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Youth Hate Crimes: Identification, Prevention, and Intervention
Abstract
Youth hate crimes are a societal problem in which young people turn extremist ideas into acts of violence. To develop methods for prevention, early identification, and intervention, mental health professionals must have an awareness and understanding of this issue. To provide a basis for developing such an understanding, the authors review the current research related to youth hate crimes.
The authors review the literature primarily from the past 10 years on youth hate crimes.
Studies have established that most hate crimes are committed by single or small groups of young males unaffiliated with organized hate groups. Although limited information is available about the causative factors of hatred, a variety of prevention and intervention strategies have been employed. Yet, little has been done to evaluate these various initiatives. Unfortunately, there is a paucity of literature available to guide mental health professionals in the identification, evaluation, and treatment of offenders, despite increasing concerns and awareness regarding the profound consequences of acts of hatred and extremism.
Heightened public awareness and greater understanding of the epidemiology and nature of hate crimes is necessary if perpetrators are to be recognized and effective interventions developed. To achieve this goal, databases of juvenile hate crimes must be developed nationwide, and the success of preventive, educational, and alternative sentencing programs must be assessed. Mental health professionals play a critical role in the detection and treatment of juvenile perpetrators, and it is incumbent upon them to develop interventions for individuals and communities affected by hate crimes.
... Despite scholars noting and theorizing some similarities between bullying and hate crimes in school (Englander, 2007, Steinberg et al., 2003, Stotzer, 2015, no empirical studies have closely examined these commonalities. Identifying these factors allows educational institutions or government agencies to develop targeted and comprehensive measures to address bullying and hate-related victimization, fostering safer and more supportive environments for students. ...
... Some scholars argue that there is considerable overlap, yet clear differences between hate crime and bullying (Englander, 2007, Steinberg et al., 2003, Stotzer, 2015. Steinberg et al. (2003) suggest that youths who commit hate crimes also engage in bullying behavior, while Stotzer (2015) calls for clarity between the two incidences because bullying does not always develop into a level of crime that is covered under hate crime laws. ...
... Some scholars argue that there is considerable overlap, yet clear differences between hate crime and bullying (Englander, 2007, Steinberg et al., 2003, Stotzer, 2015. Steinberg et al. (2003) suggest that youths who commit hate crimes also engage in bullying behavior, while Stotzer (2015) calls for clarity between the two incidences because bullying does not always develop into a level of crime that is covered under hate crime laws. What may complicate or obfuscate the link between bullying behavior and hate crime is that there is no universal definition of bullying (see Espelage et al., 2013). ...
... [6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] Victims of physical assault, including victims of hate and bias crimes, can experience postevent depression, anger, anxiety, panic, and posttraumatic stress, or even commit suicide. [6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] Furthermore, among sexual minorities, persistence of such conditions may be greater for victims of hate or bias than for victims of other crimes. 12,26 The growing literature pertaining to psychological sequelae has not been matched by an increase in our understanding of the incidence of or risk factors for physical assault based on sexual orientation. ...
... In part, studies are constrained by methodological issues: variation in definitions, substantial underreporting to law enforcement, and lack of population-based survey data. 6,7,12,13,15,21,27,28 In the United States, the Federal Bureau of Investigation is mandated under the Federal Hate Crime Statistics Act to collect national data on hate crimes. However, the legal definition of such crimes varies, and states are not required to report them. ...
... 27,30,39 Recent research has found that sexual minority status is not predictive of psychological maltreatment or physical assault by a partner 44 but is significantly associated with assault perpetrated by strangers, family members, and peers-usually males not acting alone. 21,25,28,30 Efforts to reduce the incidence of sexual orientation-related physical assault therefore may require initiatives that broadly target young men in the general population. 21 Sexual minority youths who are victims of verbal and physical harassment can manifest chronic stress associated with school-related problems, running away from home, conflict with the law, substance abuse, prostitution, and suicide. ...
... Hate crimes refer to crimes that are motivated by the offender's bias against the victim's race, religion, ethnic or national origin, gender, disability, or sexual Table 22.4 Characteristics of school-shooting perpetrators Male gender No typical profile: shooters come from many types of families, all incomes, all races, all academic backgrounds Solving a problem, such as bullying Friends were informed of shooter's grievances prior to killing, often knowing of planned violence Easy to obtain weapons, often bringing them from home Few diagnosed with mental illness or had histories of drug or alcohol abuse Feelings of depression or desperation Suicidal threats/attempts common Revenge motive Feelings of being persecuted, bullied, or threatened Difficulty coping with a major change in a personal relationship, such as lost love Interest in violent themes, including media, games, own writings orientation (Steinberg et al. 2003). The Office of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention of the Department of Justice funded the National Juvenile Hate Crime Study in 1995 (Ball et al. 1995). ...
... They estimated that juveniles commit approximately 70 % of all hate crimes. The largest determinant of hate crimes is race, with African Americans as the most likely target group (Steinberg et al. 2003). While gender-based hate crimes (crimes against women) are the most common form of hate crime in general, the most prevalent form of hate crime among teenagers is focused on sexual minorities (Franklin 2000). ...
... It has been suggested that the cause of juvenile hate crime is due to two epidemics that confront youths, specifically, violence and prejudice (Steinberg et al. 2003). The school system has transformed into a festering ground of juvenile hate crime. ...
Adolescence represents a tumultuous period as the young adult strives to develop a sense of identity. While homicide has been studied extensively in the forensic pathology literature in both infants and adults over the age of 19 years, there has been a paucity of attention paid to adolescent homicide.
This chapter highlights numerous aspects of adolescent homicide, including incidence, gender and age of the victims, and the lethal method used. The manners of adolescent death, causes of adolescent homicide, and associated risk factors, including drug/alcohol use and easy access to firearms, are described. Insight is provided into the psychopathology of the offenders focusing on their psychiatric states and family dynamics. The similarities and differences in trends of adolescent homicide from an international perspective in relation to the United States are also reviewed.
The next section of the chapter discusses school shootings with a detailed analysis of the trends of school-associated student homicides, specific school shootings portrayed in the media, and characteristics of a school shooter. Hate crimes and bullying among adolescents are also addressed. Murder-suicides or “dyadic deaths” are mentioned with a particular focus on the killing of a child by a parent. Commentary is provided about two unusual “homicides,” namely, hunting “accidents” and homicidal Russian roulette, in which a youth may participate.
How to determine the manner and cause of death of adolescent homicide from a forensic-pathology perspective is discussed with a focus on deaths due to firearms and sharp-force injuries. Five cases of adolescent homicide are presented including autopsy findings, scene analysis, and police evidence. Two of these cases reflect murder-suicide of a parent and adolescent.
In conclusion, numerous strategies that have been developed internationally to prevent adolescent homicide are discussed.
... Los grupos de odio tienen éxito en el reclutamiento de jóvenes porque sus ideales proporcionan gratificación y, por lo tanto, se puede inducir a un joven a que se someta al grupo y renunciar por completo a los valores y creencias anteriores (Steinberg et al., 2003). Es importante destacar que varios estudios también han señalado que en los delitos de odio es significativamente más probable que en otros delitos encontrar la participación de múltiples infractores o coinfractores (por ejemplo, Dunbar, 1999;Levin, 1999). ...
