, fall asleep more easily and to deepen connectedness. However, the nurses stressed the need to consider if it was appropriate or desired by the children and adolescents. WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE?: Tactile massage addresses the individual's emotional and physiological responses and could therefore bring holistic nursing to child and adolescent psychiatry. It could also help nurses in child and adolescent psychiatry to develop their attentiveness and sensitivity in acknowledging the needs of children and adolescents in psychiatric care.
Abstract:
Introduction There is limited research on tactile massage in child and adolescent psychiatry and no studies investigating experiences of providing tactile massage in child and adolescent psychiatry were found. Aim The aim was therefore to describe nurses' experiences of providing tactile massage as a nursing intervention in child and adolescent psychiatry. Method Ten nurses trained in tactile massage and employed at five different child and adolescent psychiatry clinics in Sweden participated in a qualitative study. Semi-structured interviews were conducted, transcribed verbatim and analysed by qualitative content analysis. Results Three categories emerged from the analysis. 'Confirming body and mind', 'Building a trusting relationship' and 'Instructing next of kin in tactile massage'. Attentiveness to and respect for the integrity of the children and adolescents were essential for creating a trusting relationship with them. Tactile massage was found to trigger various physical and mental processes in the children and adolescents. The nurses reflected on the impact of tactile massage on their nursing and on themselves as a person, stating that it had led to the development of self-reflection and attentiveness. Implications for practice Tactile massage addresses the individual's emotional and physiological responses and could therefore bring holistic nursing to child and adolescent psychiatry. It might also enhance attentiveness and sensitivity on the part of child and adolescent psychiatry nurses when acknowledging the needs of children and adolescents in psychiatric care.
... Therefore, the touch relationship between most adults and infants is a complex ambivalent one from the start. Field (2002), however, found physically violent adolescents often reported significant physical abuse and neglect during early childhood and minimal positive physical care-giver contact. They were more likely to ingest illicit drugs, be depressed and have poorer academic performance than their counterparts, but those receiving massage therapy often became less aggressive. ...
This article overviews multidisciplinary knowledge on touch and explores its relevance for social work. It evaluates the limited literature from social work and related practice-based disciplines which suggests how potentially harmful and risk-averse many current ‘professional’ touch practices are. Alternative biological and psychological literature is analysed, elucidating the importance of regular positive touch for good physical and mental health, the adverse consequences of abusive touch or touch deficit and the corresponding potential for restorative touch practices. Social-psychological, clinical and consumer research is also drawn on, demonstrating links between touch, persuasion and aversion, and registering clear gender, age, sexuality, power and cross-national differences. The analysis is then extended through an examination of sociological and philosophical literature which guards against viewing the mind and body as unrelated entities, evaluates work-based touch within organisational contexts, and highlights the profound influence of history, culture and social class. This synthesis of diverse multidisciplinary literature therefore illuminates the potential consequences of social workers adopting an uninformed, defensive and avoidant or control-orientated stance towards touch whilst simultaneously constructing new insights to help social workers acquire more nuanced understandings and practise more knowledgeably and empathically.
... Second, the initial study focused on a specific type of affection deprivation, that of touch. This was due to the research pointing to the power of touch in terms of stress reduction and both mental and physical wellness (e.g., Field, 2002;Field, Grizzle, Scafidi, & Schanberg, 1996;Grewen, Anderson, Girdler, & Light, 2003). However, the bulk of research focusing on the relational benefits of affection have used a more general lens to examine how levels of various types of affectionate communication are related to variables such as closeness and satisfaction (e.g., Floyd, 2002;Hesse & Floyd, 2011). ...
The current study examined the role of affection deprivation, the need for greater affection than an individual is currently receiving, in the context of romantic relationships. Using affection exchange theory, the authors hypothesized several testable relationships between affection deprivation and relational outcomes (relational satisfaction, closeness, and commitment). The study also examined the possible moderating roles of relational maximization and relational uncertainty. Overall, the results supported the predictions, with affection deprivation significantly related to satisfaction and closeness. Relational maximization moderated the significant relationships between deprivation and relational satisfaction and commitment. Relational uncertainty moderated the significant relationships between deprivation and closeness and commitment. Implications and possible directions for future research are discussed.
... Johnson, Browne, & Hamilton-Giachritsis, 2006). With these findings in mind, good caregiving should include sensitive and consistent caregiver-child relationships (Hungerford & Cox, 2006) as well as a stimulating, nonviolent, and educational environment (Field, 2002;National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network, 2002). These factors are particularly important for children who have been maltreated or traumatized earlier during the course of their lives as is the case with many children living in institutional care. ...
Quality of child care has been shown to have a crucial impact on children's development and psychological adjustment, particularly for orphans with a history of maltreatment and trauma. However, adequate care for orphans is often impacted by unfavorable caregiver-child ratios and poorly trained, overburdened personnel, especially in institutional care in countries with limited resources and large numbers of orphans. This systematic review investigated the effects of structural interventions and caregiver trainings on child development in institutional environments. The 24 intervention studies included in this systematic review reported beneficial effects on the children's emotional, social, and cognitive development. Yet, few studies focused on effects of interventions on the child-caregiver relationship or the general institutional environment. Moreover, our review revealed that interventions aimed at improving institutional care settings have largely neglected violence and abuse prevention. Unfortunately, our findings are partially limited by constraints of study design and methodology. In sum, this systematic review sheds light on obstacles and possibilities for the improvement in institutional care. There must be greater efforts at preventing violence, abuse, and neglect of children living in institutional care. Therefore, we advocate for combining attachment theory-based models with maltreatment prevention approaches and then testing them using rigorous scientific standards. By using approaches grounded in the evidence, it could be possible to enable more children to grow up in supportive and nonviolent environments.
... It has proven to alleviate stress related to job, aging, and pregnancy (Field, Hernandez-Reif, Diego, Schanberg, & Kuhn, 2005). Field (2002) also observed that intervention using massage therapy decreased aggressive behavior and increased empathetic behavior among violent adolescents. From these corroborative studies, it may be implied that when young adults receive loving physical touch, most specially from their mothers, it is related to a more effective structure in the brain and the body that allows them to behave more effectively. ...
The influence of parental attachment and love language on the resilience of graduating university students was studied in a Philippine setting. Using the survey method (N = 843), it was found that a secure attachment and receiving love from parents result in higher resilience. The parental love languages quality time, words of affirmation, and acts of service significantly contributed to resilience. These are love languages that provide emotional, motivational, and practical resources that build resilience. While quality time contributed the most to resilience, a secure attachment is most especially required of fathers whereas words of affirmation and physical touch are needed from mothers. Sons need quality time from their fathers and the physical touch of their mothers. Daughters benefit from quality time with mothers alongside a secure attachment and words of affirmation from their fathers. This study emphasizes the parental factors of attachment and love as external resources of resilience. The research highlights the quality of parent–child relationship experience that would support the resilience of young adults. Results also point to the advantage of having loving parents and a secure parental attachment.
... This study adds to previous literature by highlighting the use of touch for safety reasons (Field, 2002;Miller, Franken, & Kiefer, 2007;Routasalo & Isola, 1996). Ensuring safety of the athlete through touch was emphasized in only a few of the sports represented, suggesting that this use of touch may be more contextualized and sport-specific in nature compared to the identified affective and behavioural uses of touch. ...
