Warm Up I: Potential Mechanisms and the Effects of Passive Warm Up on Exercise Performance

Abstract

Despite limited scientific evidence supporting their effectiveness, warm-up routines prior to exercise are a well-accepted practice. The majority of the effects of warm up have been attributed to temperature-related mechanisms (e.g. decreased stiffness, increased nerve-conduction rate, altered force-velocity relationship, increased anaerobic energy provision and increased thermoregulatory strain), although non-temperature-related mechanisms have also been proposed (e.g. effects of acidaemia, elevation of baseline oxygen consumption (.VO(2)) and increased postactivation potentiation). It has also been hypothesised that warm up may have a number of psychological effects (e.g. increased preparedness). Warm-up techniques can be broadly classified into two major categories: passive warm up or active warm up. Passive warm up involves raising muscle or core temperature by some external means, while active warm up utilises exercise. Passive heating allows one to obtain the increase in muscle or core temperature achieved by active warm up without depleting energy substrates. Passive warm up, although not practical for most athletes, also allows one to test the hypothesis that many of the performance changes associated with active warm up can be largely attributed to temperature-related mechanisms.

Full text

Sports Med 2003; 33 (6): 439-454
R
EVIEW
A
RTICLE
0112-1642/03/0006-0439/$30.00/0
 Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved.
Warm Up I
Potential Mechanisms and the Effects of Passive Warm Up
on Exercise Performance
David Bishop
School of Human Movement and Exercise Science, University of Western Australia, Crawley,
Western Australia, Australia
Contents
Abstract ....................................................................................439
1. Warm-Up Mechanisms ...................................................................440
1.1 Temperature Effects Associated with Warm Up .........................................440
1.1.1 Decreased Viscous Resistance ..................................................441
1.1.2 Increased Oxygen Delivery to Muscles ...........................................441
1.1.3 Speeding of Rate-Limiting Oxidative Reactions ....................................442
1.1.4 Increased Anaerobic Metabolism ...............................................442
1.1.5 Increased Nerve Conduction Rate ..............................................443
1.1.6 Increased Thermoregulatory Strain ...............................................443
1.2 Metabolic Effects of Active Warm Up ..................................................443
1.3 Elevation of Baseline Oxygen Consumption ............................................443
1.4 Postactivation Potentiation ...........................................................444
1.5 Breaking of Actin-Myosin Bonds .......................................................445
1.6 Psychological Effects .................................................................445
1.7 Summary of Potential Warm-Up Mechanisms ...........................................445
2. Passive Warm up and Performance ........................................................446
2.1 Short-Term Performance ..............................................................446
2.1.1 Isometric Force ................................................................446
2.1.2 Dynamic Force ................................................................446
2.1.3 Summary of Short-Term Performance.............................................448
2.2 Intermediate Performance............................................................448
2.3 Long-Term Performance ..............................................................450
2.4 Summary of Passive Warm Up and Performance ........................................450
3. Conclusions .............................................................................452
Despite limited scientific evidence supporting their effectiveness, warm-up
Abstract routines prior to exercise are a well-accepted practice. The majority of the effects
of warm up have been attributed to temperature-related mechanisms (e.g.
decreased stiffness, increased nerve-conduction rate, altered force-velocity rela-
tionship, increased anaerobic energy provision and increased thermoregulatory
strain), although non-temperature-related mechanisms have also been proposed
(e.g. effects of acidaemia, elevation of baseline oxygen consumption ( ˙
VO2) and
increased postactivation potentiation). It has also been hypothesised that warm up
may have a number of psychological effects (e.g. increased preparedness). Warm-
-up techniques can be broadly classified into two major categories: passive warm
up or active warm up. Passive warm up involves raising muscle or core tempera-
ture by some external means, while active warm up utilises exercise. Passive
heating allows one to obtain the increase in muscle or core temperature achieved
by active warm up without depleting energy substrates. Passive warm up,
although not practical for most athletes, also allows one to test the hypothesis that

440 Bishop
many of the performance changes associated with active warm up can be largely
attributed to temperature-related mechanisms.
Warm up is a widely accepted practice preceding
nearly every athletic event. However, while warm
up is considered essential for optimum performance
by many coaches and athletes, there is surprisingly
little scientific evidence supporting its effectiveness.
Summarising the findings of the many studies that
have investigated the physiological responses to
warm up is difficult. Many of the earlier studies
were poorly controlled, contained few study partici-
pants and often omitted statistical analyses. More-
over, warm-up procedures have differed in their
duration, intensity, recovery periods, mode of exer-
Table I. Possible effects of warm up
Temperature related
Decreased resistance of muscles and joints
Greater release of oxygen from haemoglobin and myoglobin
Speeding of metabolic reactions
Increased nerve conduction rate
Increased thermoregulatory strain
Non-temperature related
Increased blood flow to muscles
Elevation of baseline oxygen consumption
Postactivation potentiation
Psychological effects and increased preparedness
cise and whether the warm up was continuous or
intermittent in nature. mechanisms. However, it has also been suggested
Warm-up techniques can be broadly classified that the physiological and performance changes fol-
into two major categories: passive warm up or active lowing active warm up may actually be due to a
warm up. Passive warm up involves raising muscle residual metabolic acidaemia and that warm up
temperature (Tm) or core temperature (Tc) by some could therefore be termed ‘acid up’.[2] It has also
external means. Various methods including hot been suggested that warm up may serve to elevate
showers or baths, saunas, diathermy and heating baseline oxygen consumption ( ˙
VO2), resulting in a
pads have been used. Passive heating allows one to decrease in the initial oxygen deficit and thereby
obtain the increase in Tm or Tc achieved by active preserve more of the anaerobic capacity for later in
warm up, without depleting energy substrates. Al- the task.[3] Limited evidence suggests that under
though not practical for most athletes, passive warm certain circumstances, warm up may cause postac-
up also allows one to test the hypothesis that many tivation potentiation, resulting in increased neuro-
of the performance changes associated with active muscular activation.[4,5] It has also been hy-
warm up can be largely attributed to temperature-re- pothesised that warm up may have a number of
lated mechanisms. Active warm up involves exer- psychological effects.[6]
cise and is likely to induce greater metabolic and
cardiovascular changes than passive warm up. Typi- 1.1 Temperature Effects Associated with
cal examples of active warm up include jogging, Warm Up
calisthenics, cycling and swimming.
This review attempts to summarise and draw In 1945, Asmussen and Boje[7] concluded that
conclusions from the many disparate studies that “…a higher temperature in the working organism
have investigated mechanisms by which warm up facilitates the performance of work”. Since then, the
may affect performance, and changes in perform- effects of warm up have largely been attributed to
ance following passive warm up. While warm up is temperature-related mechanisms. Specifically, it has
also believed to have a role in injury prevention, this been proposed that an increase in temperature may
is beyond the scope of this paper (see Shellock and improve performance via a decrease in the viscous
Prentice[1]). resistance of muscles, a speeding of rate-limiting
oxidative reactions and/or an increase in oxygen
1. Warm-Up Mechanisms delivery to muscles. However, increased thermoreg-
ulatory strain has the potential to adversely affect
Warm up has been proposed to affect perform- certain types of performance.
ance via a variety of mechanisms (table I). As sug-
gested by the name, the majority of the effects of While the majority of the effects of warm up have
warm up have been attributed to temperature-related been attributed to temperature-related mechanisms,
 Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (6)

