Content uploaded by Osama Salama
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Osama Salama on Jul 06, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
Chemistry Department
1
, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Pharco Pharmaceuticals
2
, Alexandria, Egypt
Components, therapeutic value and uses of myrrh
E. S. H. El Ashry
1
, N. Rashed
1
, O. M. Salama
2
, A. Saleh
2
Received July 17, 2002, accepted October 29, 2002
Prof. Dr. El-Sayed H. El-Ashry, Ph.D., D.Sc., Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science,
Alexandria University, Ibrahimia, P.O. Box 426, Alexandria 21321, Egypt
eelashry60@hotmail.com
Pharmazie 58: 163–168 (2003)
Occurrence, constituents and medicinal use of myrrh, obtained from the stem of different Commiphora
species are reviewed. The constituents of the volatile oil, the resin and the gum are outlined in detail.
Myrrh has considerable antimicrobial activity and is medicinally used in a variety of diseases.
1. Introduction
Myrrh is one of the oldest known medicines which has
been widely used by ancient Egyptians and it was one of
the three gifts believed to have been offered to the infant
Jesus by Magi [1]. The name myrrh is derived from the
Arabic and Hebrew word mur, which means bitter. Meet-
iga is the trade name for Arabian myrrh. The various re-
ports on the therapeutic value and uses of myrrh attracted
our attention to write this review.
Myrrh is an oleo-gum-resin obtained from the stem of dif-
ferent species of Commiphora. It is a reddish brown mass,
covered with a brownish yellow dust. It has a bitter and
acrid taste and a balsamic odor. With water it forms an
emulsion [2, 3].
2. Occurrence of myrrh
Different species of myrrh have been found in different
countries as shown in the Table.
3. Constituents
Myrrh contains a 28% volatile oil (myrrhol), 2340%
resin (myrrhin), 4060% gum, and a bitter principle
1025% [2, 3].
3.1. Volatile oils
The volatile oil from Commiphora molmol is thick. It has
a pale yellow color which upon exposure to the vapour of
bromine or fumes from nitric acid gave a violet color [2,
4]. The constituents of essential oil in two kinds of myrrh
were analyzed by GC/MS and identified with their percent
contents [5]. The components from Commiphora molmol
were detected chromatographically [6] with a simple col-
orimetric determination method using vanillin-sulfuric acid
reagent to form a stable violet colored reaction product
with a maximum absorption at 518 nm [7]. It contains
cadinene (1), elemol (2), eugenol (3), cuminaldehyde (4),
numerous furanosesquiterpenes including furanogerma-
Pharmazie 58 (2003) 3 163
Table: Occurrence of the different species of Commiphora
Species Country
C. molmol Engler Ethiopia, Somalia, Arabia
C. mukul Engler Somalia, India
C. guidotti Chiov. Somalia
C. abyssinica Engler China, East Africa, Ethiopia
C. incisa Chiov. India, East Africa, Ethiopia
C. pyracanthoides Engler East Africa
C. rostrata Diels Arabia
C. gileadensis Engler Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya,
Somalia, Sudan
C. wightii Engler Pakistan, India
C. guillauminiperr Engler Sudan, Kenia
C. erythraea (Var.) Engler India, Somalia
C. opobalsamum Engler Near Cairo “at mataria”
REVIEW
cranes (58), furanodiene (9), furanodienone (10), curzer-
enone (11), lindestrene (12), as well as furanoeudesma-
1,3-diene (13) [3, 8, 9].
The three furanogermacrens 57 and the two furanoeudes-
manes 12 and 13 have been isolated from the n-hexane
extract of the essential oil of Commiphora molmol [8, 9].
They give positive Ehrlich color test with p-dimethyl-
aminobenzaldehyde reagent indicating the presence of a
furan ring. The structures were confirmed with different
spectral analyses. The main component was furanoeudesma-
1,3-diene (13). It is a colorless, unstable liquid which can
be rapidly auto-oxidized in air to give a resinous substance.
The a-copaene-8-ol (14), furanodiene (15), and b-elemene
(16) were also isolated from the hexane extract. The ether
fractions contained trans furanodien-6-one (10), curzere-
none (11), and furanoeudesma-1,4-dien-6-one (17).