... El hecho de que haya diferencias significativas en la pertenencia a grupos, formando parte de estos en mayor medida los delincuentes de odio, es también compatible con lo establecido por Levin y McDevitt (1993) en su modelo de tipologías. El grupo proporciona gratificación a los jóvenes (Steinberg et al., 2003) y las personas se identifican con el grupo al que pertenecen, reduciendo la incertidumbre y aumentando su autoestima (Tajfel y Turner, 1979;Turner, 1985;Turner et al., 1987). ...
... The offenders are likely to be male and young. As revealed in prior studies, young males in general are the primary perpetrators of hate crimes regardless of their motivation for bias (Steinberg, Brooks & Remtulla, 2003). In decoding offenders' motivations for committing hate crimes, Levin and McDevitt (2013) suggest that "thrill-seekers" represent the largest group of hate crime offenders. ...
... Offenders of other minorities of color targeting Asian Americans might fit the category of "reactionists" identified by Levin and McDevitt (2013). Instead of acting impulsively, the "reactionists" are motivated by protecting their resources from competitors (Steinberg et al., 2003). This finding might also lend indirect support to the perspective of racial competition motivating hate crimes, which argues that when members of a racial group perceive that their access and privileges to material resources are threatened by other racial groups during economic downturns, racial conflict and hate crimes may occur (Olzak, 1990(Olzak, , 1992(Olzak, , 2013Soule & van Dyke, 1999;van Dyke et al., 2001). ...
Using 1992–2014 data from the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), the present study examines the nature and characteristics of hate crimes against Asian Americans by comparing them with those of hate crimes against African Americans and Hispanics. Minority-general and minority-specific models are proposed to guide the analysis. The findings are mixed. The analyses of all victim-related and most offender-related variables show similarities of hate crimes against Asian Americans to those against African Americans and Hispanics. These findings provide support for the minority-general model. Offenders’ race and all incident-related variables of hate crimes against Asian Americans, however, differ significantly from those of hate crimes against African Americans and Hispanics. These significant differences provide support for the minority-specific model.
... (2014, Principles, para 2) Schools are often the places where violations of human rights take place, with the Southern Poverty Law Center documenting that at least 10% of hate crimes have occurred in educational institutions, which include elementary schools, high schools, colleges, and universities (Shanmugasundaram, 2018). In addition, perpetrators of hate crimes are often youth, with no prior history of involvement with the juvenile justice system (Steinberg, Brooks, & Remtulla, 2003). Steinberg, Brooks, and Remtulla (2003) emphasize the critical role of schools in fostering peace and human rights by creating anti-bias school environments and the need for clinicians to develop the skills to ask about hate crimes and identify potential perpetrators of those crimes. ...
... In addition, perpetrators of hate crimes are often youth, with no prior history of involvement with the juvenile justice system (Steinberg, Brooks, & Remtulla, 2003). Steinberg, Brooks, and Remtulla (2003) emphasize the critical role of schools in fostering peace and human rights by creating anti-bias school environments and the need for clinicians to develop the skills to ask about hate crimes and identify potential perpetrators of those crimes. Effective hate crime prevention begins in the schools. ...
... Homophobic victimization, defined here as being the target of negative words or actions because of one's real or perceived sexual orientation, is among the most socially acceptable types of hate-related victimization among youth (Steinberg, Brooks, & Remtulla, 2003). Verbal victimization is one of the most common forms of homophobic victimization (Kosciw et al., 2014). ...
... For example, sexual minority students are more likely to be expelled from school and experience formal criminal justice sanctions outside of school than their peers (Himmelstein & Bruckner, 2011;Mitchum & Moodie-Mills, 2014). Additionally, homophobic attitudes toward victims may lead to greater social acceptance of homophobic victimization among youth (Steinberg, Brooks, & Remtulla, 2003). Because visible security measures are controlled by adults in school, they may not provide an added sense of guardianship, particularly in schools where sexual and gender minority students are unable to trust the adults. ...
Homophobic victimization is a pervasive problem in U.S. schools that leads to negative outcomes for students. Those who experience homophobic victimization are at greater risk for avoiding particular spaces in school because they feel unsafe or afraid. Visible school security measures (e.g., security guards, metal detectors, and cameras) offer spatial guardianship that may reduce students’ place-specific avoidance behaviors. To test this moderating effect of school security, we analyzed data from six panels of the School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey (N = 41,229). Logistic regression models were used to examine the moderating effect of three types of school security measures on the association between homophobic victimization and avoidance of six specific locations in school and overall fear of victimization at school. Results suggest that visible security measures did not meaningfully moderate the association between homophobic victimization and school avoidance.
... On the other hand, it is a period when strong peer-group alliances form and in-group/out-group behavior intensifies, thereby leading to further marginalization of youth from less powerful groups (Brown, 2004;Killen et al., 2002). Although teens may acquire the potential to better understand others, many youth in fact become involved in fewer cross-group relationships and thus more likely to engage in discriminatory behavior (Hamm, Brown, & Heck, 2005;Killen et al., 2002;Quillian & Campbell, 2003), including hate crimes (Steinberg, Brooks, & Remtulla, 2003). There is much at stake in learning how youth's potential for positive intergroup relationships can be realized. ...
... Findings from several studies indicate that adolescents report feeling that people should be considered on the basis of individual characteristics, rather than ethnic group membership, and most express disapproval of ethnic-related avoidance (Hamm, 1998;Killen et al., 2002). Other research, however, suggests an increase in the use of ethnic categories and stereotypes in adolescence, often in nuanced forms (Camino, 1995;Killen et al., 2002;Quintana, 1998), and that teens in their real lives engage in discriminatory behavior (Hamm et al., 2005;Steinberg et al., 2003). ...
This article provides an intensive case study of a change process in which members of a youth program developed relationships with and altered attitudes and behavior toward diverse groups, including those defined by ethnicity, social class, religion, and sexual orientation. Latino and African American members of a community youth activism program were interviewed over a 4-month period, and supplementary data were obtained from participant observations and from interviews with the lead organizer. Qualitative analyses revealed a process in which youth were active agents of self-change. Their reports suggest three stages of change: developing relationships across groups, learning and discovery, and coming to act with awareness in relation to difference. The program facilitated this change not only by providing Allport's contact conditions and affording youth personalized experiences but also by providing them with critical understanding of the interpersonal and systemic processes that create marginalization and injustice.
... Dati par naida noziedzību nav pilnīgi un pētījumi norāda, ka par naida noziegumiem bieži vien neziņo pietiekoši (Eiropas Savienības Pamattiesību aģentūra, 2009), kas liecina par augstu latento naida noziegumu īpatsvaru. Tomēr arī šo datu analīze uzskatāmi pierāda, ka naida noziegumu izdarītāju vidū nesamērīgi tiek pārstāvēti jaunieši un nepilngadīgie (Steinberg, Brooks, Remtulla, 2003). Augstais jauniešu pārsvars naida noziegumu izdarītāju vidū sniedz iespēju veidot naida noziedzības prevencijas stratēģijas, kas vērstas uz izglītības iestādēm, lai tās pilnvērtīgāk novērstu naida noziegumiem labvēlīgu vidi. ...