Warm Up I 441
many studies have not measured temperature sion developed. This suggests that the temperature
changes as a result of warm up. In those studies that effect on muscle elastic properties is quite small.
have measured temperature changes, it is often diffi- Further research is required to quantify the effects of
cult to compare results as either rectal temperature temperature-related changes in viscous resistance on
(Tr) or Tm have been recorded. Furthermore, the Tmperformance.
recorded in different studies may not be comparable
if taken at different muscle depths (figure 1[8,9]). 1.1.2 Increased Oxygen Delivery to Muscles
It has also been suggested that performance
Exercising muscles generate considerable heat changes following warm up may result from in-
and Tm is directly proportional to the relative work creased oxygen delivery to the muscles via a right-
rate.[8] With the onset of moderate-intensity exercise ward shift in the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve
(80–100% of the lactate threshold), Tm rises rapidly and vasodilation of muscle blood vessels.[17] Ac-
from resting levels (~35°C) and within 3–5 minutes cording to Barcroft and King,[18] haemoglobin at an
exceeds Tr and reaches a relative equilibrium after oxygen tension of 30mm Hg gives up almost twice
approximately 10–20 minutes of exercise (figure 1). as much oxygen at 41°C as at 36°C and the oxygen
In commonly-observed ambient conditions dissociates from haemoglobin about twice as rapidly
(10–30°C), Tr is independent of ambient tempera- (figure 2). A corresponding effect of temperature on
ture and begins to rise once Tm exceeds Tr. Skin the dissociation curve for myoglobin has been dem-
temperatures (Ts) typically drop during the first 10 onstrated,[19] although the temperature effect is
minutes of moderate-intensity exercise in common- somewhat smaller. Furthermore, an elevated tem-
ly observed ambient conditions (10–30°C). perature also stimulates vasodilation of blood ves-
sels and increases muscle blood flow.[20] However,
1.1.1 Decreased Viscous Resistance while an increase in temperature should increase
An increase in Tm may affect performance via a oxygen delivery to the muscles, this will only en-
decrease in the viscous resistance of muscles and hance aerobic energy production if ˙
VO2 kinetics are
joints. Mild warming has been reported to reduce the limited by oxygen delivery.
passive resistance of the human metacarpal joint by Using an isolated dog gastrocnemius muscle, it
20%.[14] Similar changes in passive resistance of the has been demonstrated that convective oxygen de-
knee have been reported following short-wave dia- livery does not limit ˙
VO2 kinetics during transitions
thermy.[15] Increasing temperature has also been re- from rest to ~60% maximum oxygen consumption
ported to decrease the stiffness of muscle fibres (˙
VO2max).[21,22] However, convective oxygen deliv-
during contraction.[16] However, Buchthal et al.[16] ery may contribute to ˙
VO2 kinetics during transi-
also reported that, despite the small increase in tions from rest to ˙
VO2max.[23] Despite this, neither
dynamic shortening, there was very little extra ten- active warm up[24,25] nor passive heating of the
thighs (to ~40°C)[26] has been reported to speed ˙
VO2
kinetics during exercise halfway between the lactate
threshold and ˙
VO2max, in healthy, young adults.
There is however, evidence that active warm up can
speed ˙
VO2 kinetics in the elderly,[27] possibly via an
improved rate of oxygen utilisation by the
muscle.[28]
There appears to be two possible explanations for
these findings. First, in individuals with adequate
muscle perfusion and/or oxygen delivery, greater
convective oxygen delivery may not affect ˙
VO2
kinetics during transitions to exercise less than
˙
VO2max. Secondly, the increases in blood flow typi-
cally achieved by warm up (active or passive) may
not be sufficient to significantly speed ˙
VO2 kinetics.
With their isolated dog gastrocnemius in situ model,
Grassi et al.[23] were able to increase muscle blood
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
0 102030405060708090
Time (min)
Temperature (˚C)
Rest Exercise Recovery
Tr
Tm40
Tm20
Ts
Fig. 1. Temperature measured at rest, during moderate exercise
and during recovery for the rectal (Tr), skin (Ts) and muscle at a
probe depth of approximately 20mm (Tm20) and 40mm (Tm40), in
commonl
y
-observed ambient conditions
(
10–30°C
)
.[7-13]
 Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (6)