Three furanogermacranes (1820) and 2-methoxyfurano-
guaia-9-ene-8-one (21) were also isolated from the fractio-
nated essential oil of myrrh from Commiphora molmol
with a mixture of n-hexane/ether [10]. 1(10)Z,4Z-Furano-
dien-6-one (18) and 4,5-dihydrofuranodien-6-one (20)
were isolated as colorless liquids, while 2-acetoxyfurano-
diene (19) as a colorless wax.
The essential oil of Commiphora guidotti, which was iso-
lated by steam distillation of its oleo-gum-resin, contains
seven sesquiterpene hydrocarbons: a- and b-santalene,
epi-b-santalene, b-bergamotene, b-farnesene, a- and b-bi-
sabolene and the furanosesquiterpenoid furanodiene. The
most abundant components of the oil which could be iso-
lated in pure form, were a-santalene (22), a-bisabolene
(23) and furanodiene (9) [11].
From the ether extract of Somaliland myrrh, nonacosane
C
29
H
60
has been isolated [12]. On the other hand, from
the essential oil of Commiphora abyssinica nine sesqui-
terpenoide hydrocarbons, b- and d-elemene, a-copaene,
b-bourbonene, d-germacrene, caryophyllene, humulene,
g- and d-cadinene, the sesquiterpene alcohol elemol (2),
and five furanosesquiterpenoids, furanodiene (9), furano-
dienone (10), curzerenone (11), lindestrene (12), as well
as isofuranogermacrene (24) were isolated [13].
3.2. Resins
The chemistry of myrrh resin is uncompletely elucidated.
It is generally classified into a bigger ether soluble frac-
tion and a smaller insoluble fraction. The ether soluble
fraction consists of a-, b- and g-commiphoric acid, esters
of a resin acid, commiphorinic acid, and two phenolic re-
sins, a- and b-heerabomyrrhol. The ether insoluble frac-
tion contains a- and b -heerabomyrrholic acids [2, 3]. It
shows a fluorescent spot on the TLC due to the probable
formation of dehydroabietic acid [14]. From the gum-resin
of Commiphora mukul long chain aliphatic tetrols 25 were
isolated and were found to be a mixture of homologues of
octadecan-1,2,3,4-tetrol (50%), nonadecan-1,2,3,4-tetrol
(7%) and eicosan-1,2,3,4-tetrol (40%) [15].
The chromatography of the petroleum ether soluble frac-
tion of the gum resin from Commiphora mukul gave a
diterpene hydrocarbon “cembrene-A” (26), diterpene alco-
hol “mukulol” (27), (þ)sesamin, cholestrol and two iso-
meric steroids which were formulated as 4,17(20)-(trans)–
pregnadiene-3,16-dione “E-guggulsterone” (28) and the cis
isomer “Z-guggulsterone” (29) [1619].
The geometry of the double bonds and the absolute con-
figuration at C
14
of cembrene-A (26) and mukulol (27)
were established. The ethyl acetate fraction of the resin
from Commiphora mukul was proven to contain three new
REVIEW
164 Pharmazie 58 (2003) 3
CH
3
––(CH
2
)
n
––CH(OH)––CH(OH)––CH(OH)––CH
2
OH
25 n ¼ 13, 14, 15
sterols 3032 beside the pregnadienes 28 and 29 [16, 20].
The stereochemistry at C
20
and C
22
of the sterol 30 was
assigned as the (R)-configuration based on biogenetic con-
siderations. It has been found that all of the hydroxyl
groups are intramolecularly hydrogen bound to each other
[20].
The guggulsterols 33 and 34 were isolated from the neu-
tral fraction after saponification of the chloroform extract
of Commiphora mukul [21].
The alcoholic extract of Commiphora mukul was parti-
tioned between water and diethyl ether. The ether fraction
gave two crystalline compounds identified as myricyl alco-
hol and b-sitosterol [22]. The aqueous fraction was chro-
matographed to give the amino acids cystine, histidine,
lysine, threonine, alanine, proline, arginine, aspartic acid,
serine, glutamic acid, tyrosine, tryptophan, valine, leucine
and isoleucine.