The study aims to analyze the motivation of hate crime perpetrators to commit a hate crime and to analyze the possibilities for preventing hate crime in the context of education. The study's tasks are to find out what motivating factors a person has in committing hate crimes aswell as analyze the role of hate as an emotion in committing crimes. The role of education and the opportunities offered through education to reduce hate crime will also be assessed. The focus of the study is based upon the increasing focus of the European Union on reducing hate crimes in the Member States and the high impact of education on personal development, which can be a determining factor in a person's tendency to commit crimes. The results of the study will be able to be used in educational institutions to gain more detailed insights into factors motivating hate crimes so that pedagogical approaches can be developed and improved in order to reduce the tendency of individuals to commit hate crimes. The study will use the descriptive method to describe the personality and motivation of hate criminals to commit hate crimes, as well as a data analysis to draw conclusions about factors motivating crime.
... Despite the limited scope, these findings confirm the prevalence of hatred and hate victimization in South Africa. Steinberg et al. (2003) concluded that it is obligatory that mental health professionals not only develop interventions for communities and individuals affected by hate crimes but also detect and treat perpetrators. They further concluded that "bias-motivated crimes will only decrease with the design and implementation of effective measures and strategies that stop the hate before it is manifested in a criminal act" (p. ...
Psychology must have as its primary focus the well-being of humans, communities, and societies and cannot be detached from - or even neutral about - our social or political systems. For those who are impacted by hate, the focus on their well-being has never mattered more. In South Africa, which is the focal point of our research, and the world, hate victimization targeting people based on identity factors like race, nationality, religion, and sexual orientation is becoming more prevalent. Given the menacing intensification of hate, how is psychology as a profession, science, and discipline keeping the pulse of society at large? The South African Hate Crimes Working Group (HCWG) conducted a five-year longitudinal research study to assess the impact and nature of hate in South Africa. It is also the first study of this nature conducted in Africa. The Psychological Society of South Africa served as research lead for the HCWG member organization utilizing the customized HCWG Monitoring Form as a research instrument. A total of N=945 cases were quantitatively analyzed providing descriptive information. Key results inform the role of scientific and professional organizations representing psychology in preventing hate. Not only is there the need for policy and legislative changes to effectively address hate victimization, but most importantly the significance of attending to the impact of hate, including hopelessness, distrust, and dignity lost, is indicated. Based on the findings, recommendations underscore the ways in which global and nationally representative psychological associations may contribute to improved measures of prevention, add their voice to disrupting intolerance and condemn the ubiquitous rhetoric of bigotry that elicits hate-based victimization. And, in doing so, inspire hope for humanity.
... This may be due to a drastic cultural and societal change which has been marked by a lack of a parent in the home providing guidance and/or poor peer selection. 2 Regardless, child abduction murders where the perpetrators are adolescents themselves are extremely few. And this makes our case unique and unexampled. ...
... Thrill seekers -people who declare that they commit hate crimes mainly for entertainment. Victimising out-groups is seen as exciting and serves as a method of group-bonding, especially among young males [77]. ...
... This may be due to a drastic cultural and societal change which has been marked by a lack of a parent in the home providing guidance and/or poor peer selection. 2 Regardless, child abduction murders where the perpetrators are adolescents themselves are extremely few. And this makes our case unique and unexampled. ...
Cases of child abduction and homicide though rare but are often overwhelming due to the public and media attention. While numerous studies on child abuse and neglect have been conducted throughout the country and worldwide, research on child abduction and homicide remains scant. We report such a case of a child who was abducted and eventually smothered to death by a couple of adolescent perpetrators. We also intend to better understand these types of child abduction homicides and to analyze strategies that will help to revamp the expertise into such criminal investigations.
... Криминологические аспекты идентификации и профилактики ненависти, насилия и агрессии в молодежной среде разрабатываются многими зарубежными исследователями, например, A. Стаейнберг, M.Д. Джейн Брукс [38], которые пришли к выводу о необходимости более глубокого понимания эпидемиологии и характера преступлений на почве ненависти как наиболее яркой формы агрессивного поведения. Данную точку зрения разделяет также К. Вахл, который в своем исследовании обобщает результаты серии междисциплинарных эмпирических исследований ксенофобии и агрессии, проводимых Немецким институтом молодежи (Мюнхен) в сотрудничестве с университетами Мюнхена и Йены. ...
The article discusses the problems of studying aggressive socially dangerous behavior of youth. A review of theoretical representations about aggression is given, the views of representatives of biological, biosocial and social scientific directions on the causes of aggressive socially dangerous behavior are described. The history of construction and the current state of research of aggressive socially dangerous behavior of youth is presented. The problems of studying this issue associated with a wide variety of causes, forms and types of aggressive behavior are considered. New, insufficiently studied forms of aggressive behavior that have recently emerged among young people are being observed. The major directions in the study of aggressive socially dangerous behavior of youth, including biological, social, legal and psychological aspects are defined. It has been established that the main task of such interdisciplinary research is to define the complex of determinants and factors inhibiting aggression in the youth environment, with the aim of developing effective preventive measures.
... It is important to note that there is neither any guaranteed way to completely "solve" this problem nor is it easy to find research on proven ways to reduce hate crimes. At the same time, it is recognized that prevention, identification and intervention are commonly considered the most effective approaches (Steinberg, Brooks & Remtulla, 2003); these three also serve as our policy goals. Prevention and intervention are tied closely with educational initiatives; identification is connected to increasing accuracy in reporting, and that in turn is dependent upon correctly recognizing acts of crime as specifically hate crimes. ...
This paper focuses on anti-Semitic hate crimes, as they dwarf other hate crimes motivated by religious bias. Federal statutes are limited in nature; states’ hate crime laws are uneven, and while most states with these laws require data collection, many do not. This paper addresses the scope, nature and causes of the issue, provides reasons for addressing these kinds of crimes, justifies government intervention and offers three solutions alternatives in light of the goals of prevention, education and intervention. It then looks at evaluation criteria in light of each alternative solution and makes a recommendation.
Presented at the conference's graduate student panel
... Dünyan›n di¤er ülkelerinde de durum pek fark-l› de¤ildir. A.B.D'de 1990 y›l› sonlar›na kadar yap›lan araflt›rmalarda çocuklar aras› fliddet suçlar›n›n art›fl›yla ilgili yay›nlar yer al›rken (22)(23)(24), 2003 y›l›nda yay›mlanan bir araflt›rman›n sonuçlar›na göre çocuk fliddet suçlar›nda düflüfl olsa da çocuklar›n ve adolesanlar›n yaflamlar›ndaki fliddet ve fliddet ba¤lant›l› davran›fl özelli¤inin devam etti¤i gösterilmifltir (25). Kaynaklara göre; A.B.D.'deki suçlar›n %12'sini çocuklar ifllemektedir. ...
The past history of immigration and exposition to abuse has negative effects on childhood crime. Especially immigration due to economical reasons may lead to familial anger and violence and abused child by the other members of the family. In this study a face to face questionnaire was performed to 1163 children who were claimed to commit or participate in a crime and were sent to Antalya Forensic Medicine Office for examination. The questionnaire included questions about age, gender, education, attributed and previous crimes they committed, immigration, physical abuse history, work, family size, number of brother/sister, room number of house in which they are living and size of family member they are sharing the bedroom. The data obtained from results were evaluated in the light of related references.