442 Bishop
However, neither prior moderate- or high-inten-
sity exercise,[24] nor passive heating of the thighs (to
~38°C)[26] has been reported to significantly speed
˙
VO2 kinetics in healthy, young adults. Furthermore,
a Q10 effect of only ~1.2 can be calculated from the
data of Koga et al.,[26] for the effect of increasing Tm
on the primary component of the ˙
VO2 response.
This indicates a very small positive thermal depend-
ence and is much less than the value reported for
most skeletal muscle enzymatic reactions (Q10 =
2.0–3.0).[31] One possible explanation for these find-
ings is that oxidative phosphorylation has been re-
ported to become uncoupled only above ~40°C.[30]
While Burnley et al.[24] did not measure Tm, pre-
vious studies have reported a Tm of ~39.0°C in
response to exercise of similar intensity.[7,8] It is
0
20
40
60
80
100
020406080100
PO2 (mm Hg)
Oxyhaemoglobin saturation (%)
Tb
Tb
Fig. 2. The effect of changing blood temperature (Tb) on the shape
of the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve. PO2 = oxygen partial
pressure.
therefore possible that these previous studies were
unable to sufficiently raise Tm to significantly affect
flow ( ˙
Qm) to ~100 mL/100g/min. This is much oxidative phosphorylation and therefore, ˙
VO2 kinet-
greater than the increase in ˙
Qm reported with moder- ics. While further research is necessary, it appears
ate exercise (~20 mL/100g/min) and the increase in unlikely that the increase in Tm achieved by current
˙
Qm due to the reactive hyperaemia that occurs in the
first few minutes following the completion of mod- warm-up procedures improves performance via a
erate exercise (~40 mL/100g/min).[29] Therefore, speeding of rate-limiting oxidative reactions.
while convective oxygen delivery does represent a
theoretical limitation to ˙
VO2 kinetics and aerobic 1.1.4 Increased Anaerobic Metabolism
energy production, it has not been demonstrated that The acceleration of muscle glycogen breakdown
temperature changes in response to warm up (active in humans exercising at high ambient temperatures
or passive) are able to sufficiently increase ˙
Qm to was first described by Fink et al.[32] Subsequent
speed ˙
VO2 kinetics in healthy, young adults. research has demonstrated that an increase in Tm per
1.1.3 Speeding of Rate-Limiting se has little effect on resting muscle metabolism, but
Oxidative Reactions increases muscle glycogenolysis, glycolysis and
An elevated Tm, as a result of warm up, has been high-energy phosphate (ATP and phosphocreatine)
proposed to enhance aerobic energy production by degradation during exercise[33] (figure 3). Exercise
accelerating the rate-limiting reactions associated in the heat appears to increase muscle glycogen
with oxidative phosphorylation.[26] Increased Tm el- breakdown by augmenting the secretion of epineph-
evates oxygen consumption ( ˙
QO2) of isolated mito- rine and by increased muscle temperature per se.[34]
chondria by a Q10 effect1 and by decreasing the ratio However, while the critical role of muscle glycogen
between adenosine diphosphate (ADP) production availability for endurance exercise performance has
and mitochondrial ˙
VO2 (ADP :O ratio).[30] One of been well established,[35] fatigue during exercise in
the principle limiting factors for muscle ˙
VO2 kinet- hot environments occurs in the presence of adequate
ics appears to reside in an inertia of oxidative meta- muscle glycogen stores.[36] The more rapid muscle
bolism.[21-23] Thus, if increasing Tm does speed rate- glycogen breakdown following an increase in Tm is
limiting oxidative reactions, this should be accom- therefore, unlikely to adversely affect long-term per-
panied by a speeding of ˙
VO2 kinetics. As a result, formance. However, an increase in anaerobic meta-
less of the initial work will be completed anaerobi- bolism may benefit short-term and intermediate per-
cally and performance may be improved by leaving formance.
more of the anaerobic capacity for later in the task.
1Q10 = (R2/R1)[10/(T2-T1)]; R1 and R2 are rate processes at temperatures T2 and T1 and T2 > T1. Q10 > 1.0 indicates a
positive thermal dependence.
 Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (6)

Warm Up I 443
long-term performance via a decrease in heat-stor-
age capacity and impaired thermoregulation mech-
anisms.
1.2 Metabolic Effects of Active Warm Up
Oxygen delivery to the muscles may also be
affected by a number of metabolic changes that
occur in response to active warm up. For example,
reduced oxygen tension,[45] increased potassium
(K+) concentration[46] and increased hydrogen ion
(H+) concentration[47] have all been reported to
cause vasodilation and to increase muscle blood
flow. Increases in [H+], pCO2 and 2,3-diphosphog-
lycerate in response to warm up may also increase
oxygen delivery to the muscles via a rightward shift
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
20 25 30 35 40
Tm (˚C)
Rate of anaerobic ATP supply (%)
Resting Tm
Fig. 3. Anaerobic adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supply during ex-
ercise at different muscle temperatures (Tm). Rates are expressed
as a percenta
g
e of normal
(
100%
)
.[33,37]
in the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve.[48] How-
1.1.5 Increased Nerve Conduction Rate ever, once again, it has not been demonstrated that
An increase in Tm may also contribute to im- metabolic changes in response to active warm up are
proved performance by augmenting the function of able to sufficiently increase ˙
Qm to speed ˙
VO2 kinet-
the nervous system. Karvonen[38] has demonstrated ics in healthy, young adults.
that increased Tm improves central nervous system It has also been suggested that the residual meta-
function and increases the transmission speed of bolic acidaemia from a warm-up bout (~80%
nervous impulses. Improved nervous system func- ˙
VO2max) leads to improved muscle perfusion during
tion may be especially important for tasks that de- exercise and speeds ˙
VO2 kinetics.[2] However, the
mand high levels of complex body movements or results of more recent studies suggest that the over-
require rapid reactions to a variety of stimuli.[39] all speeding of ˙
VO2 kinetics previously reported[2] is
Further research is required to investigate the effects primarily related to a reduced amplitude of the ˙
VO2
of temperature-induced increases in nervous system slow component and not to a measurable speeding
function on performance. of the ˙
VO2 kinetics.[24,49] It could be argued that the
active warm up in these studies may not have caused
1.1.6 Increased Thermoregulatory Strain sufficient metabolic acidaemia to increase ˙
Qm to an
Increases in thermoregulatory strain following extent that would increase ˙
VO2 kinetics. However, it
warm up are likely to reflect changes in both body has previously been shown that if the warm-up
temperature per se and hydration status. Exercising intensity is too high (~75% ˙
VO2max), the subsequent
muscle generates considerable heat and causes Tm to metabolic acidaemia is associated with impaired
rise in proportion to the relative workload.[8] There supramaximal performance and a reduction in the
is however, a limit to how much heat the body can accumulated oxygen deficit.[50] This was attributed
store. Ultimately, long-term performance in uncom- to an accumulation of H+ and subsequent inhibition
pensable hot environments appears to be limited by of anaerobic glycolysis[51] and/or interference with
a critical core temperature.[40,41] Increasing the body muscle contractile processes.[52] Thus, even if the
temperature before vigorous exercise may decrease greater metabolic acidaemia associated with a more
heat-storage capacity via a decrease in the tempera- intense warm up is able to speed ˙
VO2 kinetics, it is
ture range before an upper critical Tr can be unlikely to benefit performance.
reached.[42] Pre-cooling has been reported to have
the opposite effect of delaying the attainment of an 1.3 Elevation of Baseline
upper critical Tr and increasing run time to exhaus- Oxygen Consumption
tion in dogs[40] and in trained runners.[43] In addition,
decreases in hydration status, as a result of warm up, While it appears that warm up does not increase
may also have a negative influence on the ability of ˙
VO2 kinetics, warm up may allow subsequent tasks
the body to control its internal temperature.[44] to begin with an elevated baseline ˙
VO2. Conse-
Warm up therefore, has the potential to decrease quently, less of the initial work will be completed
 Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (6)