Four new steroidal components 35–38 have been isolated
from an extract of the gum resin of Commiphora mukul
with methyl alcohol [23].
A colorimetric assay procedure for the quantitative estima-
tion of the steroidal guggulsterone using betamethasone as
a standard has been reported. The reaction involved the
reduction of the blue tetrazolium salt to the highly colored
formazan. This is due to the presence of D
4
-3-keto-conju-
gation in the E- and Z-guggulsterone [24].
The steroidal fraction from Commiphora abyssinica has
been found to contain cholest-5-ene-3 b-ol (39,R¼H,
86%), D
5
-campestan-3b-ol (40,R¼Me, 9%) and D
5
-sito-
stan-3b-ol (41,R¼Et, 5%) [25].
The resin of Commiphora incisa has yielded three C
22
compounds identified by spectral analysis and chemical
modification as mansumbinone (4a,4b,8b,10b,14a-penta-
methyl-5a-gon-16-en-3-one) (42), the corresponding 3-hy-
droxy compound mansumbinol 43 and 3,4-seco-mansum-
binoic acid (44) [26].
REVIEW
Pharmazie 58 (2003) 3 165
The mass spectra of the methyl esters of the commic acids
4549 isolated from Commiphora pyracanthoides were
reported by Thomas et al. [2729].
The resin from Commiphora rostrata was analyzed by gas
chromatography and mass spectra and was found to con-
tain twenty-two oxygenated alkanes with the major com-
ponents 2-decanone (65%), 2-undecanone (24%), 2-dode-
canone (5%) and hexadecanal (1.5%) [30].
3.3. Gums
The crude gum from the alcohol insoluble matter of Com-
miphora molmol contains 18% protein and 64% carbo-
hydrates as galactose, arabinose and glucuronic acid. The
gum is associated with an oxidase enzyme [3]. It is appar-
ently allied to Acacia gum and contains an oxidase enzyme
whose activity was destroyed at 100
C [2]. The structure
50 of the gum was established by Wiendle and Franz [31].
The gum of Commiphora mukul was found to be a highly
branched polysaccharide 51 containing (1 ! 6), (1 ! 5)
and (1 ! 3) linkages [32]. Its structure was deduced
from the methylation of Commiphora mukul gum with
Me
2
SO
4
/NaOH and subsequent treatment with Purdie re-
agent followed by hydrolysis with methanolic HCl, and
saponification with Ba(OH)
2
[33].
4. Medicinal actions and uses
Commiphora molmol is the most important species of
myrrh which has been used as an effective antimicrobial
agent, it is one of the most effective herbal medicines in
the world for sore throats, canker sores and gingivitis [1].
It is useful for the treatment of acne, boils and arthritis [1,
34]. Myrrh has local stimulant and antihealing, antiseptic
properties for wounds and abrasions. It is used as a mouth
wash and as a uterine stimulant and emmenagogue [2, 3].
It is used in the treatment of infections in the mouth as
mouth ulcers, pyorrhea as well as catarrhal problems of
pharyngitis and sinusitis [1]. It is excellent in sore mouth
and extreme ulceration of mercurial ptyalism.
The extract of myrrh (gum) effectively decreases the abso-
lute increment of blood glucose above the fasting concen-
tration at all times of the oral glucose tolerance test in
both normal and diabetic rats [35] and may prove to be a
useful therapeutic agent in the treatment of non-insulin
dependent diabetes mellitus [36]. It is used also in cos-
metic preparations for treatment of hair and scalp [37].
Tincture of myrrh is used for the therapy of apthous ulcers
(Stomatitis aphthosa) [38]. Myrrh reduces cholesterol and
triglycerides [39] and may terminate pregnancy [40]. It
exhibits strong antithrombotic activity [41].
Extract of myrrh is used as digestive aid drug, and it is
approved by the FDA for the use in food and oral health
care drug products . It was given GRAS status as a flavor
ingredient by FEMA [42].