Key words: Immigration, childhood delinquency, child abuse
... The subset of individuals falling within this definition could be most at risk of hostile behavior toward lesbians and gay men, in that recent research has linked increased anger reactions with physical aggression toward homosexual persons (Parrott & Zeichner, 2005). This more nuanced approach to homophobia among religious conservatives avoids overgeneralizations and is supported by the literature on hate crimes, which finds no justification for indicting organized religion as a whole, in that most such criminal activity is perpetrated by single or small gangs of young males unaffiliated with any organized group (Steinberg, Brooks & Remtulla, 2003). ...
Utilizing Watson's Ideological Surround Model (Watson, et al., 2003) as a backdrop, the present study examined the structural properties of Herek's (1998) Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men Scale (ATLG-R) for a sample of 155 conservative Christian students. Ideological perceptions of the ATLG-R items were derived from a smaller (N = 36) sample of students similar in demographic make up and religious devotion. Factor analytic and ideological surround analyses indicated that the ATLG-R was disproportionately comprised of items perceived to be antireligious, with the primary "Condemnation- Tolerance" component consisting exclusively of such items, the majority of which related directly to respondents' beliefs about the morality and naturalness of homo-sexuality. Furthermore, respondents' degree of self-identification as Christian, when factor analyzed as an additional item in the ATLG-R, loaded singularly and to a greater degree than over half of the items on the "Condemnation-Tolerance" component. Potential implications of these findings are discussed.
... Furthermore, the theory argues that this highly prejudiced individual succeeds in reducing his hostility by displacing it upon members of minority groups in the form of prejudiced behavior. Steinberg, Brooks, and Remtulla (2003) argue that hate is a cognitive problem in which an offender sees himself as moralistic and righteous, thus blaming the enemy for his or her problems. Douglas, McGarty, Bliuc, and Lala (1995) argue that scapegoat victims are chosen based on the characteristics held which are different from those held by the majority of his or her peers. ...
... In this sense, fragile self-esteem, hegemonic masculinity, and ego-defensiveness (akin to defensive projection) come together to form more and more negative attitudes toward homosexuality. The ultimate expression of this need for ego-defensiveness may be an outer hatred and condemnation of homosexuality sufficient to lead to the perpetration of hate crimes (perpetrators of hate crimes tend to be groups of young, White men; see Craig, 2002;Herek & Berrill, 1992, Part III;Steinberg, Brooks, & Remtulla, 2003;Tomsen, 2002). The hatred inherent in these crimes suggests a strong emotional basis. ...
This study used a correlational design with a sample of university students to clarify the relationships between attitude functions and homonegativity with respect to gender. Classic work on attitude functions posits that attitudes serve psychological needs for the attitude holder. Herek (1986b) adapted this theory to explain attitudes toward homosexuality. Herek (1987) identified four functions: ego-defensive (defense of threats to the self), value-expressive (expression of key values), social-expressive (expression of important social norms), and experiential (based on past experiences). Results suggested that men were more likely to attribute their attitudes to the ego-defensive function. Men and women were equally likely to attribute their attitudes to the experiential function. The ego-defensive function was the best predictor of homonegativity for men and women, whether they held generally positive or generally negative attitudes toward homosexuality. The experiential function did not predict homonegativity. Participants tended to be neither very homonegative nor very ego-defensive.
Hate crimes are reprehensible acts driven by animosity and bias against specific target groups, transcending borders and geographical boundaries. Effectively addressing hate crimes necessitates a profound understanding of the victims impacted by prejudice and hostility. To combat crimes rooted in prejudice, it is crucial to delve into the experiences of the victims. A comprehensive understanding of their needs, characteristics, and perspectives becomes paramount for conducting thorough investigations, countering criminal activities, and preventing further victimization. Within this framework, this chapter encompasses the identification of victim groups affected by hate crimes and a detailed exploration of the requisite measures to eradicate victimization. This multifaceted approach aims not only to address the immediate consequences of hate crimes but also to implement proactive strategies that contribute to the prevention of recurrent victimization.
Situations involving active firearm shooters in schools have increased exponentially in recent years, especially in the United States. These events result in death and psychological traumatization, not just to the involved school but also to the surrounding communities and to the rest of the population of the United States and other countries who observe these massacres in the media. This article will review the recent statistics of school shooting incidents in the United States, the psychological profiles of the perpetrators, the pattern of circumstances that contribute to the buildup until the point the act if committed, the effectiveness of the responses by authorities, the possible risk factors and precipitating factors for these attacks, the psychological sequelae to individuals, families, and the communities, and the evidence-based preventive interventions.
Introduction. The article is focused on identifying the main problem areas in the structure of individual indicators and the system of relations of adolescents accompanying the criminalization of behavior, with the aim of further improving the quality of diagnosis and correction of their personal characteristics. Research methods. The study examined the individual characteristics of 100 teenagers, half of whom had obvious signs of criminal behavior (they study in special closed institutions or are registered). The work analyzed the results of seven methods, three of which were adapted specifically for the purposes of studying a non-normative sample of adolescents. These are the methods of DDH, “Man in the Rain” and an essay on the topic “My Life”, which are rarely used in mass research. Results. Based on the results of the work, conclusions are drawn about the main negative and positive areas of adolescent development. Negative areas of development identified using research methods adapted by us include a pronounced conflict between the unconscious and conscious components in the field of family relationships, pronounced forms of external motivation, lack of orientation towards one’s own needs (low level of expression), inability to assess one’s internal resources and opportunities, lack of a clear attitude towards complex social values, decreased orientation towards the father. Promising aspects of adolescent development include recognition of the value of interests, orientation towards social desirability, external declaration of the “correct” values, and motivation based on external signs.
This chapter explores hate crimes towards immigrants and refugees. The chapter begins with vignettes describing recent examples of actual hate incidents, before providing a definition of the term hate crime. The subsequent section focuses on victims, with discussions of victim characteristics and the impact of hate crimes on victims’ emotions, cognitions, and behaviors. The focus then moves to perpetrators especially in terms of proposed typologies of hate crime motivations and their limitations. The next section contextualizes hate crimes in social milieu/structural determinants and reviews research on hate groups as well as the perpetrator behavior emboldened by a securitization discourse of migration. Further consideration of contextual factors includes linkages between realistic and symbolic threats with disgust, and the impact of anti-immigrant sentiments expressed in political and media discourse. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of policy including promising interventions and trends in hate crime legislation and reporting.
INFORME DE INVESTIGACIÓN PROYECTO SHELTER EN ESPAÑA.
Este informe recopila los resultados obtenidos en el paquete de investigación para España. La duración de la misma, desde su fase inicial de diseño, elaboración de las herramientas, recopilación de datos y análisis fue de 9 meses, desde abril de 2019 hasta diciembre de 2019. Se diseñaron: una guía metodológica para los investigadores, unas fichas informativas para los participantes, formularios de autorización de participación y de cesión de datos, un cuestionario sobre la percepción de la violencia de odio en el sistema de salud, el guion para una entrevista semiestructurada, así como las herramientas para, una vez terminada la investigación, compilar los datos obtenidos. El proyecto de investigación cuenta con el dictamen favorable del Comité de Ética e Investigación Clínica del Área de Gestión Integrada de Salud de Talavera de la Reina
con fecha de 23 de abril de 2019.