444 Bishop
anaerobically, leaving more of the anaerobic capa- to heavy warm up ˙
VO2 is likely to return very close
to its resting value within ~5 minutes.[60] This may
city for later in the task (figure 4). As the anaerobic explain why it has previously been reported that
capacity appears to be a well-defined entity,[53,54]
there is no initial sparing of the anaerobic capacity
initial sparing of the anaerobic capacity should in- when there is a 5-minute interval between a moder-
crease time to exhaustion and improve performance ate-intensity warm up and a 2-minute all-out per-
in tasks that require a significant anaerobic contribu- formance.[50]
tion.
The ‘mobilisation’ hypothesis is supported by the
results of many studies that have reported a greater 1.4 Postactivation Potentiation
aerobic contribution[17,55-57] and/or a decreased oxy-
gen deficit[3,17,58,59] when tasks are preceded by ac- The performance of skeletal muscle is affected
tive warm up. Furthermore, the blunted blood lactate by its contractile history. While fatigue will impair
increase following active warm up, in response to a performance, postactivation potentiation acts to im-
standard workload (4 minutes at ˙
VO2max) provides prove performance.[61] Postactivation potentiation is
further support for an attenuation of anaerobic ener- the transient increase in muscle contractile perform-
gy production following warm up.[56] However, an ance following previous ‘conditioning’ contractile
elevated ˙
VO2 is only likely to result in the initial activity.[62] It is therefore, possible that active warm
sparing of the anaerobic capacity if the period be- up of high intensity, especially if it includes a sprint
tween warm up and the criterion task does not allow component or maximum voluntary contractions
˙
VO2 to return to rest. While ˙
VO2 recovery kinetics (MVCs) may improve certain types of performance
will depend on many factors, following a moderate by increasing muscle contractile performance. In
support of this, power output of both the upper and
lower extremities has been reported to increase fol-
lowing MVCs.[4,5] Increased potentiation has also
been reported following maximal dynamic knee ex-
tensions.[63] This potentiation has been attributed to
phosphorylation of myosin regulatory light
chains[64] and/or elevation of Ca2+ in the cytosol.[65]
Not all studies have reported a significant in-
crease in muscle force following a MVC.[63] How-
ever, these authors allowed only a 15-second recov-
ery interval between the 10-second MVC and the
dynamic knee extensions. With only a 15-second
recovery interval, it is likely that there was still some
residual fatigue from the MVC, prior to the dynamic
contraction. This is supported by the significant
decline in torque (16.3%) during the 10-second
MVC.[63] Previous studies reporting a significant
increase in dynamic performance following MVCs
have used longer recovery intervals of 3–5 min-
utes.[4,5] While it is likely that some of the postac-
tivation potentiation would have been diminished by
this longer recovery interval,[66] the greater reduc-
tion in residual fatigue may have more than compen-
sated for the diminished postactivation potentiation.
Thus, with an appropriate rest period, it appears that
active warm up that includes maximal to near-maxi-
mal voluntary contractions may be able to increase
twitch potentiation and improve subsequent strength
and power performance (figure 5).
O2 Eq (L)
Aerobic metabolism
Anaerobic metabolism
Resting VO2
a
Aerobic metabolism
Anaerobic metabolism
Resting VO2
b
Time (min)
•
•
Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the aerobic and anaerobic con-
tribution to an all-out task with (a) and without (b) prior warm up. O2
E
q
= ox
yg
en e
q
uivalents; ˙
VO2 = ox
yg
en consumption.
 Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (6)