Myrrh is used in traditional Chinese medicine to relieve
pain and swelling due to traumatic injury [43]. It is used
as a hypolipidaemic agent [44]. Myrrh is useful in chronic
gastritis and atomic dyspepsia with full pale tongue and
membrane, as well as frequent mucous stouts accompa-
nied by flatulence [1]. It helps in the treatment laryngitis
and respiratory complains.
The petroleum ether extract of myrrh from Commiphora
molmol produced significant inhibition of carrageenan-in-
duced inflammation and cotton pellet granuloma. It also
showed significant antipyretic activity in mice [45, 46].
Recently the cytotoxic and antitumor activity of myrrh has
proved to be equivalent to those of the standard cytotoxic
drug cyclophosphamide [47]. Thus treatment with myrrh
(250 and 500 mg/kg/day) was found to be cytotoxic in
Ehrlich carcinoma tumor cells in mice [48]. The Commi-
phora molmol treatment (125–500 mg/kg) showed no mu-
tagenicity. It caused a highly significant and dose-depen-
dent mitodepressant effect in the femoral cells as well as
reduction of RNA levels in hepatic cells as compared with
the control (cyclophosphamide) [49]. Myrrh from Commi-
phora molmol pretreatment, at doses of 2501000 mg/kg,
provided dose dependent protection against the ulcero-
genic effect of different necrotizing agent used [50]. It
also offered protection against mucosal damage caused by
indomethacin [50].
REVIEW
166 Pharmazie 58 (2003) 3
4-OCH
3
-a-GlcA
p
-(1 ! 4)-b-Gal
p
-(1 ! 3)-bGal
p
-
[(1 ! 2)-4-OCH
3
-a-GlcA
p
-(1 ! 4)-b-Gal
p
]
6
-(1 ! 4)-a-Ara
f
-(1 ! 3)-
Ara
f
-(1 ! 2)-Ara
f
-(1 ! 4)-DL-Hyp
50
GlcA
p
¼ D-Glucopyranosyluronic acid
Gal
p
¼ D-Galactopyranose
Ara
f
¼ L-Arabinofuranose
Hyp ¼ 4-Hydroxypyroline
D-Gal
p
1 ! 6 D-Gal
p
1 ! 6 D-Gal
p
1 ! 6 D-Gal
p
1 ! 6 D-Gal
p
1 ! 6 D-Gal
p
333
"""
111
D-Gal
p
3 ! 1 L-Aar
f
D-Gal
p
3 ! 1 L-Aar
f
D-Gal
p
3 ! 1 L-Aar
f
656565
""""""
111111
4-OCH
3
GPA D-Gal
p
4-OCH
3
GPA D-Gal
p
4-OCH
3
GPA D-Gal
p
51
Gal
p
¼ D-Galactopyranose
Ara
f
¼ L-Arabinofuranose
4-OCH
3
GPA ¼ 4-O-methyl-D-glucopyranosyluronic acid
Treatment with the essential oil of myrrh significantly im-
proved childhood atopic eczema. This may be due to a
strong allergic contact dermatitis possibly provoked by the
essential oils themselves [51–53].
The sesquiterpene fractions from Commiphora molmol,
in particular furanodien-6-one and methoxyfuranoguaia-
9-en-8-one, showed antibacterial and antifungal activity
against standard pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with
minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 0.18 to
2.80 mg/ml. These compounds also have local anaesthetic
activity blocking the inward sodium current of excitable
mammalian membranes [54].
The botanical extract of myrrh could be used alone or in
combination with sublethal doses of certain insecticides to
control the cotton leafworm [55].
Histological examination of mosquito larvae treated with
myrrh showed significant pathological effects on their fat,
muscles, gut and nervous tissues [56].
Recently, a purified myrrh extract from methyl alcohol has
been formulated as soft gelatin capsules, suppositories and
emulsion known commerically as Mirazid which is con-
sidered a new safe antibilharzial drug with potential effects
against Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haema-
topium [7, 5759]. In addition it is a potent fasciolicidal
drug with a success rate of 94.1% [60].