Durante los meses de abril a junio se estableció contacto con las principales instituciones responsables del sistema de salud en Castilla–La Mancha, Comunidad de Madrid y Barcelona, con el fin de poder tener acceso a los profesionales destinatarios de la investigación. Bajo el amparo de las mismas, y durante los meses de junio y julio se desplegó la acción investigadora en los servicios de urgencias intrahospitalarias,
urgencias extrahospitalarias (emergencias) y centros de salud (atención primaria).
Los meses de agosto, septiembre y octubre sirvieron para unificar y dar formato a los datos obtenidos. Los meses de noviembre y diciembre para consolidar los datos en documentos de análisis.
Hate Speech ist nicht nur ein Online-Phänomen. Vielmehr begegnen Schüler*innen und Lehrer*innen diesem Phänomen auch im analogen Raum der Schule. Dieser in der aktuellen Diskussion eher vernachlässigte Aspekt wird im vorliegenden Beitrag in den Fokus gerückt. Auf der Grundlage begrifflicher Eingrenzungen und einer Sichtung der Forschungslandschaft werden die Analysen einer didaktischen Fallarbeit vorgestellt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine mikrosoziale Varianz von Hate Speech-Situationen, die in den vier typischen Realisierungsvarianten (1) distanzierend-pauschale Gruppenabwertung, (2) statusorientiert-pauschale Gruppenabwertung, (3) konfliktbelastet-personale Abwertung und (4) statusorientiert-personale Abwertung systematisiert wird. Die Ergebnisse werden schließlich im Hinblick auf ihre Relevanz für pädagogisches Handeln befragt. Am Ende steht der Vorschlag für eine Thematisierung von Hate Speech in der Lehrkräftebildung.
Previous studies have explained hate-crime victimization using lifestyle-routine activities theory and social disorganization theory. This approach has yielded mixed findings regarding community characteristics due to the limitations of the measures used. Our study examined the effects of multiple individual-level factors and a neighborhood’s economic status, residential instability, and ethnic heterogeneity on hate-crime victimization. We used survey data on Finnish adolescents aged 15–16 and geographically referenced register data on the neighborhoods. Some public lifestyle factors, such as delinquent behavior, were associated with hate-crime victimization. Community-level characteristics did not predict hate crime directly, but individuals with an immigrant background faced a lower risk of hate-crime victimization in more diverse neighborhoods.
If the values of younger citizens and voters are the trend of the future, in what direction do they point? Scholars have long noted a decline in political engagement and knowledge among youth in developed democracies, with the fear that this may undermine the stability of liberal institutions. However, youth electoral behaviour appears inconsistent: in much of continental Western Europe, younger voters support populist parties of both left and right, but in the United States and the United Kingdom, only left-wing populist movements benefit from youth mobilization. We explain this divergence by arguing for a distinction between democratic apathy and democratic antipathy. Democratic apathy is characterized by scepticism regarding the value of democratic institutions, low turnout and lack of interest in politics, whereas democratic antipathy involves the active embrace of illiberal movements hostile to pluralistic institutions. In societies where youth do not face economic and social discrimination, democratic apathy is the more common trend, whereas in parts of continental Europe where youth face systematic social exclusion, apathy has become active antipathy.
The article presents the results of foreign studies conducted over the past few years from 2015 to 2018 and devoted to the study of xenophobic behavior among adolescents. Psychological and other factors hindering and/or contributing to the formation of xenophobic behavior among adolescents are considered. These studies affect personal and individual psychological characteristics of adolescents and also their impact on behavior towards the members of groups of “others”. Among them such personal structures and individual psychological features as xenophobic attitudes, anxiety level, xenophobic and xenophilic orientations are considered.
This paper presents a review of intervention programmes against cyberhate. Over the last decade, the preoccupation over the use of electronic means of communication as a tool to convey hate, racist and xenophobic contents rose tremendously. NGOs, legal professionals, private companies, and civil society have developed interventions but little is known about their impact. For this review we followed the method and protocol from the guidelines from the Cochrane Collaboration Handbook for Systematic Reviews and the Campbell Collaboration Crime and Justice guidelines. The review identified three key intervention areas: law, technology and education through the empowerment of the individuals under the form of counter-speech. No specific intervention towards aggressors was found and most projects focus on prevention or victims through confidence building and skills learning to speak out, report and potentially react in an appropriate way. We did not find any rigorously assessed interventions, which highlights a gap in research and stresses the need for this type of studies. The evaluation of effectiveness of interventions needs to be included in the near future research agenda. Up to now, although intentions are good, we have no evidence that the steps that are undertaken are effective in preventing and reducing cyberhate.
There are often racial, ethnic intolerance among adolescents, which, in our opinion, caused by the presence of xenophobic attitudes, some combination of personality structures and situational factors. We hypothesized that there is a specificity of the relationship of xenophobic attitudes and personality characteristics in the structure of the person of adolescents with deviating (including illegal) behavior and normative behavior. The study involved 254 female and a teenage male aged 14 - 18 years. The study used a questionnaire to identify the severity of xenophobic attitudes, as well as the methodology and questionnaires to identify the personality characteristics of adolescents and semantic constructs of personality. As a result, significant differences were found in the personal features (criterion U-Mann-Whitney test with p
Wide distribution of xenophobia and hostility towards other nationalities among adolescents is a danger to society. The problem of relations of adolescents with illegal conduct towards nationalism and ethnic groups is poorly understood. Clarification of the nature of semantic constructs that reflect the attitude toward nationality and nationalism in juvenile offenders without nationalistic motivation, and those who have committed the crime of aggression on a national basis, is important to choose the right correction and rehabilitation work with juvenile offenders. The current study involved 62 adolescent males aged 14 to 18 years. We used color relations test as a psychosemantic technique. As a result, it was found that solidarisation with ideology of nationalism, negative attitudes towards other nationalities, and problematic gender identity formation increase the risk of delinquency on a national basis and contribute to them. At the same time, the lack of focus on the nationalism values and identification with the group of "skinheads" restrains offenses on a national basis.
The graying of the U.S. population draws increasing focus to historically unattended segments of society, including sexual and gender minorities. In this first comprehensive volume to address the challenges of aging in the gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and intersex populations, this text presents what is currently known about aging GLBT individuals and what services are needed to support them. The editors first provide an introductory overview comparing caregiving in GLBT and normative aging communities. In chapters devoted to the issues of each alternative sexuality and gender identity community, top experts in the field discuss biomedical, psychological, social/sexual, spiritual, socioeconomic, and service topics related to that community's aging needs. GLBT populations face unique challenges as they age. Despite the often severe difficulties they encounter, many live out their final years with the dignity and grace that all of us deserve. With a combination of the latest biological and social science research, moving case studies and first-person accounts, practical advice for health professionals, and research literature citations, this book represents a major step forward in addressing concerns of aging GLBT populations. Integrating research, practice, and policy, this text is for students and professionals in gerontology, medicine, social work, psychology, nursing, public health, and related fields who wish to learn more about the life experiences and concerns of sexual and gender-minority-identified older patients.