This study examined athletes’ and coaches’ experiences of positive touch within the coach-athlete relationship, including examples of positive touch, reasons for the use of touch, and factors affecting athletes’ acceptability of touch. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 coaches and 10 athletes from various sports. Data were coded using inductive and deductive coding techniques. All participants shared examples of positive touch in sport including: hugs, high fives, physical manipulation of the body, pats on the back, hand shaking, and spotting. Positive touch was reportedly used for affective, behavioural, safety, and cultural reasons. Touch was viewed by these athletes and coaches as being important and even necessary in the sport environment and within the coach-athlete relationship provided that it was individualized and contextualized. The findings are interpreted to suggest that the recent trend to avoid touch in child-populated domains ignores the many benefits of touch for health, instruction, and development.
... Therefore, it is reasonable to suggest that the combination of touch and talk can be helpful in therapy. Some people do not communicate well by talk, and the stimulation the body sends while receiving touch can cause a response that otherwise would not be elicited (Field et al., 1997;Field, 2002b;Rubenfeld, 2000). ...
Touch therapy has been researched for many years and is accepted as a successful therapeutic method for healing. Ironically, touch has gone from being a part of mainstream medicine to becoming associated with alternative medicine. The Rubenfeld Synergy Method (RSM), one modality emphasising touch, was created almost four decades ago and has been recently rediscovered due to the growth and evolution of alternative medicine. RSM combines gentle touch and talk therapy to treat patients. Currently, there is no direct research-based support for the benefits of this method. However, this is a vast quantity of data supporting the benefits of touch therapy in addition to the benefits of talk therapy. Consistent with this research, the author believes that the holistic approach presented by RSM can benefit the patient in many ways. It is important to understand the value of the interconnected, even inseparable, linkage of mind-body-spirit to completely assist a patient solve issues in his/her past and/or current life.
... This shows the importance of emotional experience in setting up serotonergic networks ( Gos et al ., 2006 ) In human infants, prenatal maternal levels of cortisol are correlated with lower levels of serotonin in the infant ( Field et al ., 2003 ), and maternal depression during pregnancy also leads to loss of serotonin in the infant ( Field et al ., 2004 ). However, at later times in development, massaging or stroking the infant or adolescent human increases blood serotonin ( Field, 2002 ), suggesting that some of the loss of serotonin in rodent isolation studies may be due to loss of physical contact with parents or peers. ...
Serotonin is a key neurotransmitter in the adult brain, as well as a developmental signal in the developing brain. Serotonin itself is expressed very early in both human and rodent brain, and its receptors, enzymes and transporter sites are all overdeveloped initially, peaking in some cases in the first 2 years of life and in other cases in early adolescence. In either case, the serotonin system begins to decline by early adulthood. This early peak in activity reflects the developmental function of serotonin; however, even in the adult brain, serotonin is likely to play a role in maintenance and plasticity. As a developmental signal, serotonin acts in a variety of ways, depending on the developmental stage. Earliest on, serotonin acts in an autoregulatory manner, influencing the development of its own neurons. As brain development continues, serotonin begins to act in all subsequent stages – neurogenesis/neuroprotection, gliogenesis, migration and finally differentiation and maturation. Any factor which influences the amount of serotonin during development may result in enduring changes in the brain. In this regard, concerns have been raised regarding the effects of maternal stress or drug use during pregnancy. Understanding the role of serotonin in development has made significant contributions to the study of developmental disabilities, including fetal alcohol syndrome and autism.
... Over many years, Tiffany Field and her associates at the Touch Research Institute, University of Miami, have studied the effects of therapeutic massage. These studies have consistently shown that massage therapy relieves tension and anxiety, reduces hyperactivity and aggression, and increases empathic behavior in different groups of individuals that have been studied, including violent adolescents8889909192. A study on children with ADHD that combined massage therapy and exercise similarly reported improved symptoms and recommended further research on these treatments [93]. ...
Learning disorders are often associated with persistent hyperactivity and aggression and are part of a spectrum of neurodevelopmental disorders. A potential clue to understanding these linked phenomena is that physical exercise and passive forms of stimulation are calming, enhance cognitive functions and learning, and are recommended as complementary treatments for these problems. The theory is proposed that hyperactivity and aggression are intense stimulation-seeking behaviors (SSBs) driven by increased brain retinergic activity, and the stimulation thus obtained activates opposing nitrergic systems which inhibit retinergic activity, induce a state of calm, and enhance cognition and learning. In persons with cognitive deficits and associated behavioral disorders, the retinergic system may be chronically overactivated and the nitrergic system chronically underactivated due to environmental exposures occurring pre- and/or postnatally that affect retinoid metabolism or expression. For such individuals, the intensity of stimulation generated by SSB may be insufficient to activate the inhibitory nitrergic system. A multidisciplinary research program is needed to test the model and, in particular, to determine the extent to which applied physical treatments can activate the nitrergic system directly, providing the necessary level of intensity of sensory stimulation to substitute for that obtained in maladaptive and harmful ways by SSB, thereby reducing SSB and enhancing cognitive skills and performance.
... Humans " Male/female aggression "Cort in infancy ; VP in urine " 5-HT activity in infancy "/; Cort in adulthood ; 5-HT activity in adulthood children and in violent adolescents [67,84,94,325]. It is tempting to speculate that in humans exposed to child maltreatment, deprivation of physical contact and physical affection may have played an important role in the development of high and inappropriate aggression. Although further research is required, intervention with massage could be a promising therapy to reduce aggression in humans. ...
a b s t r a c t Early life stress (child and adolescent abuse, neglect and trauma) induces robust alterations in emotional and social functioning resulting in enhanced risk for the development of psychopathologies such as mood and aggressive disorders. Here, an overview is given on recent findings in primate and rodent models of early life stress, demonstrating that chronic deprivation of early maternal care as well as chronic depri-vation of early physical interactions with peers are profound risk factors for the development of inappro-priate aggressive behaviors. Alterations in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA), vasopressin and serotonin systems and their relevance for the regulation of aggression are discussed. Data suggest that social deprivation-induced inappropriate forms of aggression are associated with high or low HPA axis (re)activity and a generally lower functioning of the serotonin system in adulthood. Moreover, genetic and epigenetic modifications in HPA and serotonin systems influence the outcome of early life stress and may even moderate adverse effects of early social deprivation on aggression. A more compre-hensive study of aggression, neuroendocrine, neurobiological and (epi)genetic correlates of early life stress using animal models is necessary to provide a better understanding of the invasive aggressive def-icits observed in humans exposed to child maltreatment.
... In another study described by Field (2002), adolescents were either massaged for 20 min, twice weekly, for 5 weeks, or enjoyed relaxation therapy during that same time. The massaged adolescents showed less aggressive behaviour, as rated by their parents, were less destructive towards objects, had lower cortisol and dopamine levels, and were generally in a better mood and demonstrated more empathy. ...
This study was aimed to identify the risk factors of aggressive behaviour in adolescents (13–18 years), and to describe available intervention strategies. The findings are evaluated on the basis of their implications for nursing practice. Aggressive behaviour in adolescent psychiatric settings is a neglected research area. The consequences of aggressive behaviour on nurses, other patients and the therapeutic environment can be profound. For the development and implementation of innovative intervention strategies aimed at preventing aggressive behaviour in adolescent psychiatric patients, knowledge of risk factors and evidence-based interventions for aggressive behaviour are of the utmost importance. A systematic search of PubMed, Cinahl, PsychINFO and Cochrane Systematic Reviews (1991–2007) was employed. The risk factors for aggressive behaviour comprise personal and environmental risk factors. Some risk factors can be influenced by nursing intervention strategies. Available intervention programmes range from interpersonal skills training to massage therapy, parent management training, functional family therapy and multi-systemic therapy. The most effective programmes combine interpersonal skills training with parent management training. No specific nursing intervention programmes were found for dealing with aggressive behaviour in adolescent patients. Nursing staff can assist in achieving a systematic improvement in the treatment outcomes of existing intervention programmes for the prevention of aggression. There is a need for specific nursing intervention programmes to deal with aggressive behaviour in adolescent psychiatric settings.
