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Accumulation features of persistent organochlorines in resident and migratory birds from Asia
Abstract
Concentrations of organochlorine contaminants including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), chlordane compounds (CHLs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) were determined in the resident and migratory birds, which were collected from India, Japan, Philippines, Russia (Lake Baikal) and Vietnam. Accumulation patterns of organochlorine concentrations in resident birds suggested that the predominant contaminants of each country were as follows: Japan--PCBs Philippines--PCBs and CHLs, India--HCHs and DDTs, Vietnam--DDTs, and Lake Baikal--PCBs and DDTs. The migratory birds from Philippines and Vietnam retained mostly the highest concentrations of DDTs among the organochlorines analyzed, indicating the presence of stopover and breeding grounds of those birds in China and Russia. On the other hand, migratory birds from India and Lake Baikal showed different patterns of organochlorine residues, reflecting that each species has inherent migratory routes and thus has exposure to different contaminants. Species which have breeding grounds around the Red Sea and Persian Gulf showed high levels of PCBs, indicating the presence of areas heavily polluted by PCBs in the Middle East.
... For example, in the Western James Bay region, northern Ontario, Canada, the levels of PCBs and DDTs in Hudsonian Godwit Limosa haemastica and Marbled Godwit Limosa fedoa were within acceptable range, but Hudsonian Whimbrels Numenius phaeopus sampled from Chile and American Woodcock Scolopax minor harvested in Connecticut of the USA showed high concentrations of Cd and Pb residues, respectively, that may cause public health concerns. Besides DDTs, most shorebirds accumulated greater concentrations of PCBs (240-12000 ng/g, fat weight) than the concentrations of PCBs in other waterfowls (180-830 ng/g, fat weight) in Asia (Kunisue et al., 2003). Except for Black-necked Stilts Himantopus mexicanus from the historical mining site of San Francisco Bay contained muscle total Hg concentrations of 1.30-8.76 ...
... In the Iberian Peninsula, Pb, Zn, and Cu were found in feathers of Kentish Plover at concentrations above the established thresholds for toxicological effects in some populations (Vidal et al., 2021). Notably, there was only one study involving research conducted in the remote Asian breeding grounds in Russia and Japan, which suggested that PCBs and DDTs were the most common organochlorine pollutants recorded (Kunisue et al., 2003). ...
... Along the EAAF, shorebirds from both wintering grounds of Vietnam and India, and the breeding grounds of Lake Baikal, Russia, had elevated concentrations of DDTs. Particularly, the short-distance migrant, Charadrius dubius" right after "Little Ringed Plover Little Ringed Plover, collected from India, showed an alarming concentration average of 57000 ng/g of DDTs (fat weight, homogenized whole body), indicating heavily polluted local contamination in India (Kunisue et al., 2003). Due to serious consequences in organochlorine pesticides (HCHs and DDTs), their usage and manufacture was restricted and even banned in many countries for decades. ...
Environmental pollution has emerged as a major threat to bird populations. Many shorebird populations are declining, although contamination has been documented in some shorebirds, evidence of negative impacts is sparse and this important topic remains understudied. To guide future research and develop effective conservation strategies, we carried out a comprehensive review of environmental pollutants and their consequences on shorebirds. In total, we found 93 relevant articles which examined pollutant contamination in ~37% (79 of 215) of all shorebird species, mostly from the Charadriidae and Scolopacidae families. Studies were geographically biased: the majority were conducted in American flyways, while only 1 was found from Australasia and few were conducted in Asian flyways. The main geographic gap for research includes East Africa, South Asia and Siberian Arctic. The most well-documented pollutants included mercury (Hg, 37 studies), cadmium (33), and lead (Pb, 28); less well studied pollutants were barium (1), calcium (1), strontium (1), dicofols (1), and other newly emerging contaminants, such as plastic debris/microplastics (4) and antibiotics resistance (2). Several pollutants have caused considerable concerns in shorebirds, including embryotoxicity caused by PCBs at non-optimum temperature (laboratory experiments); reduced reproduction performance linked to maternal Hg and paternal Pb (field evidence); and reduced refueling and flight performance related to oil contamination (both field and laboratory evidence). Our results confirm that an in-depth understanding of the local, regional and global factors that influence population trends of shorebirds in light of increasing pollution threats is essential for accurate and effective management and conservation strategies.
... Because of increasing human population in most of the Asian countries, agricultural activities with industrialization and urbanization have exponentially increased during the past few decades, particularly in East Asian regions such as China, South Korea, Japan and Russia. The industrial activities are also on the rise in most of South Asian countries including India, Pakistan and central to North and North-western Gulf states, Iran and Turkey (Ali et al., 2014;Kunisue et al., 2003). This upsurge in industrial and agricultural activities has led to either intentional or unintentional discharges of a wide range of hazardous chemicals in the environment including legacy POPs and emerging FRs. ...