Psychotic Symptoms in Children and Adolescents demystifies the interviewing diagnostic process of psychosis in children and adolescents and provides a valuable resource for treatment. Psychotic symptoms have traditionally been rationalized and disregarded as products of the child's imagination. There has been a professional reluctance to acknowledge that children could suffer from severe psychotic disorders akin to adult subjects, and that these symptoms merit a comprehensive and systematic evaluation. This book offers a useful guide to the interviewing process, a review of differential diagnosis, and an overview on psychosocial interventions. It deals also with the use of antipsychotic drugs, beginning with issues related to their use in the field, followed by a review of literature on the subject, atypical side effects, and implementation throughout treatment. The book fills a vacuum in the field of child and adolescent psychosis, and will have a broad appeal and interest to general psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, to child and adolescent psychiatrists, and many other mental health professionals working with disturbed children and adolescents.
This article gives an account of an evaluation of a programme for racially motivated offenders designed and run by probation staff in Merseyside. Originally a response to the 1998 Crime and Disorder Act, the programme was adapted in response to changed patterns of migration and racist hostility. A groupwork version of the programme was started in 2008, and this became a particular focus of the evaluation. Offenders who participated in both individual and group versions generally reported positive learning experiences, and appreciated the style and knowledge of the facilitators. The article argues that the content and delivery of the programme are in line with what research suggests should be helpful practice with this group of offenders, and that the programme is a positive example of skilled, creative practice.
There is currently little information available about youth who commit bias crimes. This article contributes to the literature by highlighting the similarities and differences between sexual orientation-motivated bias crimes committed by adult and youth suspects. Among 894 reported
sexual orientation-motivated incidents in Los Angeles County between 2002 and 2008, this study found that, when compared to adult suspects, youth suspects were more likely to target other youths, were more likely to be in mixed-gender groups, were less likely to commit crimes against person,
and were most likely to be reported as committing the crime at school. These preliminary findings highlight the need for additional research into bias-motivation among youth and to clarify the links between bullying and bias crimes.
Hate-crime victimization against racially visible people is of growing concern and it raises questions about social cohesion in a multiracial and ethnic democracy such as Canada, particularly among immigrants across the country. Using income as a mediating factor, this article examines hate-crime victimization against visible minority groups in Canada using the Ethnic Diversity Survey. Using multinomial and binary logistic regression, the study describes the likelihood of experiencing hate crime victimization and fear of hate crime. The results indicate that hate crime and fear of hate crime depends on visible minorities’ ethnic background, above and beyond their socioeconomic status.
The traditional explanations for the survival of democratic systems mostly include economic and cultural variables. Only rarely has attention been given to the age structure of a society. This article introduces a hypothesis involving the ‘youth bulge’ concept popular in conflict studies. It is hypothesized that democratic countries with proportionally large male youth cohorts are more likely to become dictatorships than societies with a smaller share of young men. A causal link between demography and democracy is assumed to exist because young men are the protagonists of virtually all violent political action as well as political extremism with a potential to threaten democracy. Strong evidence supporting the hypothesis is found using data for 110 countries in the period from 1972–2009.
This article examines the conditions under which a crime committed by a teenager comes to be viewed as a hate-motivated offense. In Study 1, the age of the perpetrator and the level of evidence were experimentally manipulated for male and female subjects. The dependent variable consisted of the likelihood that an interracial encounter was a hate crime. Our results suggest that female subjects were significantly more likely than their male counterparts to view the offense as a hate crime. In addition, we found significant differences in the influence of various forms of evidence. The difference was nonsignificant between the teenage and adult offenders. In Study 2, we content analyzed hate crime prosecutions as reported in major newspapers. Surprisingly, our results indicate that many teens were prosecuted and convicted on a hate crime charge. Studies 1 and 2 collectively suggest that teenage hate crime defendants are no longer the recipients of lenient treatment by the courts or in the court of public opinion.
Purpose of review: The purpose of this review is two-fold. (a) Highlight recent research, practice and policy developments in the field of young people, victims of crime across home, school and community. (b) Increase awareness across health, education, justice and social care about the need to recognise psychopathology in young victims and to refer on for appropriate interventions.
Recent findings: Recent findings include developing early identification, recognition and reporting mechanisms in A&E services. There is under-reporting of assaults against young people to juvenile justice services. The importance of utilizing the young user's perspective to inform this field of practice and research. The complex interactions of community and family violence, including the impact of siblings and peers, influence of ethnic and cultural background and under-recognition of the impact of dating violence on adolescent girls. Differences and similarities of violence perpetrated by girls and boys. The rise in gun-related crime and involvement of youth in hate crime. Refined understanding of the process of victims into victimizers, including sexual victimization. The importance of secondary prevention strategies targeting young people at risk of violent behaviours and good outcomes in spite of threats to adaptational development, resilience limited by co-existing vulnerabilities. Developing programmes in neighbourhoods and schools and specific approaches for traumatized young people.
Summary: The recent evidence base in the field of young people as victims of violence is beginning to identify processes, mechanisms and interventions that can start to counteract the damage done to the individual, families, communities and generations of children.
Research of psychological distress (PD) needs to differentiate between anxiety/depression and hostility/suspiciousness, which are associated with different motivational systems. In this study, structural equation modeling was used to test two hypothesized models for the prediction of each facet of PD. Hypotheses were proposed about the effects of callousness and attachment insecurity, and the mediating role of adherence to honor code (AHC), with respect to each PD facet. AHC was defined by the endorsement of honor culture attitudes. The sample included 136 adolescent boys from high- and low-level Israeli schools. The results supported the differentiation between two PD models. AHC mediated the prediction of hostility/suspiciousness by callousness and attachment insecurity. Age and attachment insecurity predicted anxiety/depression. However, AHC and callousness did not predict anxiety/depression.
Bias crime statistics legislation does not require law enforcement agencies to collect data on the ages of bias crime perpetrators, and bias crime penalty enhancements do not distinguish between youth and adult offenders. As a result, little data exists on youth bias crime, and the consequences of applying bias crime penalty enhancements to adult and youth offenders are generally the same: increased incarceration or additional fines. This Comment unveils the troublesome frequency of youth bias crimes and illustrates that the justifications underlying the application of bias crime penalty enhancements to adult offenders do not apply similarly to youth bias crime offenders. A synthesis of the limited existing data on youth bias crime reveals that, on average, one in every four bias crimes involve at least one youth offender and approximately three in every five bias crimes committed against youth victims are perpetrated by youth offenders. Rather than increase incarceration sentences or impose additional fines, I propose that bias crime penalty enhancements, as applied to youth bias crime offenders, should mandate rehabilitation programs to force youth offenders to confront the biases that motivate their crimes. I contend that requiring youth bias crime offenders to complete these programs is more consistent with the goals of juvenile justice than more punitive penalty-enhancement alternatives.
Although there is considerable evidence that culture-related factors are associated with aggressive behavior, their effect on the development of conduct problems (CP) has been insufficiently studied. This study focused on adherence to honor code (AHC), defined by the endorsement of honor culture attitudes at the identity narrative level of personality assessment, as a mediator in the prediction of CP by callousness, insecure attachment, and socioeconomic status. Our sample of 136 adolescent boys (M age = 15.02, SD = 1.48) oversampled high- and low-level Israeli schools, both academically and behaviorally. Structural equation modeling supported the theoretical model: AHC was a significant predictor of CP and partially mediated the prediction of CP by callousness and socioeconomic status. Insecure attachment predicted AHC but was not an independent predictor of CP.