... This shows the importance of emotional experience in setting up serotonergic networks ( Gos et al ., 2006 ) In human infants, prenatal maternal levels of cortisol are correlated with lower levels of serotonin in the infant ( Field et al ., 2003 ), and maternal depression during pregnancy also leads to loss of serotonin in the infant ( Field et al ., 2004 ). However, at later times in development, massaging or stroking the infant or adolescent human increases blood serotonin ( Field, 2002 ), suggesting that some of the loss of serotonin in rodent isolation studies may be due to loss of physical contact with parents or peers. ...
Serotonin is a key neurotransmitter in the adult brain, as well as a developmental signal in the developing brain. Serotonin itself is expressed very early in both human and rodent brain, and its receptors, enzymes and transporter sites are all overdeveloped initially, peaking in some cases in the first 2 years of life and in other cases in early adolescence. In either case, the serotonin system begins to decline by early adulthood. This early peak in activity reflects the developmental function of serotonin; however, even in the adult brain, serotonin is likely to play a role in maintenance and plasticity. As a developmental signal, serotonin acts in a variety of ways, depending on the developmental stage. Earliest on, serotonin acts in an autoregulatory manner, influencing the development of its own neurons. As brain development continues, serotonin begins to act in all subsequent stages – neurogenesis/neuroprotection, gliogenesis, migration and finally differentiation and maturation. Any factor which influences the amount of serotonin during development may result in enduring changes in the brain. In this regard, concerns have been raised regarding the effects of maternal stress or drug use during pregnancy. Understanding the role of serotonin in development has made significant contributions to the study of developmental disabilities, including fetal alcohol syndrome and autism.
In this review, we suggest a new model that has its roots in studies with healthy individuals, but may be especially promising for understanding atypical CT optimal touch perception in certain clinical groups. We argue that social touch plays an important role in the development of a secure or insecure attachment style. Insecure attachment is common in psychiatric patients and potentially impacts their perception of CT optimal touch. This direct link between insecure attachment style and touch perception may be modulated by touch deprivation, to which individuals might be predisposed when they are insecurely attached. The links in this model need further exploration, especially in psychiatric patients, and concrete recommendations for future work are provided.
The idea that words are not completely arbitrary signs is not new, but a complete and universal decoding of the correspondence between sounds and meaning is lacking, in spite of increasing evidence of the role of synesthesia and embodiment in the meaning of spoken languages. From ancient times, a phosemantic origin, or sound symbolism, of the meaning of words were suspected, but a complete and coherent theory applicable to all human languages seemed not possible. In this work I present, for the first time, as far as I know, the universal rules which decode the meaning of words in human spoken languages. These rules are based on relatively simple and logical correspondences that assign a basic haptic meaning to every phoneme. This implies that every root in human languages is internally represented as a manual sign which exactly corresponds or is very similar to existing words in modern sign languages. This chirophonosemantic translation process is the more transparent the older the language. Thus, many examples from roots present in the Wiktionary for the most studied protolanguages and some modern languages are analyzed, proving the universality and accuracy of the described rules. The consequences and implications of the existence of a universal internal cognitive haptic representation of the world, explaining the formation and meaning of human languages are far reaching and profound in almost every branch of Science, because, in the end, all our knowledge is coded as haptic motor actions.
The John Howard Association of Illinois had the opportunity to visit the Kane County
Juvenile Justice Center (Kane JJC) in June of 2017. Kane JJC, located in St. Charles, Illinois, is an 80-bed juvenile pre-trial detention facility. Issues explored in this Report include the Juvenile Detention Center's Physical Plant and Living Conditions; Reception, Classification and Intake; Mental Health Care; Programming and Education; Visitation; and Court Access and Legal Information.
A robust scientific literature has established the negative psychological effects of solitary confinement. The empirical findings are supported by a theoretical framework that underscores the importance of social contact to psychological as well as physical well-being. In essence, human beings have a basic need to establish and maintain connections to others and the deprivation of opportunities to do so has a range of deleterious consequences. These scientific conclusions, as well as concerns about the high cost and lack of any demonstrated penological purpose that solitary confinement reliably serves, have led to an emerging consensus among correctional as well as professional, mental health, legal, and human rights organizations to drastically limit the use solitary confinement. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Criminology Volume 1 is January 13, 2018. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
The article analyzes the social network discourse (SND) with elements of speech aggression actualized by communicants, whose emotional state is caused by various deprivation factors. The analysis of 398 statements from men and women revealed the frequency use of these statements the stylistic modality of which relates to the aggressive type, while actualizing topics in the speech communication associated with facts of social-cognitive deprivation. The dominant type of speech activity in the analyzed SNDs is an aggressive speech response of the SND-communicant (SND-addressee) to the speech provocation of another communicant (SND-sender). Previously it was revealed that, as a rule, a major role is played by the gender factor: compared to women, men feel more at ease in using statements of the aggressive type, both for speech provocation and for aggressive speech response.
This multidisciplinary work presents a consensus guide on the main skin care of newborns and babies. The guide is written in Spanish. It addresses the anatomy of the skin of the newborn and baby, bathing, hydration, massage and care of the skin of the diaper area.
Part 1: Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial AggressionPart 2: Intraspecific Aggression
We expose it, cover it, paint it, tattoo it, scar it, and pierce it. Our intimate connection with the world, skin protects us while advertising our health, our identity, and our individuality. This dazzling synthetic overview is a complete guidebook to the pliable covering that makes us who we are. Skin: A Natural History celebrates the evolution of three unique attributes of human skin: its naked sweatiness, its distinctive sepia rainbow of colors, and its remarkable range of decorations. Jablonski places the rich cultural canvas of skin within its broader biological context for the first time, and the result is a tremendously engaging look at us.
Serotonin is a key neurotransmitter in the adult brain, as well as a developmental signal in the developing brain. Serotonin itself is expressed very early in both human and rodent brain, and its receptors, enzymes and transporter sites are all overdeveloped initially, peaking in some cases in the first 2 years of life and in other cases in early adolescence. In either case, the serotonin system begins to decline by early adulthood. This early peak in activity reflects the developmental function of serotonin; however, even in the adult brain, serotonin is likely to play a role in maintenance and plasticity. As a developmental signal, serotonin acts in a variety of ways, depending on the developmental stage. Earliest on, serotonin acts in an autoregulatory manner, influencing the development of its own neurons. As brain development continues, serotonin begins to act in all subsequent stages – neurogenesis/neuroprotection, gliogenesis, migration and finally differentiation and maturation. Any factor which influences the amount of serotonin during development may result in enduring changes in the brain. In this regard, concerns have been raised regarding the effects of maternal stress or drug use during pregnancy. Understanding the role of serotonin in development has made significant contributions to the study of developmental disabilities, including fetal alcohol syndrome and autism.
Extending John Bowlby's hypothesis that dysfunctional anger is a predictable outcome of insecure attachments to parents, this study investigated the relationship between current parent-adolescent attachment and both the experience and expression of anger. Participants included 776 students (379 boys and 397 girls) in grades 8-12. As predicted by attachment theory, results of structural equation modeling analyses indicated that adolescents' self-reported attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance toward both mother and father figures were positively related to the adolescents' greater levels of self-reported anger intensity. In turn, greater intensity of anger was associated with higher levels of both internalizing (anger-in) and externalizing (anger-out) expressions. In addition, there was a direct effect of attachment anxiety on internalized but not externalized anger. This study highlights the importance of differentiating anger dimensions and the critical role of anger intensity as a mediator of the relationship between insecure attachment and anger expressions.