Evaluation of the molluscicidal activity of mrryh from C.
molmol on Biommphalaria alexandrina snails was studied,
and it was proved that the activity is due to the oil extract
rather than to the oleo resin [6163]. Fractionation of the
oil extract led to the isolation of a bioactive component
with molluscicidal activity (LC
50
4.45 and 3.55 ppm)
against the snails for exposure periods of 24 and 48 h,
respectively [63].
The petroleum ether extract of myrrh from Commiphora
mukul “guggul gum” decreased serum cholesterol, phos-
pholipids, triglycerides and lipids in experimental hyperch-
olesterolemic chicken, while ethyl acetate extract had less
anticholesterolemic activity in rats [64, 65], and it was
effective as an hypolipidemic agent in dogs and monkeys
[6572]. It was also used in the treatment of rheumatoid
arthritis and obesity [73, 74]. The steroid which was iso-
lated from Commiphora mukul showed antiinflammatory
activity [7476]. It showed a marked inhibition of ADP,
adrenaline and serotonin induced platelet aggregation [77].
It also showed a strong thyroid stimulatory action when
administered to albino rats [73, 78]. It is used as expector-
ant, antispasmodic, uterine stimulant and emmenagogue. It
is successfully used in chronic bronchitis, bronchial asth-
ma, and pulmonary tuberculosis, and also in amenorrhia
and menorrhagia to regulate menses [79]. The ethyl acet-
ate extract of myrrh from Commiphora mukul, in albino
rats, significantly prevented a rise in serum cholesterol
and serum triglyceride levels caused by atherogenic diet
[80]. The essential oil was found to be fungistatic or fun-
gicidal to some ubiquitous molds, depending on the con-
centration [81]. The resin of Commiphora guidotti is
widely used in treatment of stomach complains, wounds
and diarrhoea in Somalia [8285]. T-Cadinol, the pharma-
cologically active sesquiterpene of scented Commiphora
guidotti was shown to have a dose dependent smooth
muscle relaxing effect on the isolated guinea pig ileum
and a similar inhibitory effect on cholera toxin-induced
intestinal hypersecretion in mice [86]. It caused bacterial
lysis and subsequent fatal loss of intracellular components
in Staphylococcus aureus [82]. The resinous exudate from
Commiphora abyssinica is sometimes applied as a plaster
and used for spasms and fever [87]. The washed bark,
mixed with salt, is applied to snake-bites and the plant has
been used as a stomachic and eye remedy. Commiphora
abyssinica extract exhibited a potent cytotoxic activity
against KA31T cell line (10 mg/ml). The IC
50
of this ex-
tract was 100 mg/ml against NIH3T3 cell line [88]. The
aqueous extract of the resin of Commiphora incisa signifi-
cantly inhibited both the maximal edema response and the
total edema response during 6 h of carrageenan-induced
rat paw edema [76]. The resin of Commiphora rostrata
was found to be effective against predators and fungal
pathogens [30]. The bark and resin of Commiphora gilea-
densis are used as a cosmetic, soothing agent and to treat
dog bites [89]. The guggulipid of Commiphora wightii
was shown to have hypocholesterolemic, antiseptic, anti-
pathogenic, antiparasitic properties, and helps against non-
specific diarrhoea and dysentery [90].
Acknowledgements: The authors thank Dr. Hassan Abbas and Pharco
Pharmaceuticals Company, Alexandria, Egypt for their partial support for
this work.
References
1 Chevallier, A. Ed.: “Th e Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants”, 4th ed.,
84 (1996)