Warm Up I 445
fore, while it is possible that there is a psychological
component to warm up, this remains to be confirmed
by further studies, especially studies using warm-up
routines that have previously been shown to im-
prove performance.
Warm up may also provide valuable time for
athletes to mentally prepare for their event. In this
respect, warm up can possibly be considered part of
a pre-performance routine, assisting the athlete to
obtain an appropriate activation state. Qualitative
analysis has concluded that the use of pre-perform-
ance routines was a distinguishing characteristic of
successful Olympians.[75] Furthermore, it has been
Twitch potentiation
Voluntary force
−40
−20
0
20
40
60
80
01 345678910
Time (min)
Change from pre-MVC value (% )
2
Fig. 5. Schematic representation of changes in twitch potentiation
and maximal voluntary force following a maximal voluntary contrac-
tion
(
MVC
)
.[4,61,66]
suggested that warm up may benefit performance by
providing time to concentrate.[1] Thus, increased
1.5 Breaking of Actin-Myosin Bonds preparedness is an additional possible psychological
benefit of warm up.
Part of the explanation for the stiffness of resting
muscle may involve the development of stable
bonds between actin and myosin filaments. With 1.7 Summary of Potential
inactivity, the number of bonds increases and hence Warm-Up Mechanisms
the stiffness of muscle increases.[67] However, with
physical activity many of the bonds are broken, and The majority of the effects of warm up have been
muscle stiffness decreases.[68,69] Therefore, one of attributed to temperature-related and non-tempera-
the benefits of an active warm up may be to mini- ture-related physiological mechanisms. However,
mise muscle stiffness by moving the required psychological mechanisms have also been proposed
muscle groups through their range of motion.[70] As (e.g. increased preparedness). Proposed non-tem-
a result, the warm up may disturb actin-myosin perature-related mechanisms include increased oxy-
bonds and thereby reduce the passive stiffness of gen delivery and speeded ˙
VO2 kinetics, elevation of
muscle. This may contribute to an increased rate of baseline ˙
VO2 and increased postactivation potentia-
force development and an increase in power during tion. While warm up does not appear to speed ˙
VO2
short-duration tasks. While warm up can decrease kinetics in healthy, young adults, warm up may
muscle stiffness, there is a rapid increase in stiff- allow subsequent tasks to begin with an elevated
ness, which then becomes more gradual, once the ˙
VO2, if the recovery period between warm up and
warm up is completed.[71]
exercise is brief. An initial sparing of the anaerobic
capacity should increase time to exhaustion and
1.6 Psychological Effects improve performance in tasks that require a signif-
Although warm up has been shown to result in a icant anaerobic contribution. An increase in postac-
number of physiological changes, it is possible that tivation potentiation following warm up also has the
psychological mechanisms contribute to reported potential to improve performance, especially in
improvements in performance. Massey et al.[6] re- strength and power tasks. Proposed temperature-
ported no improvement in time to complete 100 related mechanisms include decreased stiffness, in-
cycle revolutions when subjects were hypnotised to creased nerve-conduction rate, altered force-veloc-
‘forget’ that they warmed up. However, the warm up ity relationship, increased anaerobic energy provi-
used in this study was quite moderate (mostly run- sion and increased thermoregulatory strain. De-
ning and jogging in place). Active warm up of creases in muscle and joint stiffness and increases in
similar duration and intensity is not usually asso- nerve conduction rate following an increase in tem-
ciated with improved performance – even in the perature have the potential to improve performance,
absence of hypnotism.[72,73] It has, however, been especially strength and power tasks. Increased ther-
reported that athletes who ‘imagined’ a warm up had moregulatory strain has the potential to adversely
an enhanced physiological performance.[74] There- affect long-term performance.
 Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (6)