Recent research including advances in neuro-imaging indicates a profound effect on brain development as a result of exposure to abuse and neglect in childhood. This new area is called developmental traumatology. Areas of the brain that may particularly be affected are important in arousal control and executive function. Many adolescents presenting to forensic services have histories of neglect and abuse and deficits in key brain developmental functions. The management and treatment options for young people with developmental trauma and forensic needs are explored.
The Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training series provides a coherent and integrated approach to understanding and controlling dog behavior. In Volume 3, various themes introduced in Volumes 1 and 2 are expanded upon, especially causally significant social, biological, and behavioral influences that impact on the etiology of behavior problems and their treatment. Ethological observations, relevant behavioral and neurobiological research, and dog behavior clinical findings are reviewed and critiqued in detail. Many of the training concepts, procedures, and protocols described have not been previously published, making this book a unique contribution to dog behavior and training literature.
This study proposes to shift the current theoretical framework in which teachers practise a guarded approach regarding the touching of children in early childhood settings, towards a practice of acceptance. A brief historical context of touching is presented and supplemented with a survey of 63 currently practising K–3rd grade teachers. The survey indicates that teachers understand the benefits of touching, but are fearful of being falsely accused of inappropriate behaviour. Teachers are solving this problem by restricting the nurturing practice of touch. This practice needs to be corrected; teachers must be given the freedom to safely and appropriately touch children; children have a basic need to be touched. Suggestions to restore human touch in primary classrooms are offered.
Some kids have bad luck. Kids who are abused, for example, tend to become abusers themselves. This is a brute sociological fact. Abused children are the unfortunate victims of poor antecedent and constitutive conditions that conduce to bad moral luck. In this paper, I hope to explain why this is the case, at least for some children, and (perhaps) especially for those who enter the world with low levels of monoamine oxidase type A (MAOA), a brain enzyme responsible for inhibiting neurotransmitters associated with aggression. I will also argue that individuals of this type (genetic predisposition (G)) coupled with abusive and/or neglectful early environments (E), have suffered from poor constitutive, antecedent, and circumstantial conditions that generate bad moral luck and, therefore, they are (a) less blameworthy than those who have not endured the combination of such conditions and (b) are, therefore, candidates for restorative justice: treatment and restorative justice for those who we know or prima facie should know suffer neurobiological deficits.
Affection is responsible for nine-tenths of whatever solid and durable happiness there is in our lives. –C.S. Lewis Do it. That’s right; do it. Physical affection is good for you, and it is good for your close relationships. This chapter outlines the extant studies that support this notion (given certain parameters and limitations), and it provides a cohesive theoretical and practical framework for understanding physical affection in the context of individual and relational betterment. Also, while something like a kiss may range from harmlessly “peckish” to ravenously sexual, the main focus of this chapter is on non-erotic physical affection. Consult other chapters in this volume that deal with issues peripherally related to physical affection (such as touch, close physical contact in children, love, sex, and intimacy). Thus the main point of this chapter on physical affection is that you should do it, and we’ll tell you why.
Injuries are currently classified as intentional or unintentional. Worldwide, intentional injury accounts for about 4400 deaths per day, and 1.6 million people were estimated to have died from violence in 2000. However, in epidemiologic studies of intentional injury, the injurer is typically unavailable or ignored in the data collection process, and actual intentions are rarely known or investigated. In practice, injurious intent is inferred when an injury is inflicted. While all allegedly intentional injuries are inflicted by the self or others, a review of the literature indicates that few inflicted injuries are intentional. The thesis of this paper is that the concept of intentional injury perpetuates an oversimplified view of both injurer and injured. Many injury victims are former perpetrators and vice versa; many have experienced multiple injuries, including self-inflicted injury; and many have histories of substance abuse, alcoholism, criminality, and other characteristics that form what can be described as a behavioral syndrome, of which susceptibility to injury (as perpetrator and/or victim) is one manifestation. The behavioral syndrome is hypothesized to represent a generalized, tropism-like tendency to seek varying intensities of sensory stimulation.
J. A. Gray (1981, 1982) holds that 2 general motivational systems underlie behavior and affect: a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and a behavioral activation system (BAS). Self-report scales to assess dispositional BIS and BAS sensitivities were created. Scale development (Study 1) and convergent and discriminant validity in the form of correlations with alternative measures are reported (Study 2). In Study 3, a situation in which Ss anticipated a punishment was created. Controlling for initial nervousness, Ss high in BIS sensitivity (assessed earlier) were more nervous than those low in BIS sensitivity. In Study 4, a situation in which Ss anticipated a reward was created. Controlling for initial happiness, Ss high in BAS sensitivity (Reward Responsiveness and Drive scales) were happier than those low in BAS sensitivity. In each case the new scales predicted better than an alternative measure. Discussion is focused on conceptual implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A study with three component parts was performed to assess the effectiveness of neurofeedback treatment for Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The subject pool consisted of 23 children and adolescents ranging in age from 8 to 19 years with a mean of 11.4 years who participated in a 2-to 3-month summer program of intensive neurofeedback training. Feedback was contingent on the production of 16–20 hertz (beta) activity in the absence of 4–8 hertz (theta) activity. Posttraining changes in EEG activity, T.O.V.A. performance, (ADDES) behavior ratings, and WISC-R performance were assessed. Part I indicated that subjects who successfully decreased theta activity showed significant improvement in T.O.V.A. performance; Part II revealed significant improvement in parent ratings following neurofeedback training; and Part III indicated significant increases in WISC-R scores following neurofeedback training. This study is significant in that it examines the effects of neurofeedback training on both objective and subjective measures under relatively controlled conditions. Our findings corroborate and extend previous research, indicating that neurofeedback training can be an appropriate and efficacious treatment for children with ADHD.
The present study investigates the role of serotonergic systems in anabolic steroid-induced aggression. An animal model of aggressive dominance was used to assess the chronic effects of testosterone propionate. When rats that had become dominant following administration of testosterone propionate received serotonergic agonists with selectivity for the 5-HT1A receptor (8-OH-DPAT, buspirone, gepirone), the 5-H1B receptor (eltoprazine, TFMPP), or the 5-HT2A/2C receptor (DOM), a dose-dependent decrease in dominance was demonstrated. Pretreatment with three serotonergic antagonists (pizotyline, pirenpirone, and pindolol) blocked agonist-induced reductions in dominance in varying degrees. Nonserotonergic agonists with CNS depressant effects were also tested in dominant animals. The benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide, did not reduce dominance except at doses that interfered with motor behavior. The opioid agonist, morphine, dose dependently decreased dominance, but this effect was reversible with administration of the serotonergic antagonist, pirenpirone, suggesting the antidominant effect of morphine had a serotonergic component. Biochemical experiments demonstrated that following chronic testosterone propionate, there was a decrease in levels of 5-HT and 5-HIAA in the hippocampus but not in the striatum or the frontal cortex. Chronic testosterone propionate also caused an increase in the affinity of [3H]8-OH-DPAT for the 5-HT1A receptor but no corresponding change in the density of 5-HT1A binding sites in the hippocampus. There was also no change in the properties of the 5-HT2 receptor in the frontal cortex following chronic testosterone propionate. These data suggest that serotonergic systems may play an important role in the control of anabolic steroid-induced aggressive dominance.