This article reveals the growing problem of hate crime on college and university campuses. Distinguishing characteristics of hate crimes, types of hate crime perpetrators, scope of the problem, and related legal issues for higher education are discussed. Recommendations are provided for campus administrators in addressing the problem.
Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.
This is the first empirical research into prevalence rates of and motivations for antigay harassment and violence by noncriminal young adults. In an anonymous survey of 484 young adults, 1 in 10 admitted physical violence or threats against presumed homosexuals, and another 24% acknowledged name-calling. Factor analyses revealed four motivational themes: peer dynamics, antigay ideology, thrill-seeking, and perceived self-defense. Compared with nonassailants, assailants held more negative attitudes toward homosexuals and reported more negative social norms among their friends. Assailants also had higher levels of masculinity ideology and social drinking. The findings suggest that many young adults believe antigay harassment and violence is socially acceptable, particularly in response to inferred sexual innuendos or gender norms violations. Because antigay behaviors are culturally normative and usually go unreported, educational outreach to adolescents and preadolescents is likely to be a more effective prevention strategy than criminal prosecutions under special hate crimes laws.
Although violence based on sexual orientation is now widely recognized as a serious problem in the United States, social science data concerning the prevalence and consequences of such crimes are limited. In the present study, questionnaire data about victimization experiences were collected from 147 lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (74 females, 73 males) in the Sacramento, CA area. In addition, 45 of the respondents participated in a follow-up interview. Forty-one percent reported experiencing a bias-related criminal victimization since age 16, with another 9.5% reporting an attempted bias crime against them. The distribution of bias-related victimization and harassment experiences in the sample resembled patterns reported in other U.S. surveys with similar samples. Compared to other respondents, bias-crime survivors manifested higher levels of depression, anxiety, anger, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress. Methodological and substantive issues in empirical research on hate crimes against lesbians and gay men are discussed.
The growing problem of hate crime on college campuses is addressed. Characteristics of hate speech and hate crime are distinguished; types of offenders, scope of the problem, and related legal issues are discussed. A model for development of campuswide multiculturalism is presented among several recommendations for administrators. (Author/EMK)
Reviews trends in efforts toward multiculturalism on college campuses and presents a framework for considering the systematic development of campus multiculturalism. N. J. Evans's (see record
1988-18576-001) model for fostering moral development provides a basis for discussion, and an example of discriminatory vandalism is described. Institutions or individuals can be targets of action in multicultural efforts, and action can be explicit or implicit and planned or responsive. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Social bias is an issue of concern to both practitioners and clinical researchers. This article considers race and ethnic prejudice as a prominent clinical feature in three psychotherapy cases. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.) diagnoses, General Adaptive Functioning ratings, and Minnesota Muttiphasic Personality Inventory scores are considered in terms of the level of patient disturbance and severity of out-group prejudice. Two cases exemplify chronic adverse outgroup ideation, reflecting a constellation of traits of personality disturbance, disinhibttion, and adverse behavioral response (e.g., panic, hostility, and/or aggression) to intergroup contact, while one case evidences prejudicial ideation as a transitory, conditioned response to traumatic victimization by a member of a racial outgroup. Prejudice is considered as a clinical syndrome, with treatment strategy considered in terms of the severity and chronicity of prejudicial ideation.
It has been widely asserted that low self-esteem causes violence, but laboratory evidence is lacking, and some contrary observations have characterized aggressors as having favorable self-opinions. In 2 studies, both simple self-esteem and narcissism were measured, and then individual participants were given an opportunity to aggress against someone who had insulted them or praised them or against an innocent third person. Self-esteem proved irrelevant to aggression. The combination of narcissism and insult led to exceptionally high levels of aggression toward the source of the insult. Neither form of self-regard affected displaced aggression, which was low in general. These findings contradict the popular view that low self-esteem causes aggression and point instead toward threatened egotism as an important cause.
Questionnaire data about criminal victimization experiences were collected from 2,259 Sacramento-area lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (N = 1,170 women, 1,089 men). Approximately 1/5 of the women and 1/4 of the men had experienced victimization because of their adult sexual orientation. Hate crimes were less likely than nonbias crimes to have been reported to police. Compared with other recent crime victims, lesbian and gay hate-crime survivors manifested significantly more symptoms of depression, anger, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress. They also displayed significantly more crime-related fears and beliefs, lower sense of mastery, and more attributions of their personal setbacks to sexual prejudice than did nonbias crime victims and nonvictims. Comparable differences were not observed among bisexuals. The findings highlight the importance of recognizing hate-crime survivors' special needs in clinical settings and in public policy.
American extremists have traditionally cultivated technology to enhance efficiency and pro mote goals. This article concentrates on how domestic right-wing and other extremists have used computer networks to these ends. Although the concept of a guerrilla insurgency through "leaderless resistance " became a factor in right-wing extremist movements before the Internet's advent, cyberspace hastened its popularity. The Internet has been useful to hatemongers and extremists because it is economical and far reaching, and online expres sion is significantly protected by the First Amendment. Various court decisions have estab lished that not all communication is protected, in cyberspace or elsewhere. Although the government cannot regulate Internet expression because it offends sensibilities, it can regu late expression that constitutes crimes that fall under various unprotected areas of speech. Courts have convicted hatemongers who use the Internet to communicate threats rather than merely ideas. Private service providers and foreign governments have greater latitude to prohibit offensive and hateful expression that does not constitute a threat.
State and federal hate crime laws punish crimes involving discrimination on the basis of a person's group characteristic, such as race, religion, sexual orientation, national origin, gender, or disability. The Supreme Court has refined the definition of hate crime through decisions which affirmed one type of hate crime law, but rejected another. Punishing hate crimes is consistent with the traditional aims of our criminal justice system. Our criminal laws consistently enhance penalties for seemingly similar conduct based on the risk, severity, and context of a particular crime. Carefully drafted hate crime laws punish conduct that is objectively more dangerous to victims and society.
The apparent substantial increase in hate crime during the 1980s has led to two responses; legislation to expand the scope of the law and severity of punishment for such offenses, and police-initiated efforts to focus attention on and more fully investigate such crimes. This paper explores the characteristics of hate crimes in two jurisdictions, New York City and Baltimore County, Maryland, and the responses of the police. Data come from case records of the universe of hate crimes and from a sample of comparison crimes matched on the basis of criminal offense, date, and precinct. In New York City, bias crimes are investigated by a specialized detective unit and are far more likely than comparison crimes to result in the arrest of one or more perpetrators. In Baltimore County, patrol officers conduct follow-up investigations of bias crimes and emphasize victim support as an extension of the police department's community-oriented policing policy. Bias crimes in both jurisdictions differ from similar offenses not involving bias as well as from the public image of such offenses. The paper also points to the effects and limitations of special police efforts to address bias crimes.
There is an important distinction between hate crimes and hate group activity. Although reported hate crimes appear to be declining, there is evidence that hate group activity is increasing. This includes hate group consolidation, the increase in hate Web sites, and more sophisticated recruitment of youth. This research explores how hate groups, specifically racist skinheads, target specific youth populations for recruitment. Using a layman's interpretation of Durkheim's “anomie,” skinheads look for youth that live in a world of change. Based on ethnographic research and guided interviews, this research finds that older Nazi skinheads manipulate anomic teens and indoctrinate them into a world of terror.