... Maximum means (ng/g LW) of PCBs of 282,775 (1400-7,700,000) were reported in multiple species from Ehime University, Japan (Kunisue et al., 2008) followed by 160,190 (600-240,000) in different resident birds of Japan (Kunisue et al., 2003), 32,160 (960-14,000,000) in waterbirds of an e-waste recycling region from South China (Luo et al., 2009b), 29,933 (7770-53,300) in ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea) from Arctic region of Russia (Miljeteig et al., 2009) and 19,543 (14-674,000) in different birds species from South Korea (Hong et al., 2014), whereas the lowest recorded mean levels were 1.63 ng/g LW in multiple species of birds from Japan (Kunisue and Tanabe 2009) and 3.82 (0.01-29.7) ng/g LW in predatory birds from North China . Relatively higher levels of mean PCBs at 4624 (20-140,000) in multiple species from lake Baikal, Russia and 3885 (3.50-170,000) ng/g LW were reported from South India (Kunisue et al., 2003). Similarly, an elevated mean PCBs level at 3876 (159-27,000) ng/g LW has been recorded in different waterbirds from South Korea (Choi et al., 2001a). ...
... Further they concluded that PCBs in birds from South China mainly derived from e-waste disposal and recycling sites. Relatively lower mean levels (ng/g LW) at 809 (290-2547) in streaked shearwater (Calonectris leucomelas) from different Islands of Japan (Ito et al., 2013), 608 (48-14,000), 694 (63-3600) in multiple birds species of Philippines and Vietnam (Kunisue et al., 2003) and 576 (23-71,000) in multiple birds species from North China have been documented. Similarly, lower mean PCBs concentrations on a wet weight (WW) basis of 494 (0.9-52,000) in different water bird species from South China (Zhang et al., 2011a), 236 (b20-44,000) in multiple species from South India (Tanabe et al., 1998), 226 (b LOD-4089), in different waterbirds from Caspian sea coast of Iran (Rajaei et al., 2011), 168 (6.5-4400) in multiple species of South India (Senthilkumar and Kannan, 2001b) and 23 (7-30.5) ...
... The PCB concentrations in the resident pigeons and seagulls from an industrialised coastal area, Busan, are similar to those in Japan, and higher than birds from Vietnam, Russia, India, and Philippines (Kunisue et al., 2003;Minh et al., 2002). The DDT concentrations in resident birds were in the following order; Busan (South Korea), Vietnam N Japan N India N Russia N Philippines (Kunisue et al., 2003;Minh et al., 2002). ...
... The PCB concentrations in the resident pigeons and seagulls from an industrialised coastal area, Busan, are similar to those in Japan, and higher than birds from Vietnam, Russia, India, and Philippines (Kunisue et al., 2003;Minh et al., 2002). The DDT concentrations in resident birds were in the following order; Busan (South Korea), Vietnam N Japan N India N Russia N Philippines (Kunisue et al., 2003;Minh et al., 2002). The PBDE concentrations in piscivorous birds, including seagull, loon, and egret, from the Korean coast are lower than those from North America, but higher than those from China, Japan, and Europe (Chen and Hale, 2010). ...
... In both winter and summer migrants, DDTs and PCB were dominant contaminants, which is similar to the resident coastal bird, seagull. Since previous study by Kunisue et al. (2003) found the high accumulation of DDTs and HCHs in resident bird from the Southeast Asian regions such as Vietnam and India, we expected high signals of DDTs and HCHs in summer migrants, but it was not observed. Because migratory birds have various diets and migratory habits, it is difficult to estimate the major region of contamination exposure. ...
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) levels in resident and migratory birds collected from an urbanized coastal region of South Korea were investigated. As target species, resident birds that reside in different habitats-such as inland and coastal regions-were selected and their POP contamination status and accumulation features evaluated. Additionally, winter and summer migratory species were analysed for comparison with resident birds. Black-tailed gull and domestic pigeon were selected as the coastal and inland resident birds, respectively, and pacific loon and heron/egret were selected as the winter and summer migratory birds, respectively. The overall POP concentrations (unit: ng/g lipid) in resident birds were 14-131,000 (median: 13,400) for PCBs, 40-284,000 (11,200) for DDTs, <1.0-2850 (275) for CHLs, 23-2020 (406) for HCHs, 2-1520 (261) for HCB, <0.2-48 (5) for pentachlorobenzene (PeCB), 71-7120 (1840) for PBDEs, and <1.8-2300 (408) for HBCDs. In resident birds, the overall level of POPs was higher in seagull compared to pigeon. The stable isotope ratio of nitrogen and carbon indicates that seagull occupies a higher trophic position in the environment than pigeon. However, the POP accumulation profiles in these species differed. Pigeon tends to accumulate more recently used POPs such as PBDEs than seagull. The high-brominated BDE congeners, γ-HBCDs and γ-HCH (also called lindane) were enriched in pigeon compared to seagull, implying the widespread use of Deca-BDE, technical HBCDs, and lindane in the terrestrial environment of South Korea. The different accumulation profile of POPs in both resident species would be related to their habitat difference and trophic positions. For urban resident bird such as pigeon, an intentional intake of dust or soils during feeding is likely to be an additional route of exposure to POPs. Resident birds generally accumulated higher POPs concentrations than migratory birds, the exceptions being relatively volatile compounds such as HCB, PeCB and HCHs.