446 Bishop
2. Passive Warm up and Performance addition to an increase in Tm. While some of the
effects of temperature on muscle contractile proper-
The majority of the effects of warm up have been ties depend on fibre composition, temperature-de-
attributed to temperature-related mechanisms.[7] Al- pendent changes in F0 appear to be identical for both
though not practical for most athletes, the use of a fast- and slow-twitch fibres.[83,84]
passive warm up allows one to test this hypothesis. While better designed studies, with greater sam-
Furthermore, passive heating allows one to obtain ple sizes, are needed, it appears that there is very
the increase in Tm or Tc achieved by active warm up, little effect of increasing Tm above normal on F0.
without depleting energy substrates. Passive warm Thus, small temperature-related increases in joint
up involves raising Tm or Tc by some external resistance, muscle resistance and/or nerve-conduc-
means. Various methods including hot showers or tion rate appear to allow very little extra tension to
baths, saunas, diathermy and heating pads have been be developed. These physiological changes are more
used. For convenience, performance measures in the likely to increase dynamic contractile properties.
following section have been divided into three major
categories: (i) short-term – maximal effort for ≤10 2.1.2 Dynamic Force
seconds; (ii) intermediate – maximal effort for >10 The relationship between dynamic force and ve-
seconds, but <5 minutes; (iii) long-term – fatiguing locity of contraction for a muscle group can be
effort for ≥5 minutes. described by the formula of a rectangular hyperbola.
While F0 does not appear to be significantly altered
2.1 Short-Term Performance by an increase in Tm above normal, all other para-
meters of the force-velocity diagram have been re-
2.1.1 Isometric Force ported to increase with increased Tm[76,78,79] (figure
Research has generally reported either no ef- 7). Davies and Young[78] reported that increasing Tm
fect[76-79] or only a minor effect[80,81] of increasing by 3.1°C (from 36.8–39.9°C), decreased electrical-
Tm above normal (~35°C), on maximal isometric ly-evoked time to peak tension (TPT) [7.7% per °C]
force (F0) [figure 6; table II]. It should be noted, and half-relaxation time (RT1/2) [7.2% per °C] in the
however, that these studies all had small sample triceps surae muscle. The thermal dependence of
sizes (~4 subjects) and consequently often did not both TPT and RT1/2 decreases with increasing tem-
conduct statistical analyses to support their findings. perature.[31] Furthermore, like maximal isometric
Furthermore, in both studies reporting an increase in force, TPT has been reported to have a similar
F0 (0.8–2.1% per °C), the increase in Tm was thermal dependence in both major muscle-fibre
achieved with active exercise.[80,81] Active warm up types.[83,84]
has been shown to result in greater improvements in Changes in Tm, within the physiological range
dynamic performance than passive warm up, despite (22.5–38.0°C), have also been reported to affect
similar changes in Tm.[82] Therefore, the ‘small’ both maximum velocity of shortening (Vmax: 2.6%
increase in F0 may have been due to mechanisms in per °C) and maximal power (5.1% per °C) on a
handgrip dynamometer.[76] Interestingly, similar
values for change in Vmax with increased Tm can
also be derived from the data of Asmussen et al.[85]
and have been reported in isolated cat muscle (un-
published observation). As with maximal isometric
force, TPT and RT1/2, the thermal dependence of
Vmax tends to decrease with increasing tempera-
ture.[31] However, in contrast to these previous mea-
sures, Vmax has been reported to have a greater
thermal dependence in fast-, than in slow-twitch
fibres.[31] These results suggest that if the above
changes for isolated muscles could be fully utilised
during short-term athletic performance (e.g. run-
ning, jumping, cycling), a passive warm up may
0
20
40
60
80
100
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Tm (˚C)
F0 (% max)
Resting Tm
Fig. 6. Changes in maximum isometric force (F0) as a function of
chan
g
es in muscle temperature
(
Tm
)
.[77-79]
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Warm Up I 447
 Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (6)
Table II. Physiological and performance changes in short-term performance following heating or cooling
Study Subjects Intervention Performance task
mode duration temperature rest phys. changes mode phys. performance changesa
(min) (°C) (min) (°C) changes
Asmussen 5 MT N room temp NA NA NR NA Isometric F0: ↑0.8% per °C; TPT: ↑3–5% per
and Boje[7] males °C
C1 cold water NR NR NR Tm = 32.7 NA
H1 exercise NR NA NR Tm = 37.7 Vertical jump Height: ↑22 mm/°C
Bergh and 4 MT N room temp NA NA NA NA Isometric F0: ↑2.1% per °C
Ekblom[81] males
C1 cold water 20 NR NR Tm = 30–32
C2 cold water 20 NR NR Tm = 33–35 Vertical jump NA Height: ↑4.2% per °C
H1 exercise 20 NR NR Tm = 36–37
H2 exercise 20 NR NR Tm = 38–39 Cycle Peak power: ↑5.1% per °C
Binkhorst et 4 UT C1 cold water 30 18 0 Tm = 23–25 Isometric F0: C1 = N = H1 = H2; p > 0.05
al.[76] males (hand grip)
N room temp 30 20–22 0 Tm = 32–34 V0: ↑2.6% per °C
H1 hot water 30 25 0 Tm = 28–29 NA Peak power: ↑5.1% per °C
H2 hot water 30 39 0 Tm = 37–38
Clarke et 4 MT C1 cold water 30 2 0 Tm = 18 Isometric F0: C1 < C2 < C3 < C4 = N = H1 =
al.[77] males (hand grip) H2
C2 cold water 30 10 0 Tm = 23
C3 cold water 30 18 0 Tm = 25
C4 cold water 30 14 0 Tm = 27 NA
N room temp 30 26 0 Tm = 30
H1 hot water 30 34 0 Tm = 35
H2 hot water 30 42 0 Tm = 39
Davies and 5 UT N room temp NA NA NA Tr = 36.7 Isometric (leg) F0: H = N > C; TPT: H > N > C; p <
Young[78] males 0.05
C1 cold water 30–45 0 0 Tr = 28.4 Vertical jump NA Height: H = N > C; ↑2.4 cm/°C
H1 hot water 30–45 46 0 Tr = 39.9 Cycle Peak power: H = N > C; p < 0.05
Ranatunga et 4 UT N room temp NA NA NA Ts ~ 25 Isometric F0: H > N > C; TPT: H > N > C; p <
al.[79] males (finger) 0.05
C1 cold water 5–15 25 NR Ts ~ 15 NA
H1 hot water 5–15 39 NR Ts ~ 35
a The absence of a p-value indicates that statistical analyses were not performed.
C = cooling; F0 = isometric force; H = heating; MT = moderately trained; N = no treatment; NA = not applicable; NR = variable not reported; phys. = physiological; Tm = muscle
temperature; TPT = time to peak tension; Tr = rectal temperature; Ts = skin temperature; UT = untrained; V0 = maximal velocity; ↑ = increase.

448 Bishop
This suggests that temperature-related changes in
the force-velocity relationship may be greater at
faster contraction velocities.
2.1.3 Summary of Short-Term Performance
Despite a scarcity of well-controlled studies, with
appropriate statistical analyses, it appears that pas-
sive warming has little effect on maximum isometric
force, but can improve dynamic force. However,
changes in the force-velocity relationship, following
an increase in Tm, may not be fully utilised during
dynamic short-term performance. Furthermore, the
results suggest that passive warm up has a greater
ergogenic effect at greater contraction velocities.
While passive warm up is not practical for most
athletes, it may have an important role in maintain-
ing an elevated Tm between the warm up and short-
Power (W)
Torque (N • m)
Velocity (rads/sec)
Increased muscle temperature
Normal muscle temperature
Fig. 7. Idealised effect of an increase in muscle temperature on the
torque- and power-velocity relationships. Note there is an increase
in maximum velocity and maximum power, but no change in iso-
metric tor
q
ue
(
velocit
y
= 0 rads/sec
)
.
term performance (e.g. sprinting, jumping). It ap-
pears particularly important that muscles are not
increase power output by ~5.0% per °C change in allowed to cool below their normal physiological
Tm.range before commencing short-term exercise.
Consistent with the previously mentioned results
for simple muscle contractions, an increase in Tm2.2 Intermediate Performance
(from 27–40°C) has been reported to increase maxi-
mum isokinetic torque (4.7–4.9% per °C)[81] and Three studies have reported that a passive warm
vertical jump height (4.2–4.4% per °C)[80,81] [table up can improve intermediate performance[7,10,88] (ta-
II]. Vertical jump performance was affected in di- ble III). Asmussen and Boje[7] observed, in two
rect proportion to the change in peak torque. While subjects, that passive heating (a 10-minute hot
these changes are similar in magnitude to those shower at 47°C) raised Tr by 0.5–0.6°C and im-
predicted from simple muscle contractions, varia- proved performance (time to complete 956 or 9860
tions in Tm were obtained by immersing the subject kg/m of work) by ~6%. They also reported a strong
in cold water or by active exercise. It has been relationship between increases in Tm and perform-
reported that active warm up results in a slightly ance time and largely attributed the performance
greater increase in peak power output than passive improvement to an increase in Tm, rather than Tr.
warm up (2.7 vs 2.3% per °C).[86] It is therefore, Passive heating (hot showers or diathermy for 15–18
likely that some of the improvement in performance minutes) has also been reported to improve swim-
can be attributed to the active warm up, rather than ming performance over both 50m (0–2%; n = 3) and
the increase in Tm alone. Slightly smaller increases 200–400m (1.3–3.9%; n = 3).[10] However, these
in vertical jump height (3.1% per °C) and vertical- authors reported that when they allowed Tm to re-
jump power (3.6% per °C) have been reported fol- turn to normal, but Tr to remain elevated, perform-
lowing passive heating alone (increased Tm from ance remained improved. Thus, in contrast to As-
36.3–39.9°C).[78] These smaller than predicted mussen and Boje,[7] they concluded that the benefi-
changes in vertical-jump power may be related to cial effects of passive warm up on intermediate
the previously reported decrease in the thermal de- performance could mostly be attributed to an in-
pendence of Vmax with increasing temperature.[31] crease in Tr, rather than Tm. A statistically signif-
Changes in peak power, following an increase in icant improvement (1%; n = 10; p < 0.05) in 40-yard
Tm, have also been reported for cycle ergometry (36.6m) swim performance has also been reported
(1.2–10.0% per °C)[78,81,86,87] [table II]. However, following an 8-minute hot shower (increased Tr to
changes appear to be dependent on the velocity of 38°C).[88] In addition, two other studies have report-
contraction. Peak power has been reported to in- ed a relationship between improved intermediate
crease by 2.0% per °C rise in Tm at a cycle cadence performance and Tm when the increase in Tm was
of 54 revs/min and 10% per °C at 140 revs/min.[87] achieved by active exercise.[7,81] The limited re-
 Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (6)