This book takes an uncompromising look at how we define psychopathology and makes the argument that criminal behavior can and perhaps should be considered a disorder. Presenting sociological, genetic, neurochemical, brain-imaging, and psychophysiological evidence, it discusses the basis for criminal behavior and suggests, contrary to popular belief, that such behavior may be more biologically determined than previously thought. Key Features Presents a new conceptual approach to understanding crime as a disorder Is the most extensive review of biological predispositions to criminal behavior to date Analyzes the familial and extra-familial causes of crime Reviews the predispositions to crime including evolution and genetics, and the neuropsychological, psychophysiological, brain-imaging, neurochemical, and cognitive factors Presents the practical implications of viewing crime as a psychopathology in the contexts of free will, punishment, treatment, and future biosocial research.
Adoption is often the key to the psychopathology of adopted killers, yet its importance is rarely noted. Three cases of patricide by adoptees are examined in light of a unique pattern of psychopathology, the Adopted Child Syndrome. In this syndrome, an aspect of the self, experienced as "bad" and usually identified with the fantasized biological parents, is dissociated. Under conditions of loss or rejection, this dissociated part of the self may erupt in murderous violence against the adoptive parents and others. In extreme cases, the syndrome is akin to multiple personality disorder, and such a diagnosis could be warranted.
This curriculum was designed for teachers in middle grades and for other professionals working with youth. It deals with the extent of hate crime in the United States and strategies that are proving effective in reducing hate crimes among youth. The curriculum was pilot tested in middle schools in Massachusetts and Florida and a Catholic school in New York City. It reflects the principles that violence and prejudice are preventable, that early intervention is key, and that empathy building, cooperative learning and critical thinking, and social responsibility can be taught. The curriculum is composed of 10 units, each of which contains one or more lessons, with the lesson time, its purpose and specific objectives, instructions for preparation, and lesson activities. Unit titles are: (1) "Hate Crime: Who Are Its Victims? Who Are Its Perpetrators?"; (2) "The Power of the Pen: The Journal's Place in the History of Hate Crimes and the Purpose of Student Journal Writing"; (3) "Hate Crime Perpetrators: Why Do They Do It?"; (4) "Turning It On: Examining the Media's Role in the Development of Prejudice"; (5) "What Can We Do? Coalition Building To Promote Social Change"; (6) "Why Differences Divide: Understanding Conflict and the Role of Aggressors, Victims, and Bystanders"; (7) "How It Happens: The Development of Prejudice and Intolerance"; (8) "Seeing the Big Picture: Institutionalized Racism"; (9) "Acting Together for Change: A Dramatic Presentation on Hate Crime"; and (10) "What We Did: Sharing Our Community Project." Students develop projects to reduce prejudice and hate at the local level and then share them with the class in this unit. (SLD)
Recent statistics underscore fact that bigotry, bias, and racism are problems schools should not ignore. Racial conflict is becoming problem in suburban and rural secondary schools. Young people are most likely perpetrators of hate crimes. First step toward changing trend is no-nonsense school policy backed up by student training in recognizing and handling prejudice. Guidelines and resources are suggested. (MLH)
Examines "Wisconsin v. Mitchell," a Supreme Court ruling that the First Amendment was not violated by the application at sentencing of a penalty-enhancement provision in a hate crime statute. Discusses related cases and the Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990, and concludes with a review of the implications of "Wisconsin" on colleges and universities. (MLF)
Criminal laws that punish discriminatory “hate crime” offenses relating to race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender, and other status characteristics trace their roots back to the nation’s founding. Unlike today, in early America, status distinctions in law, particularly racial ones, were intended to restrict the exercise of civil rights. Today’s hate crime laws are the refined modern progeny of an important class of remedial post–Civil War laws and constitutional amendments. Although the Supreme Court has vigorously upheld enhanced punishment for hate crimes over the last decade, it has also established restrictions on the government’s authority to punish bigoted conduct and expression. This article examines, through an analysis of historic cases, laws, and constitutional changes, the legal evolution that culminated in the passage of modern hate crime laws.
Growing public concern over racial and ethnic conflict and a perceived increase in hate crimes during the 1980s have led to legislation expanding the scope of the law and the severity of punishment for such offenses and to police-initiated efforts to focus attention on hate crimes. Although a number of critiques have examined the legislative approach, little attention has been devoted to the police response. This article examines the rationale for a police initiative in addressing hate crimes; the characteristics of incidents labeled as such in one jurisdiction, Baltimore County, Maryland; and some of the problems in defining, identifying, and verifying bias motivation. Because about 40% of the offenses initially considered by the Baltimore County Police Department to be motivated by racial, religious, or ethnic (RRE) prejudice subsequently are not verified as RRE motivated, a closer examination of all such cases permits insight into the social construction of “bias motivation” and related issues raised by a police hate-crime program. These include determining what forms of bias are eligible for special responses; identifying bias motivation; weighing the victim's perception of the event; determining the line between criminal and non-criminal incidents; and adopting consistent standards for verifying ambiguous events.
"Graduate Program in Criminal Justice." Thesis (Ph. D.)--Rutgers University, 2000. Includes abstract. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 271-281).
Thirty-six mothers whose children had been abused were interviewed and compared with 36 mothers matched for social class and ethnic background. The abuse group mothers had lower self-esteem than the comparison mothers as judged by their desire that their children should not grow up to be like themselves or their partners. They were also less likely to discuss their problems with other people. They were less likely than the comparison mothers to have been brought up by their own parents. They had significantly more negative feelings than the comparison mothers towards their fathers when they were children and these negative feelings persisted into adult life. It is important that emphasis on treatment programs for these mothers should be placed on building up self-esteem and skills in interpersonal relationships.
As the 21st century approaches, the United States is moving, toward a more pluralistic society with regard to race, ethnicity, and national origin. With this increase in diversity has come a resurgence of hate crime violence. Scant information is available in the medical literature about hate crime violence, hate groups, hate crime violence legislation, or the physical and psychologic sequelae of hate crime violence on the individual and its effects on the community. Guidelines for the treatment of victims of hate crime violence in the prehospital care setting, ED, and inpatient setting are proposed.
The relationship of psychopathology, symptoms of personality disorder, and outgroup prejudice was examined with 193 outpatient psychotherapy clients. Primary DSM-IV diagnosis, General Adaptive Functioning (GAF) scores, personality disorder criteria, and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) scale scores were examined in relationship to Pr (Prejudice) Scale scores and client outgroup attributions. Results of a 3 x 10 Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated that clinician ratings of outgroup bias were significantly related with the Axis II criteria for Paranoid, Borderline, and Antisocial disorders. MANOVA results for ratings of outgroup bias and MMPI scores did not yield a significant multivariate effect; however, significant univariate ANOVA results were found with the MMPI F, HS, PD, and MA scales. Computed univariate ANOVA results indicated that Pr Scale scores did not significantly vary between primary Axis I and Axis II DSM-IV diagnosis, but did yield a significant difference for (categorical) diagnosis by Axis II Cluster groups. Both Pr Scale scores and clinician ratings of client outgroup bias were significantly related to greater psychopathology, as reflected by lower GAF scores assigned at the initiation of treatment. Findings provide preliminary evidence of the relationship of traits of personality disorder, as characterized by impulsivity, relational disturbance, and affective lability, to outgroup prejudice with a clinical population.
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