... One of the factors of anthropogenic impact on them is the entry of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) to the breeding and wintering grounds, and also to the sites of concentration (stopover hotspots) on the routes of their seasonal migrations. Therefore, the level of POPs in birds is a marker of various types of toxicants in the environment and, more broadly, an indicator of trends in biosphere pollution [2][3][4][5][6]. Thus, migratory birds indicate not only local, but also integral pollution along migration routes which are covered rather through a series of long stopovers at hotspot sites, well known as sites of intensive exchange of various viruses, than by a single flight [7][8][9]. ...
... OCP compounds, in the overall structure of toxicants ( Fig. 10.3). A study by Kunisue and co-authors [3] identified a pattern of build-up of OCC concentrations in local birds, in particular PCBs in Japan, PCBs and chlordane in the Philippines, HCHs and DDT in India, DDT in Vietnam, and PCB and DDT in Lake Baikal. In this regard, the assumption can be made that the collected birds from Lake Khanka, which have their wintering grounds in the region of tropical Asia and migration routes that run over the territory of China, accumulate organic pollutants there. ...
Being subject to transboundary transport by water and air masses, persistent organic pollutants (POP) are precipitated at a great distance from sources of pollution and accumulated in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Birds of semi-aquatic and aquatic ecosystems represent a widespread and highly mobile group of homeothermic animals comprising numerous species that make regular migrations over long distances. Migratory birds can be considered indicators of transboundary transfer of various pollutants. The present study provides data on POP levels in bodies of anatid birds (Anseriformes: Anatidae) from Lake Khanka (Sea of Okhotsk basin).
... Geophagy can have bioaccumulation and other toxicological implications for birds foraging in habitats with heavily contaminated soils or sediments (Beyer and Fries 2003). Field biomagnification or bioaccumulation in wild birds may be estimated using the instantaneous dietary contaminant levels determined from properly performed stomach content analysis (Ketyam et al. 2016;Woodley et al. 2004); however, similar assessment would be difficult, especially for long-range migrants for which there is uncertainly in diet and contaminant exposure during migration (Kunisue et al. 2003;Minh et al. 2002). ...
... Transcontinental studies can provide a macroscopic view on the prevalence of contaminants. Examples include the survey of legacy organochlorines and metabolites in tissues and eggs across the United States (Jarman et al. 1993;reviewed in Rattner et al. 2005), the tracking of volatile methylsiloxanes and organophosphate esters in European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) and congeneric gull (Laridae) eggs across Canada (Lu et al. 2017), and the mapping of PCBs and other legacy organochlorines in some 60 avian species in the Asia Pacific regions (Kunisue et al. 2003). Field studies with broad chemical scope can support and refine management policy toward particular chemical classes. ...
A literature review of bioaccumulation and biotransformation of organic chemicals in birds was undertaken, aiming to support scoping and prioritization of future research. The objectives were to characterize available bioaccumulation/biotransformation data, identify knowledge gaps, determine how extant data can be used, and explore the strategy and steps forward. An intermediate approach balanced between expediency and rigor was taken given the vastness of the literature. Following a critical review of > 500 peer-reviewed studies, > 25,000 data entries and 2 million information bytes were compiled on > 700 organic compounds for ~ 320 wild species and 60 domestic breeds of birds. These data were organized into themed databases on bioaccumulation and biotransformation , field survey , microsomal enzyme activity , metabolic pathway , and bird taxonomy and diet . Significant data gaps were identified in all databases at multiple levels. Biotransformation characterization was largely fragmented over metabolite/pathway identification and characterization of enzyme activity or biotransformation kinetics. Limited biotransformation kinetic data constrained development of an avian biotransformation model. A substantial shortage of in vivo biotransformation kinetics has been observed as most reported rate constants were derived in vitro. No metric comprehensively captured all key contaminant classes or chemical groups to support broad-scope modeling of bioaccumulation or biotransformation. However, metrics such as biota-feed accumulation factor, maximum transfer factor, and total elimination rate constant were more readily usable for modeling or benchmarking than other reviewed parameters. Analysis demonstrated the lack of bioaccumulation/biotransformation characterization of shorebirds, seabirds, and raptors. In the study of bioaccumulation and biotransformation of organic chemicals in birds, this review revealed the need for greater chemical and avian species diversity, chemical measurements in environmental media, basic biometrics and exposure conditions, multiple tissues/matrices sampling, and further exploration on biotransformation. Limitations of classical bioaccumulation metrics and current research strategies used in bird studies were also discussed. Forward-looking research strategies were proposed: adopting a chemical roadmap for future investigations, integrating existing biomonitoring data, gap-filling with non-testing approaches, improving data reporting practices, expanding field sampling scopes, bridging existing models and theories, exploring biotransformation via avian genomics, and establishing an online data repository.