This chapter addresses the problem of violence among children and attachment disorder in families, the child welfare system, and society. Attachment disorder is one of the most easily diagnosed and yet commonly misunderstood parent-child disorders. Many social service and mental health professionals, although adept at assessing behavioral and emotional disorders in children, are not familiar with attachment concepts. Children with attachment disorder have internalized antisocial values, belief system, and patterns of relating: dishonesty, coercion, aggression, mistrust, betrayal, and selfishness. These children lack the ability to identify and manage emotions, communicate honestly, regulate impulses, and solve problems effectively. Treatment must emphasize prosocial coping skills so that they can function successfully in families and in society. Teaching prosocial coping skills not only reduces acting-out, but also builds self-confidence and self-esteem. Specialized parenting skills are required in order to be successful in their parenting role. A significant amount of evidence accumulated over the past 25 years indicates that early intervention and prevention programs are effective for at-risk children and families. Early intervention and prevention programs have shown to enhance parent–children attachment, foster children's cognitive and social development, and reduce later violence.
Videotaped happy and sad face/voice stimuli were presented after a neutral starfield baseline stimulus to 24 3-month-old infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers. The infants looked at and showed more positive expressions during the happy and sad face/voice stimuli versus the neutral starfield. The infants of non-depressed versus depressed mothers looked at the sad face/voice stimulus longer, perhaps because the sad face/voice stimulus was more novel for the infants of non-depressed mothers. A negative correlation between EEG and visual fixation time suggested that less left frontal activation (usually associated with withdrawal) was related to greater visual fixation time (usually associated with approach behaviour). This mixed approach/withdrawal response was observed more frequently in infants of non-depressed mothers and could be interpreted as a vigilant or empathetic response in those infants.
Sixty-three infants of mothers with depressive symptoms were compared on physiology and behavior to infants of nonsymptomatic mothers. The newborns of depressive mothers had greater relative right frontal EEC asymmetry (due to reduced left hemisphere activation), lower vagal tone, and less optimal scores on the Brazelton, suggesting that maternal depressive symptoms during pregnancy may be contributing to newborn neurobehavioral functioning.
Gray (1981, 1982) holds that 2 general motivational systems underlie behavior and affect: a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and a behavioral activation system (BAS). Self-report scales to assess dispositional BIS and BAS sensitivities were created. Scale development (Study 1) and convergent and discriminant validity in the form of correlations with alternative measures are reported (Study 2). In Study 3, a situation in which Ss anticipated a punishment was created. Controlling for initial nervousness, Ss high in BIS sensitivity (assessed earlier) were more nervous than those low. In Study 4, a situation in which Ss anticipated a reward was created. Controlling for initial happiness, Ss high in BAS sensitivity (Reward Responsiveness and Drive scales) were happier than those low. In each case the new scales predicted better than an alternative measure. Discussion is focused on conceptual implications.
• Dysfunction of the central serotonergic system has been variously associated with depression and with suicidal and/or impulsive aggressive behavior. To evaluate central serotonergic function in relation to these variables, prolactin responses to a singledose challenge with fenfluramine hydrochloride (60 mg orally), a serotonin releasing/uptake-inhibiting agent, were examined in 45 male patients with clearly defined major affective (n = 25) and/or personality disorder (n 20) and in 18 normal male control patients. Prolactin responses to fenfluramine among all patients were reduced compared with responses of controls. Reduced prolactin responses to fenfluramine were correlated with history of suicide attempt in all patients but with clinician and selfreported ratings of impulsive aggression in patients with personality disorder only; there was no correlation with depression. These results suggest that reduced central serotonergic function is present in a subgroup of patients with major affective and/or personality disorder and is associated with history of suicide attempt in patients with either disorder, but with impulsive aggression in patients with personality disorder only.
The purpose of this study was to test hypotheses regarding (1) relations among negative affect and hormones of gonadal and adrenal origin in young adolescents, at three times of measurement, over a one-year period; and (2) stability of negative affect. The sample consisted of 10- to 14-year-old boys (N=56) and 9- to 14-year-old girls (N=52). The adolescents were assessed three times at 6-month intervals over one year. Serum levels of gonadotropins, gonadal steroids, adrenal androgens, and cortisol were assessed, as well as stage of pubertal development (Tanner criteria). The negative affect assessments consisted of self-report questionnaire and interview measures of anxiety and depressive affect, as well as mother reports of internalizing behavior problems. In the concurrent (cross-sectional) analyses, boys reporting higher levels of negative affect tended to be those at higher genital stage or older age, with lower testosterone and cortisol levels and lower dehydroepian-drosterone sulphate levels. In the longitudinal analyses, negative affect, and to a lesser extent hormone levels at the first time of measurement predicted negative affect 12 months later. The findings suggest that puberty-related hormone levels should be considered along with psychological characteristics in examining the processes involved in the development of negative affect during the pubertal years.
This book provides an updated theory of the nature of anxiety and the brain systems controlling anxiety, combined with a theory of hippocampal function, which was first proposed thirty years ago. While remaining controversial, the core of this theory, of a 'Behavioural Inhibition System', has stood the test of time, with its main predictions repeatedly confirmed. Novel anti-anxiety drugs share none of the side effects or primary pharmacological actions of the classical anti-anxiety drugs on the actions of which the theory was based; but they have both the behavioural and hippocampal actions predicted by the theory. This text is the second edition of the book and it departs significantly from the first. It provides, for the first time, a single construct - goal conflict - that underlies all the known inputs to the system; and it includes current data on the amygdala. Its reviews include the ethology of defence, learning theory, the psychopharmacology of anti-anxiety drugs, anxiety disorders, and the clinical and laboratory analysis of amnesia. The cognitive and behavioural functions in anxiety of the septo-hippocampal system and the amygdala are also analysed, as are their separate roles in memory and fear. Their functions are related to a hierarchy of additional structures - from the prefrontal cortex to the periaqueductal gray - that control the various forms of defensive behaviour and to detailed analysis of the monoamine systems that modulate this control. The resultant neurology is linked to the typology, symptoms, pre-disposing personality and therapy of anxiety and phobic disorders, and to the symptoms of amnesia. © Jeffrey A. Gray and Neil McNaughton 2000 , 2003. All rights reserved.
Resting anterior brain electrical activity, self-report measures of Behavioral Approach and Inhibition System (BAS and BIS) strength, and general levels of positive and negative affect (PA and NA) were collected from 46 unselected undergraduates on two separate occasions Electroencephalogram (EEG) measures of prefrontal asymmetry and the self-report measures showed excellent internal consistency reliability and adequate test-retest stability Aggregate measures across the two assessments were computed for all indices Subjects with greater relative left prefrontal activation reported higher levels of BAS strength, whereas those with greater relative right prefrontal activation reported higher levels of BIS strength Prefrontal EEG asymmetry accounted for more than 25% of the variance in the self-report measure of relative BAS-BIS strength Prefrontal EEG, however, was not significantly correlated with PA or NA, or the relative strength of PA versus NA Posterior asymmetry was unrelated to the self-report measures
Thirty‐nine boys (M = 10 years) attending classes for the behaviorally disturbed were given questionnaires on trait anxiety, social anxiety, empathy, depression and self esteem, and teachers rated them on aggression to test the hypothesis that anxiety and empathy attenuate aggression. Contrary to the hypothesis, anxiety and empathy scores were not correlated with aggression. However, scores on all of these measures were higher than those for normative samples suggesting that this sample had a limited range. A second important finding was that social anxiety was positively correlated with trait anxiety and depression, lending discriminant and concurrent validity, respectively, for the use of a relatively new Social Anxiety Scale with behaviorally disturbed children.
Individual differences in emotional reactivity or affective style can be decomposed into more elementary constituents. Several separable of affective style are identified such as the threshold for reactivity, peak amplitude of response, the rise time to peak and the recovery time. latter two characteristics constitute components of affective chronometry The circuitry that underlies two fundamental forms of motivation and and withdrawal-related processes-is described. Data on differences in functional activity in certain components of these are next reviewed, with an emphasis on the nomological network of surrounding individual differences in asymmetric prefrontal The relevance of such differences for understanding the nature affective dysfunction in affective disorders is then considered. The ends by considering what the prefrontal cortex “does” in certain of affective style and highlights some of the important questions for future research.