2 Wallis, T. E. Ed.: “Text book of Pharmacognosy”, 5th ed., 497 (1967)
3 Trease, G. E.; Evans, W. C. : “Pharmacognosy”, 13th ed., 474 (1 989)
4 Pharmacopoeia Helvetica, 6th ed., 903 (1975)
5 Tian, J. G.; Shi, S. M.: J. Chin. Mater. Med. 21, 235 (1996); Int.
Pharm. Abstr. 33, 3407554 (1996)
6 Atal, C. K.; Shah, K. C.: Indian J. Pharm. 28, 162 (1966); C.A. 65,
15155 (1966)
7 Abdel-Hay, M. H.; Saleh, A.; El Ashry, E. S. H.; Rashe d, N.; Salama, O.:
Spectroscopy Lett. 35, 183 (2002)
8 Brieskorn, C. H.; Noble, P.: Tetrahedron Lett. 21, 1511 (1980)
9 Brieskorn, C. H.; Noble, P.: Phytochemistry 22, 187 (1983)
10 Brieskorn, C. H.; Noble, P.: Phytochemistry 22, 1207 (1983)
11 Craveiro, A.; Corsano, S.; Proietti, G.; Strappaghetti, G.: Planta Med.
48, 97 (1983)
12 Trost, F.; Doro, B.: Ann. Chim. Applicata 25, 227 (1935) ; C. A. 29,
6359 (1935)
13 Brieskorn, C. H.; Noble, P.: Planta Med. 44, 87 (1982)
14 Wisneski, H. H.; Demers, F. X.; Dolinsky, M.: Proc. Joint Conf. Cos-
met. Sci. 131 (1968); C.A. 70, 109100 (1969)
15 Patil, V. D.; Nayak, U. R.; Dev, S.: Tetrahedron 29, 1595 (1973)
16 Patil, V. D.; Nayak, U. R.; Dev, S.: Tetrahedron 28, 2341 (1972)
17 Patil, V. D.; Nayak, U. R.; Dev, S.: Tetrahedron 29, 341 (1973)
18 Prasad, R. S.; Dev, S.: Tetrahedron 32, 1437 (1976)
19 Roy, S. K.; Pal, R.; Sarin, J. P. S.: Ind. J. Pharm. Sci. 51, 251 (1989)
20 Bajaj, A. G.; Dev, S.: Tetrahedron Lett. 22, 4623 (1981)
21 Purushothaman, K. K.; Chandrasckharan, S.: Ind. J. Chem. Sect. B 14,
802 (1976); C. A. 87, 6263 (1977)
22 Ali, M. A.; Hassan, M. M.: Pakistan J. Sci. Ind. Res. 10, 21 (1967); C.
A. 68, 47009 (1968)
23 Bajaj, A. G.; Dev, S.: Tetrahedron 38, 2949 (1982)
24 Rangari, V. D.; Donglikar, M. M.: Ind. J. Pharm. Sci. 56, 110 (1994)
25 Nera, C. B.; Paolo, C.; Pietro, D.: Ann. Chim. 58, 541 (1968); C. A.
69, 52407 (1968)
26 Provan, G. J.; Waterman, P. G.: Phytochemistry 25, 917 (1986)
27 Thomas , A. F.; Keusler, K.; Muller, J. M.: Tetrahedron 16, 264 (1961)
28 Thomas , A. F.: Tetrahedron 15, 212 (1961)
29 Thomas , A. F.; Willhalm, B.: Tetrahedron Lett. 3177 (1964)
30 Mc Dowell, P. G.; Lwande, W.; Deans, S. G.; Waterman, P. G.: Phyto-
chemistry 27, 2519 (1988)