Warm Up I 449
 Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (6)
Table III. Physiological and performance changes in intermediate performance following heating or cooling
Study Subjects Warm up Performance task
mode duration intensity rest (min) phys. changes (°C) mode phys. performance changesa
(min) changes
Asmussen 4 UT N room temp NA NA NR NA Cycle NA Time: H2 < N (~5.8%)
and Boje[7] males (956 kg/m)
H1 heating pads 10 110W NR Tr = ↑0.8 H1 < N (~5.5%)
H2 exercise 30 NA NR Tr = ↑1.5
Bergh and 4 MT N room temp NA NA NA NA Cycle NA Sprint time: ↓with ↑Tm
Ekblom[81] males (20 revs)
C1 cold water 20 NR NR Tm = 30–32
C2 cold water 20 NR NR Tm = 33–35 Average speed: ↑4.7% per °C
H1 exercise 20 NR NR Tm = 36–37
H2 exercise 20 NR NR Tm = 38–39 Peak velocity: ↑4.7% per °C
Carlile[88] 10 T males N shower 0.5 ‘Luke warm’NR NA Swim NA Speed: H > N (~1.0%; p <
and (40yd [36.6m]) 0.01)
females
H shower 8.0 ‘Hot’NR NA
Muido[10] 3 UT N room temp NA NA NA NA Swim (50m) NA Speed: H1 > N (0.0–2.0%)
males
H1 hot bath 40–43°CNAT
r = ↑1.0–1.6 H2 > N (0.6–2.2%)
H2 exercise ‘Jog’10 Tr = ↑0.4–0.9 Swim (400m) Speed: H3 > N (1.4–2.6%)
H3 exercise 180W 10 Tr = ↑~0.6 H1 > N (2.1–3.9%)
a The absence of a p-value indicates that statistical analyses were not performed.
C = cooling; H = heating; MT = moderately trained; N = no treatment; NA = not applicable; NR = variable not reported; phys. = physiological; T = trained; Tm = muscle temperature;
Tr = rectal temperature; UT = untrained; ↑ = increase; ↓ = decrease.

450 Bishop
search to date suggests that passive warm up can A number of studies have also reported decreases
improve intermediate performance. in isometric endurance performance following pas-
sive warm up.[37,77,92,93] Sedgewick and Whalen[93]
When discussing the effects of passive warm up reported a nonsignificant, 2% decrease in the num-
on intermediate performance, it may also be impor- ber of isometric handgrip contractions until fatigue
tant to consider the effects of contraction frequency. (7 minutes 20 seconds vs 7 minutes 31 seconds)
It has been reported that increasing Tm decreased net following 10 minutes of diathermy (Tm =
mechanical efficiency when cycling at 60 revs/min, 40.7–41.1°C). A 5.8% decrease in impulse (force ×
but increased net mechanical efficiency when cy- time) has also been reported for 180 isometric hand-
cling at 120 revs/min.[89] Thus, the contraction fre- grip contractions (6 minutes) following 8 minutes
quency may determine whether or not passive immersion in hot water (48.0°C), compared with
warming has an ergogenic effect. immersion in cold water (10.0°C).[92] It is possible
Further research is required to determine the rela- that Sedgewick and Whalen[93] did not find a signif-
tive contributions of an increase in Tm or Tr to icant difference between conditions as a conse-
improved intermediate performance. However, per- quence of their use of a less reliable ‘time to fatigue’
formance improvements are likely to be attributable test.[94]
to a decrease in joint and muscle resistance and/or an The relationship between Tm and isometric en-
increase in nerve conduction rate. durance appears to be best described by a curvilinear
relationship (figure 8). Clarke et al.[77] reported that
2.3 Long-Term Performance time to fatigue for isometric handgrip endurance,
following immersion in seven different water baths
Very few studies have investigated the effects of (Tm = 18.0–38.5°C), was optimal at a Tm of ~27°C.
passive warm up on long-term performance (table The decrease in isometric endurance did not appear
IV). This is possibly because an excessive body-heat to be associated with a reduction in the ability of
load is well acknowledged as one of the limiting muscles to exert maximum tension when Tm >27°C
physiological factors for long-term perform- (figure 8). Rather, the authors hypothesised that the
ance.[40,41] Therefore, increasing the body tempera- reduction in the duration of contractions when Tm
ture before vigorous exercise may decrease long- >27°C was due to a more rapid accumulation of
term performance via a decrease in heat-storage metabolites (as indicated by the hyperaemic re-
capacity[42] and/or impaired thermoregulation mech- sponse; figure 8). This hypothesis is supported by
anisms.[44] In support of this, passive warm up has subsequent research reporting that the decreased
been reported to decrease intermittent (30 seconds at endurance time during repeated isometric contrac-
90% ˙
VO2max: 30 seconds passive rest) run time to tions in heated muscle is accompanied by enhanced
exhaustion (38.5 + 11.1 minutes vs 72.0 + 17.2 ATP utilisation, increased rate of phosphocreatine
minutes; p < 0.05) in moderate ambient conditions breakdown and accelerated glycolysis.[40]
(21.7°C and 36.7% RH).[90] In a similar study by the While there have been only a few studies, it
same authors, time to exhaustion at 70% of ˙
VO2max appears that passive warm up does not improve, and
was also impaired (62.0 vs 39.6 minutes; p < 0.05) may have a detrimental effect, on endurance per-
when preceded by a warm up that raised Tr to formance in commonly observed ambient condi-
38.0°C.[91] The decrease in run time in both studies tions. The detrimental effects of passive warm up on
was associated with a decrease in heat-storage capa- endurance performance appear to be due to a de-
city and the earlier attainment of a high Tr. At the crease in heat storage capacity and/or impaired ther-
onset of exhaustion, there were no significant differ- moregulatory mechanisms resulting in the earlier
ences in ˙
VO2, plasma volume changes, total sweat attainment of a high Tr, and/or a more rapid accumu-
loss or Ts. Pre-cooling has been reported to have the lation of metabolites.
opposite effect, increasing heat-storage capacity and
increasing run time to exhaustion in dogs[40] and in
trained runners.[43] Passive warm up therefore, has 2.4 Summary of Passive Warm Up
the potential to decrease long-term performance via and Performance
a decrease in heat-storage capacity and therefore, a
decrease in the temperature range before an upper While there is a scarcity of well-controlled stud-
critical Tr can be reached. ies, with large subject numbers and appropriate sta-
 Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (6)