Alerts APA researchers and readers that the article "Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature" by C. S. Widom (
Psychological Bulletin, 1989, Vol 106(1), Jul, 3–28) has been amplified and reprinted in a book chapter: Widom, C. S. (1989). The intergenerational transmission of violence. In N. A. Weinger & M. E. Wolfgang (Eds.),
Pathways to criminal violence. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Through an oversight, cross-reference between the two publications and information in the copyright for this article were omitted from the Sage book. The copyright is held by the American Psychological Association. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in PA, Vol 76:36811.) Critically examines the "violence breeds violence" hypothesis broadly defined. Organized into 7 sections, the literature review includes (a) the abuse breeds abuse hypothesis; (b) reports of small numbers of violent/homicidal offenders; (c) studies examining the relationship of abuse and neglect to delinquency; (d) to violent behavior, and (e) to aggressive behavior in infants and young children; (f) abuse, withdrawal, and self-destructive behavior; and (g) studies of the impact of witnessing or observing violent behavior… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studies of adults and infants indicate that the left frontal brain region is specialized for approach emotions, such as joy, whereas the right frontal region is specialized for withdrawal emotions, such as distress. Furthermore, depressed adults have been found to show reduced brain activity in the left frontal region. In this study, frontal and parietal electroencephalographic (EEG) activity was recorded from 27 infants aged 11–17 months (13 of whose mothers reported elevated depressive symptoms) during baseline and emotion-eliciting conditions. Compared with infants of nonsymptomatic mothers, infants of symptomatic mothers exhibited reduced left frontal brain activity during playful interactions with their mothers and failed to exhibit the typical pattern of greater right frontal activity during a condition designed to elicit distress (maternal separation). Infants of symptomatic mothers also showed less distress during maternal separation; however, no group differences in behavior were found during the playful condition. Group differences were evident in the frontal region, but not in parietal brain activity.
Differences between different style-depressed mothers, intrusive and withdrawn, were examined by the use of the Behavioral Inhibition and Activation Scales (BIS/BAS) and EEG activity from the mid-frontal and parietal regions. Analyses revealed that withdrawn mothers had left frontal EEG hypoactivation, higher Behavior Inhibition (BIS), and lower Behavior Activation (BAS) scores than the intrusive mothers. Further analysis revealed that the BIS, the BAS reward and the BAS-BIS difference scores were related to frontal EEG asymmetry and power scores. BIS scores were also related to the mothers' withdrawn interaction style, supporting the use of the BIS/BAS as a screening instrument to help identify intrusive and withdrawn depressed mothers. ©2001 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.
Normal, depressed and conduct disorder children (M age=5 years) were interviewed (as were their mothers) and observed in free play and puzzle completion tasks both alone and together with their mothers to determine differences in temperament, behavior problems and play interaction behaviors. The depressed children reported more depressed feelings, lower self-esteem and more external locus of control, although their mothers were indistinguishable from mothers of normal children on interviews, and their dyadic play behavior together suggested less fantasy play and less involvement. The conduct disorder children's interview responses did not differ from their normal peers, although their mothers reported more self-depression, more external locus of control and less nurturant childrearing practices and rated their children as having more active temperaments. The conduct disorder children were more active motorically and less interactive during play sessions, and their mothers were less interactive and more disapproving than the other mothers. These results are discussed in the context of the literature on different behavior problems, self-concept, temperament and childrearing practices in these two groups of disturbed children.
Objective:
To explore the relationship between central serotonergic (5-HT) function and history of parental aggression in aggressive and nonaggressive boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Method:
History of psychiatric symptoms was assessed in the biological parents of 41 boys with ADHD. The relationship between 5-HT function in aggressive and nonaggressive probands, as assessed via the prolactin response to fenfluramine (FEN) challenge, and parental history of aggression was examined.
Results:
Aggressive boys with a parental history of aggressive behavior had a significantly lower prolactin response to FEN challenge than aggressive boys without a parental history of aggression. Nonaggressive boys had a prolactin response midway between those of the two aggressive subgroups, and their prolactin response did not vary as a function of parental aggression. Children subdivided on the basis of parental history of other psychiatric symptoms did not differ in their response to the FEN challenge.
Conclusions:
These data indicate an association between parent aggressive behavior and lower 5-HT function in aggressive boys with ADHD but do not indicate the extent to which this association is environmentally and/or genetically transmitted. There may be different neurochemical mechanisms in familial and nonfamilial aggressive children, which have clinical implications for pharmacological interventions.
Depressed mothers who could be classified as withdrawn or intrusive were compared with nondepressed mothers on their prenatal cortisol and catecholamine levels and on fetal activity and neonatal outcome variables. The data suggested that the withdrawn mothers had lower dopamine levels during pregnancy, and their infants had lower Brazelton scale scores. The infants of withdrawn mothers also had the highest cortisol levels and the lowest dopamine and serotonin levels as well as the most asymmetrical EEG patterns.
Sixty-three pregnant women (36 with depression symptoms) were recruited during their last trimester of pregnancy. The depressed mothers had higher cortisol and norepinephrine levels and lower dopamine levels. Their infants subsequently had higher cortisol and norepinephrine levels and lower dopamine levels at the neonatal stage. The neonates of depressed mothers also showed inferior performance on the orientation, reflex, excitability, and withdrawal clusters of the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment. Stepwise regression analyses revealed that the depressed mothers' prenatal norepinephrine and dopamine levels significantly predicted the newborns' norepinephrine and dopamine levels and their Brazelton scores, highlighting an early biochemical influence on neonatal outcome.
This article reviews some of the neurochemistry and neurophysiology of three neurotransmitters: dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. These neurotransmitters are selected because they appear to be involved in the regulation of several important behavioral systems that help regulate the interaction of the organism with its external environment, because many of the psychotropic drugs' modes of action may be result from their effects on these neurotransmitter systems, and because the majority of neurochemical studies in child psychiatry have focused on these three neurotransmitters. After the review of the neurotransmitter systems, neurochemical studies in several child psychiatric disorders are reviewed to illustrate possible biochemical/behavioral relationships in child psychiatry.
Clinical and preclinical studies involving several different mammalian species and research paradigms suggest a negative correlation between aggression and central serotonin activity. To test the generalizability of laboratory findings in rhesus monkeys that show a negative correlation between cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentrations and aggression, we obtained cisternal cerebrospinal fluid and blood plasma samples from monkeys living in naturalistic conditions. During a semiannual trapping, 28 juvenile and adolescent male rhesus monkeys were chosen from a population of 4200 provisioned, free-ranging rhesus monkeys living on Morgan Island, a sea island located off the coast of South Carolina. Based on direct observations of participation or avoidance of aggressive behavior and examinations of apparent fight wounds, 18 monkeys were selected for cerebrospinal fluid taps and blood samples. The remaining 10 monkeys were selected at random. Descriptions of aggressive behavior and the number of old scars and recent wounds were carefully transcribed, and a photograph showing wounds and scars was obtained for each animal. Using the transcriptions and photographs, researchers experienced in rhesus monkey behavior, but blind to the subjects' monoamine and hormone concentrations, were asked to rank the monkeys from the most to the least aggressive. The results showed a significant negative correlation between high rankings for aggression and cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentrations. There was evidence that aggression was associated with stress, in that cerebrospinal fluid, norepinephrine, and plasma corticotropin and cortisol concentrations were positively correlated with high rankings of aggression.