31 Wiendle, R. M.; Franz, G.: Dtsch. Apoth. Ztg. 134, 27 (1994); Int. Pharm.
Abstr. 32, 3201469 (1995)
32 Bose, S.; Gupta, K. C.: Ind. J. Chem. 4, 87 (1966); C.A. 64, 19737
(1966)
33 Baveja, S. K.; Ranga Rao, K. V.; Arora, J.: Ind. J. Pharm. Sci. 51, 115
(1989)
34 Vander Zanden, J. A; Fitzpatrick, R. B.: Minn. Pharm. 35, 8 (1980);
Int. Pharm. Abstr. 18, 1640 (1981)
35 Al Awadi, F. M.; Gumaa, K. A.: Acta Diabetol. Lat. 24, 37 (1987)
36 Al Awadi, F. M.; Fatania, H.; Shamte, U.: Diabetes Res. 18, 163 (1991)
37 Kubec, F.; Knap, J.; Juchelka, J.: Czech. CS Pat. 244387; C.A. 109,
236732 (1988)
REVIEW
Pharmazie 58 (2003) 3 167
38 Pesko, L. J.: Am. Drug. 202, 90 (1990); Int. Pharm. Abstr. 28, 4186
(1990)
39 Michie, C. A.; Cooper, E.: J. Roy. So c. Med. 84, 602 (1991)
40 Thomas, T. A.; Galizia, E. J.; Wensley, R. T.: Brit. Med. J. 1, 375
(1975); Int. Pharm. Abstr. 12, 3568 (1975)
41 Olajide, O. A.: Phytother. Res. 13, 231 (1999)
42 Ford, R. A.; Api, A. M.; Letizia, C. S.: Food & Chem. Toxicol. 30
(Suppl.), 91S (1992)
43 Lee, T. Y.; Lam, T. H.: Contact Dermatitis 28, 89 (1993)
44 Jain, S. K.: Ciba Found. Symp. 185, 153 (1994)
45 Tariq, M.; Ageel, A. M.; Al Yahya , M. A.; Mossa, J. S.; Al Said, M. S.;
Parmar, N. S.: Agents Actions 17, 381 (1986)
46 Atta, A. H.; Alkofahi, A.: J. Ethnopharmacol. 60, 117 (1998)
47 Qureshi, S.; Al Harbi, M. M.; Ahmed, M. M.; Raza, M.; Giangreco,
A. B.; Shah, A. H.: Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 33, 130 (1993);
C.A. 121, 169918 (1994)
48 Al Harbi, M. M.; Qureshi, S.; Raza, M.; Ahmed, M. M.; Giangreco,
A. B.; Shah, A. H.: Chemotherapy 40, 337 (1994)
49 Al Harbi, M. M.; Qureshi, S.; Ahmed, M. M.; Rafatullah, S. Shah, A. H.:
Am. J. Chin. Med. 22, 77 (1994)
50 Al Harbi, M. M.; Qureshi, S.; Raza, M.; Ahmed, M. M.; Afzal, M.;
Shah, A. H.: J. Ethnophar macol. 55, 141 (1997)
51 Anderson, C.; Lis-Balchin, M.; Kirk-Smith, M.: Phytother. Res. 14,452
(2000)
52 Gallo, R.; Rivara, G.; Cattarini, G.; Cozzani, E.; Guarrera, M.: Contact
Dermatitis 41, 230 (1999)
53 Al-Suwaidan, S. N.; Gad El Rab, M. O.; Al-Fakhiry, S.; Al-Hoqail, I. A.;
Al-Maz, A.; Sherif , A. B.: Contact Dermatitis 39, 137 (1998)
54 Dolara, P.; Corte, B.; Chelardini, C.; Pugliese, A. M.; Cerbai, E.; Meni-
chetti, S.; Nostro, A.: Planta Med. 66, 356 (2000)
55 Shonoda, M. L.; Farrag, R. M.; Salama, O. M.: J. Environ. Sci. Health
B. 35, 347 (2000)
56 Massoud, A. M.; Labib, I. M.: J. Egypt. Soc. Parasitol. 30, 101 (2000)
57 Massoud, A.; Salama, O.; Galal, M.; Bennett, J.: The third conference
for the Egyptian Society of Tropic al Medicine, Infectious and Parasitic
Diseases (ESTIP), Alex. Egypt. June 2627, P02 (1997)
58 Badria, F.; Abou Mohamed, G.; El-Mowafy, A.; Massoud, A.; Salama, O.;
Pharm. Biology 30, 127 (2001)
59 Massoud, A.; Salama, O.; Bennett, J. L.: 9th International Congress of
Parasitology, Makuhari Messe Chiba, Japan, August 2427, 619
(1998)
60 El Gohary, Y.; Massoud, A.; Helmi, M.; Kassem, M.; Abdo, A.; Han-
no, A.; salama, O.: Alex. Med. J. 41, 12 (1999)
61 Massoud, A. M.; Fawzy, S. M.; Salama, O. M.: Egypt. J. Aquat. Biol.
Fish 4, 251 (2000)
62 El Zemity, S. R.; Mohamed, S. A.; Radwan, M. A.; Sherby, S. M.:
Alex. J. Pharm. Sci. 15, 67 (2001)