Warm Up I 451
 Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (6)
Table IV. Physiological and performance changes in long-term performance following passive, general warm up
Study Subjects Warm up Performance task
mode duration intensity (°C) rest (min) phys. changes (°C) mode phys. changes performance changesa
(min)
Clarke et 4 MT C1 cold water 30 2 0 Tm = 18 Isometric (grip NA ttf: C4 > C3 = N > C2 = H1 >
al.[77] males 1/3MVC) C1 = H2
C2 cold water 30 10 0 Tm = 23
C3 cold water 30 14 0 Tm = 25
C4 cold water 30 18 0 Tm = 27
N room temp 30 26 0 Tm = 30
H1 hot water 30 34 0 Tm = 35
H2 hot water 30 42 0 Tm = 39
Edwards 10 UT C1 cold water 30 12 NR Tm = 22.5 Isometric (knee ↑Glycolysis and ttf: C2 > N > C1 > H
et al.[37] males extension – 2/3ATP use in
MVC) heated muscle
C2 cold water 30 26 Tm = 32.6
N room temp 30 NA Tm = 35.1
H hot water 30 44 Tm = 38.6
Gregson et 6 MT N room temp 30 NA 10 NA Run ↓Heat-storage ttf: N > A > H; p < 0.05
al.[90] males (30 sec at 70% capacity
˙
VO2max: 30 sec
rest)
H hot water ~30 NA 10 Tr = 38 Tr = A = h = N
A active ~20 70% ˙
VO2max 10 Tr = 38
Gregson et 6 MT N room temp 30 NA 10 NA Run ↓Heat-storage ttf: N > A = H; p < 0.05
al.[91] males (70% ˙
VO2max) capacity
H hot water ~30 NA 10 Tr = 38 Tr = A = h = N
A active ~20 70% ˙
VO2max 10 Tr = 38
Grose[92] 12 UT C cold water 8 10 30 sec NA Isometric Total work: C > H; p < 0.05
males (grip × 180)
H hot water 8 48 30 sec
Sedgwick 6 UT N room temp NA NA NA Tm: H > N (2–4°C) Isometric ttf: N = H
and males (grip)
Whalen[93]
H diathermy 10 NR 30 sec
a The absence of a p-value indicates that statistical analyses were not performed.
A = active; ATP = adenosine triphosphate; MT = moderately trained; MVC = maximal voluntary contraction; N = no treatment; NA = not applicable; NR = not reported; Tm = muscle
temperature; Tr = rectal temperature; ttf = time to fatigue; UT = untrained; ˙
VO2max = maximum oxygen consumption.

452 Bishop
3. Conclusions
While it has been hypothesised that warm up may
have a number of psychological effects, the majority
of the effects of warm up have been attributed to
temperature-related mechanisms (e.g. decreased
stiffness, increased nerve-conduction rate, altered
force-velocity relationship and increased lactic ener-
gy provision). However, other mechanisms have
also been proposed (e.g. effects of acidaemia,
mobilisation of the aerobic system and increased
postactivation potentiation). Despite the above-
mentioned mechanisms, it appears that passive
warm up does not improve isometric force, but may
improve short-duration (<10 seconds) dynamic
force. However, improvements in dynamic short-
term performance (e.g. vertical jumping and sprint
cycling) tend to be less than those reported for
isolated muscles. While the mechanisms remain to
be fully elucidated, it also appears that passive warm
up can improve intermediate performance (~10
seconds to 5 minutes). Passive warm up does not
improve, and may have a detrimental effect on,
long-term performance (>5 minutes), possibly via
an increase in thermoregulatory strain.
Acknowledgements
The authors have provided no information on sources of
funding or on conflicts of interest directly relevant to the
content of this review.
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
20 25 30 35 40
F0 (% max)
Hyperaemic response (mL • 100 mL−1)
Duration of isometric contractions (% max)
Tm (˚C)
150
100
75
a
b
Fig. 8. Changes in maximum isometric force (F0) [thick line] and
hyperaemic response (thin line) as a function of changes in muscle
temperature (Tm) [a]. Change in duration of isometric contractions
as a function of chan
g
es in Tm
(
b
)
.[77]
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