A 30-minute back massage was given daily for a 5-day period to 52 hospitalized depressed and adjustment disorder children and adolescents. Compared with a control group who viewed relaxing videotapes, the massaged subjects were less depressed and anxious and had lower saliva cortisol levels after the massage. In addition, nurses rated the subjects as being less anxious and more cooperative on the last day of the study, and nighttime sleep increased over this period. Finally, urinary cortisol and norepinephrine levels decreased, but only for the depressed subjects.
Chronic, as well as acute emotional arousal, is a consequence of various types of social interaction, i.e., those between mother and infant and between controlling dominant and less effective subordinate. The neurohumoral accompaniments of this social stress include the sympathetic adrenal medullary and hypothalamic pituitary adrenal responses. A common ensuing pathophysiological state involves a chronic increase of blood pressure. Although Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome presupposed the same response to a variety of stimuli; recent work shows that specific perceptions of control result in different patterns of neuroendocrine activation. A challenge perceived as easy to handle will elicit an active coping response and release of the neurosympathetic system's norepinephrine. Testosterone will rise as the subject savors success. With increasing anxiety this active coping shifts to a more passive mode and the behavior becomes less assured as the animal loses control. The norepinephrine/epinephrine ratio decreases as epinephrine, prolactin, renin and fatty acids rise. As the outcome becomes still less certain and distress grows, adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol levels arise. Thus, the effort required on the one hand and the degree of frustration conflict and uncertainty on the other, determine the ratio of catecholamines to corticoids. With severe emotional trauma, brain dysfunction may occur. These effects can be lasting, and corticoids paradoxically return to normal as the behavior changes to that of post-traumatic stress disorder. Repression and denial set in and the organism responds with decreased concern of impaired attachment and increased irritability.
Cerebrospinal fluid levels of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, a metabolite of serotonin, were measured in relation to aggression, impulsivity, and social functioning in 29 children and adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders. The cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid level was low compared with that of age-, sex-, and race-matched patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Within the disruptive group, significant negative correlations with age-corrected 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid level were seen for the child's report of aggression toward people and the expressed emotionality of the child toward his or her mother; other correlations of age-corrected 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid level with measures of aggression were in the expected negative direction but did not reach statistical significance. Impulsivity per se and socioenvironmental factors were not significantly related to cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentration.
The relation of symptoms of conduct disorder (CD) and anxiety to salivary cortisol was explored in 67 clinic-referred boys aged 8 to 13 years. Children with anxiety disorder had higher levels of cortisol, but this main effect was qualified by a significant CD x anxiety disorder interaction. Consistent with Gray's biological model of the behavioral inhibition system (BIS), children with both CD and anxiety disorder had higher levels of salivary cortisol than children with CD without comorbid anxiety disorder. In the absence of CD, however, anxiety disorder was not clearly associated with higher cortisol. This result suggests that cortisol may be a useful biological marker of arousal associated with BIS activity in children with CD.
Previous studies have indicated that criminality is in part genetically determined, but it is not clear how this predisposition manifests itself at a biological level. This prospective study tests the hypothesis that a psychophysiological predisposition to criminality partly manifests itself through autonomic and central nervous system underarousal. Psychophysiological measures, taken at the age of 15 years, were related to criminality status that was assessed at the age of 24 years. Criminals had a significantly lower resting heart rate, skin conductance activity, and more slow-frequency electroencephalographic activity than noncriminals. Differences were not mediated by social, demographic, and academic factors. These results constitute the first clear evidence that implicates underarousal in all three response systems (electrodermal, cardiovascular, and cortical) in the development of criminality. Although arousal variables correctly classified 74.7% of all subjects, psychophysiological factors alone cannot fully account for criminal behavior and do not negate the potential role of social variables in predicting criminal behavior.
Heart rate and blood pressure of children and adolescents admitted to a psychiatric hospital were compared among those diagnosed conduct disorder, major depressive disorder, and separation anxiety disorder. Subjects with conduct disorder had a lower heart rate compared to subjects without a conduct disorder diagnosis; and subjects with separation anxiety disorder had higher heart rate and systolic blood pressure compared to subjects without an anxiety disorder diagnosis. Subjects with major depressive disorder had higher systolic blood pressure than subjects with conduct disorder but no difference in heart rate. The findings are consistent with conduct disorder being associated with decreased noradrenergic function and anxiety/depressive disorder being associated with increased noradrenergic function.
Two questions concerning the effect of physical abuse in early childhood on the child's development of aggressive behavior
are the focus of this article. The first is whether abuse per se has deleterious effects. In earlier studies, in which samples
were nonrepresentative and family ecological factors (such as poverty, marital violence, and family instability) and child
biological variables (such as early health problems and temperament) were ignored, findings have been ambiguous. Results from
a prospective study of a representative sample of 309 children indicated that physical abuse is indeed a risk factor for later
aggressive behavior even when the other ecological and biological factors are known. The second question concerns the processes
by which antisocial development occurs in abused children. Abused children tended to acquire deviant patterns of processing
social information, and these may mediate the development of aggressive behavior.
Recent event-related potential (ERP) studies indicate that antisocial and psychopathic behavior is in some circumstances characterized by heightened attentional processes. This prospective study assesses whether ERP measures of attention recorded in adolescence are capable of predicting criminality status in adulthood. N1, P300, and contingent negative variation (CNV) were recorded during a CNV paradigm in a representative sample of 101 male schoolchildren at age 15, and related to criminality status at age 24. Criminals-to-be were characterized by larger N1 amplitudes and faster P300 latencies to the warning stimulus. Psychopathic personality within the criminal group was associated with larger N1 and CNV amplitudes. A discriminant function analysis using N1 and P300 measures correctly classified 74% of cases. It is concluded that enhanced early attentional processing may be of etiological significance in the development of criminality and that ERP measures may be of value in the early prediction of criminal behavior.
This prospective study analyzed relationships between skin conductance and heart rate measures of orienting in a noninstitutionalized sample of 101 15-year-old male subjects and criminal behavior as assessed at age 24 years. Subjects with a criminal record at age 24 (N = 17) had significantly smaller skin conductance responses and smaller heart rate deceleratory and acceleratory responses than the other subjects (N = 84). Lack of any skin conductance response was significantly more prevalent in subjects with a criminal record (31%) than in the control subjects (10%). These results implicate deficits in orienting with the later development of criminal behavior. The authors hypothesize that the genetic predisposition to criminal behavior may find its expression in part through smaller autonomic orienting.
Critically examines the "violence breeds violence" hypothesis broadly defined. Organized into seven sections, the literature review includes (a) the abuse breeds abuse hypothesis; (b) reports of small numbers of violent/homicidal offenders; (c) studies examining the relationship of abuse and neglect to delinquency, (d) to violent behavior, and (e) to aggressive behavior in infants and young children; (f) abuse, withdrawal, and self-destructive behavior; and (g) studies of the impact of witnessing or observing violent behavior. A detailed discussion of methodological considerations and shortcomings precedes the review. The author concludes that existing knowledge of the long-term consequences of abusive home environments is limited and suggests that conclusions about the strength of the cycle of violence be tempered by the dearth of convincing empirical evidence. Recommendations are made for further research.
To assess the effects of modified relaxation training on subsequent disruptive behaviour, two groups of six non-institutionalized mentally handicapped adults were compared. At the end of 3 weeks training, those given relaxation training showed 71% more relaxation after relaxation sessions and 74% less disruptive behaviour later in the day, whereas controls who were only told stories showed no decrease; aggression and verbal disruption showed the most consistent effects. This suggests that modified relaxation is rapidly effective in inducing relaxation and in reducing disruption.