63 El Ashry, E. S. H.; Rashed, N.; Soliman, A. S.; Salama, O. M.: Unpub-
lished results
64 Arora, R. B.; Das, D.; Kapoor, S. C.; Sharma, R. C.: Ind. J. Exp. Biol.
11, 166 (1973); C. A. 81, 109 (1974)
65 Dixit, V. P.; Joshi, S.; Sinha, R.; Bharvava, S. K.; Varma, M.: Bio-
chem. Exp. Biol. 16, 421 (1980)
66 Ahuja, M. M. S.; Malhotra, S. C.; Tandon, H. D.: Ind. J. Exp. Biol.
15, 143 (1977); C. A. 86, 165344 (1977)
67 Satyavati, G. V.: Ind. J. Med. Res. 87, 327 (1988); C. A. 109, 11601
(1988)
68 Arya, V. P.: Drugs Today 24, 561 (1988)
69 Singh, R. B.; Niaz, M. A.; Ghosh, S.: Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther. 8, 659
(1994)
70 Tripathi, S. N.; Gupta, M.; Sen, S. P.; Udupa, K. N.: Ind. J. Exp. Biol.
13, 15 (1975); C. A. 83, 405 (1975)
71 Tripathi, S. N.; Gupta, M.; Sen, S. P.; Udupa, K. N.: Quart. J. Surg.
Sci. 10, 158 (1974); C. A. 83, 188662 (1975)
72 Tripathi, S. N.; Gupta, M.; Dwivedi, L. D.; Sen, S. P.: J. Res. Ind. Med.
10, 11 (1975); C. A. 85, 256 (1976)
73 Wijesekera, R. O. B.: “The Medicinal Plant Ind ustry” (1984)
74 Narain Sharma, J.; Nath Sharma, J.: Arzneim. Forsch./Drug Res. 27,
1455 (1977)
75 Arora, R. B.; Kapoor, V.; Gupta, S. K.; Sharma, R. C.: Ind. J. Exp.
Biol. 9, 403 (1971); C. A. 75, 143946 (1971)
76 Duwiejua, M.; Zeitlin, I. J.; Waterman, P. G.; Chapman, J.; Mhango,
G. J.; Provan, G. J.: Planta Med. 59, 12 (1993)
77 Mester, L.; Mester, M.; Nityanand, S.: Planta Med. 37, 367 (1979)
78 Tripathi, Y. B.; Malhotra, O. P.; Tripathi, S. N.: Planta Med. 50, 78 (1984)
79 Hasan, M. Z.: “Selected Herbo Mine ral Remedies”, 158 (1989)
80 Lata, S.; Saxena, K. K.; Bhasin, V.; Saxena, R. S.; Kumar, A.; Srivas-
tava, V. K.: J. Postgrad. Med. 37, 132 (1991)
81 Sarbhoy, A. K.; Varshney, J. L.; Maheshwari, M. L.; Saxena, D. B.:
Zentralbl. Bakteriol. (Naturwiss.) 133, 723 (1978)
82 Claeson, P.; Raadstroem, P.; Skoeld, O.; Nilsson, A.; Hoeglund, S.:
Phytother. Res. 6, 94 (1992); C. A. 117, 44399 (1992)
83 Zygmunt, P.; Claeson, P.: Phytother. Res. 5, 142 (1991)
84 Thufin, M.; Claeson, P.: Economic Botany 45, 487 (1991)
85 Claeson, P.; Andersson, R.; Samuelsson, G.: Planta Med. 56,685
(1990)
86 Claeson, P.; Andersson, R.; Samuelsson, G.: Planta Medica 57, 352
(1991)
87 Watt, J. M.; Breyer Brandwijk, M. G. Ed.: ‘‘Medicinal and Poisonous
Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa”, 2nd ed., 151 (1962)
88 Abou karam, M.; El Fiky, F. K.; Atif, O. A.; Shier, W. T.: Alex. J.
Pharm. Sci. 8, 93 (1994)
89 Ghazanfar, S. A. Ed.: “Handbook of Arabian Medicinal Plants”, 64 (1994)
90 Sharma, P. K.; Sharma, J. D.: Curr. Sci. 71, 68 (1996).
REVIEW
168 Pharmazie 58 (2003) 3