A group of twelve adolescents exhibiting aggressive behavior in a residential treatment center received six weeks of anger control training consisting of thought stopping, relaxation training, and rehearsal of problem-solving, self-talk patterns. The subjects were divided into two groups, and a multiple baseline design was employed. Houseparents kept daily observational records of subjects' verbal and physical aggression. Both observational data and teacher ratings indicated that nine of the subjects reduced their rates of aggression. Two did not behave aggressively during the study period. One briefly deteriorated following a major disappointment, after which his aggression rate also declined.
ABSTRACTFrom a group of 80 hospitalized boys, 41 with plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase (DβH)ss ≤ 6 µM/ min/L were compared with 39 boys with plasma (DβH ≥ 15 µM/min/L. The low group had more diagnoses of Conduct Disorder, undersocialized, as determined by the diagnosing child psychiatrist. On a structured diagnostic instrument, the DISC/DISC-P, the high group had more diagnoses of Dysthymic Disorder and Separation Anxiety Disorder. Twenty-four-hour urine cathecholamines and their metabolites were obtained on 50 subjects. The results show differences in norephinephrine metabolism in the low group.
Plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase (DβH) was measured on 420 boys and 128 girls admitted to a children's psychiatric hospital. Children with plasma DβH activities ≥ 6 μM/min/L, the near-zero DβH group, were compared to children with DβH activities > 6 μM/min/L, the comparison group. Fifty-four percent of the boys with near-zero DβH were diagnosed conduct disorder, undersocialized and 24% were diagnosed borderline personality compared to 21% and 10% for the comparison group. Symptomatically the near-zero group had more conduct symptoms, concentration symptoms, impaired relationships, and fewer anxiety and depressive symptoms than the comparison group. Significantly more boys in the near-zero group were discharged on medication and on methylphenidate. Girls did not show these differences. The results show a relationship between near-zero plasma DβH and conduct disorder symptomatology in emotionally disturbed boys.
To assess the severity of depression in school-aged children, self-report, clinician-rated and peer-rated instruments have been developed. Since these rating scales attempt to quantify an alleged clinical phenomenon, they represent a needed step toward more systematic scientific research into childhood depression. On the other hand, they are not diagnostic tools. The available instruments are promising but are still experimental. Additional data are needed to support their usefulness and accuracy as measurement devices.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between behavior and serotonin in nonhuman primates.
During a routine capture and medical examination, 26 adolescent male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) were selected as subjects from a free-ranging population of 4,500 rhesus monkeys inhabiting a 475-acre sea island. Blood samples (N = 23) and CSF samples (N = 22) were obtained, and each subject was fitted with a radio transmitter collar for rapid location. The subjects were released into their social groups, and quantitative behavioral observations were made over a 3-month period.
CSF 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) concentration was positively correlated with three measures of sociality: 1) total time spent grooming others, 2) total time spent in close proximity to other group members, and 3) mean number of neighbors within a 5-m radius. In addition, CSF 5-HIAA concentration was positively correlated with age at emigration from the natal group (in months).
In adolescent male rhesus macaques living in naturalistic settings, CSF 5-HIAA concentration is positively correlated with affiliative sociality. Rhesus males with low CSF 5-HIAA concentrations exhibit less social competence and emigrate from their social groups at a younger age than do males with higher concentrations of CSF 5-HIAA.
Adolescents' perceived levels of intimacy with their mother, father, and close friend were examined as a function of demographic, family and school, and psychological variables. Students with same-sex friends and greater interest in school reported greater intimacy with their mothers. Students with higher self-esteem, lower depression, and lower risk-taking scores reported greater intimacy with their mothers and fathers. The greatest number of relationships with positive variables involved intimacy with mothers.
To test the prediction that the interaction of physical abuse and internalizing problems will heighten levels of aggressive behavior in a group of disruptive children.
Fifty-two clinic-referred disruptive children (aged 7 through 15 years) were assessed in terms of history of physical abuse, internalizing behavior problems (rated by parents), and aggressive behavior (rated by parents, teachers, and clinic staff).
Physically abused children with co-occurring high levels of internalizing problems (based on a median split) exhibited significantly higher levels of aggression as rated by parents (p < .000) and teachers (p < .020) and a trend toward heightened aggression as rated by staff (p < .08). The patterns were similar across the three independent informants and remained regardless of age, gender, or race.
Physical abuse was related to heightened levels of aggression only in those children who also had emotional difficulties. Results lend some support to a transactional model of the development of aggression, suggesting that problems arise out of interactions between child factors (such as internalizing problems) and adverse family experiences (such as physical abuse).
To assess critically the efficacy and safety of lithium and replicate earlier findings in a larger sample of aggressive children with conduct disorder and to assess the utility of the Profile of Mood States (POMS) in this population.
Children hospitalized for treatment-refractory severe aggressiveness and explosiveness and with diagnosed conduct disorder were subjects in this double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. After a 2-week placebo baseline period, children were randomly assigned to lithium or placebo treatment for 6 weeks of placebo. The main outcome measures were the Global Clinical Judgments (Consensus) Scale, Children's Psychiatric Rating Scale, Conners Teacher Questionnaire, Parent-Teacher Questionnaire, and the POMS.
Fifty children (mean age 9.4 years) completed this study. The mean optimal daily dose of lithium was 1,248 mg and the mean serum level was 1.12 mEq/L. Lithium was superior to placebo, although the effects on some measures were more modest than in a previous study.
Lithium appears to be an effective treatment for some severely aggressive children with conduct disorder. Although the POMS appeared to be reliable, it did not detect any response to lithium.
To describe the frequency of violence-related behaviors and their association with other health behaviors among high school students.
The Youth Risk Behavior Survey was administered to all ninth and eleventh graders (n = 2075) of a school district in Texas. It provided information regarding violence-related behaviors and other health behaviors. Students were classified into four mutually exclusive, violence-related categories according to whether they were involved in a physical fight and/or carried a weapon.
Overall, 20% of the students were involved in a physical fight but had not carried a weapon, 10% carried a weapon but had not been involved in a physical fight, and 17% had been involved in a physical fight and had carried a weapon. Prevalence of weapon-carrying and fighting were higher among males than females, and among ninth graders than eleventh graders. Among males, 48% had carried a weapon the month prior to the survey. Students who both fought and carried a weapon were 19 times more likely to drink alcohol six or more days than students who did not fight nor carried a weapon. Logistic regression analyses showed that drinking alcohol, number of sexual partners, and being in ninth grade were predictors of fighting. These three variables plus having a low self-perception of academic performance and suicidal thoughts were predictors of fighting and carrying a weapon.
The data indicate that violence-related behaviors are frequent among high school students and that they are positively associated with certain health behaviors. Interventions designed to reduce violence should also address coexisting health-risk behaviors and target high-risk groups.
Behaviors that put adolescents at risk frequently occur together. To help identify high-risk adolescents, we analyzed a national, self-reported behavior survey of high school students to assess the suitability of fighting as a marker for students with multiple problem behaviors.
A cross-sectional cluster survey of 11,631 U.S. high school students in 1990 was used to compare the prevalence of recent problem behaviors among all students and those who fight.
One (8%) of every 12 students was in a fight during the 30 days before the survey. Reported problem behaviors were prevalent among fighters: during the previous 12 months, 24% attempted suicide; during the previous 30 days, 26% carried a firearm, 13% used cocaine, and 39% drove a motor vehicle while intoxicated; during the previous 3 months 41% had two or more sex partners; and 45% had sexual intercourse and did not use a condom the last time they had sex. Of all students, fighters accounted for 22% of those who reported attempting suicide, 49% carrying a firearm, 46% using cocaine, 18% driving while intoxicated, 25% having sex with multiple partners, and 11% not using condoms. Three or more of these six problem behaviors were reported by 26% of the fighters. The problem behaviors were all positively correlated, and the first principal component accounted for 35% of the total variation among the individual variables.