... The globally declining population of many avian species has various causes, including habitat loss, climatic change and environmental pollutants [1][2][3][4]. Pollutants such as persistent pesticides not only have a long-term impact on the environment but are also accumulated in the different bird species [5][6][7][8]. An illustrative example of a study on a pesticide that affected birds showed that the dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) metabolite, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) was a cause of eggshell thinning, with a major effect on reproduction and hatching success [9,10]. ...
... This indicates that these long-term residual chemicals have remained across the world. Long-distance migrants may have a higher chance of being exposed to large-scale pollution, which could be from the breeding area, the migration route and the wintering ground [2,8,13]. The World Health Organization has found that OCPs continue to be used as indoor residual spraying agents for malaria vector prevention in 80 malaria-endemic countries, particularly in Africa between 2010 to 2018, including in the Congo region [14,15]. ...
The use of pesticides is associated with the decline of several avian species. In this study, we monitored the organochlorine contaminants in common swifts (Apus apus) in the years 2016 to 2018. These long-distance migrants breed in Europe and winter in Africa. Their only feeding source is aerial plankton. Pooled organ samples of 42 adult and 40 juvenile swifts were tested with the multi-residue method by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-TOF/MS). Predominantly, 4,4′-DDE, dieldrin, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), lindane and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were found in most of these common swifts. Only 4,4′-DDE (adult: 83 ± 70 μg/kg, juvenile: 17 ± 39 μg/kg) and dieldrin (adult: 2 ± 3 μg/kg, juvenile: 0.3 ± 1 μg/kg) concentrations were significantly different between adult and juvenile birds. All detected concentrations in our study were far lower than the previously recorded pesticide concentrations of common swifts in Italy and those which are known to cause toxicity and death in birds.
... In order to assess the contamination status in the environment and the risk for wildlife, many biomonitoring studies on OCs have been conducted using tissue samples of various wild animals 1,11,12) . ...
... Among OCs, PCB concentrations were the highest also in mongoose liver tissues from the same area that we previously analyzed 16) , and 1-2 orders of magnitude higher levels of PCBs than CHLs, HCHs and HCB have been reported in liver, adipose, or muscle tissues of Japanese human and avian species 11,20) . These results indicate that the Japanese environment including Okinawa is widely polluted by OCs, especially by PCBs. ...
Concentrations of persistent organochlorines (OCs), such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and chlordane compounds (CHLs) in the muscle and liver tissues of feral mongooses from the Okinawa Island were measured, in order to understand the contamination status by these contaminants in the Southwest Islands, Japan. The lipidnormalized concentrations of each compound were similar between the muscle and liver tissues of mongooses from the rural area, and were in the order of PCBs ＞CHLs ≒DDTs ＞HCHs ≒HCB. The concentrations of CHLs and DDTs in the mongoose muscles from the residential areas were higher than those from the rural area. In the mongooses from all the areas, the predominant CHL compounds were oxychlordane and trans-nonachlor, while p,p’-DDE was dominant among DDTs. Higher concentrations of PCBs were accumulated in the mongooses from an area around a contaminated tidal flat and from another area which includes US military facilities, when compared with those from a residential area. The PCB congeners which occupied more than 5% of all the congeners detected in the mongoose tissues were PCB138, 153, 170, 180, 187, and 194 in both of the two highly contaminated areas, but their proportions were different from each other.
... Compared with the eggshell thickness in 1940, by the end of 1960s, the eggshell thickness of nine out of the 17 studied species was found to decrease by 5 to 19%. Studies in the U.S. and Canada also revealed a certain degree of thinning of the shell; the shell thickness and the weight of many bird species decreased by 20% (Kunisue et al., 2003;Tanabe and Subramanian, 2006;Tanabe, 2007). ...
... Non-migrating birds can reflect the background contamination of their habitat. If there are no local pollution sources, birds reflect the global pollution resulting from the trans-boundary transfer of pollutants (Kunisue et al., 2003). ...
... Compared with the eggshell thickness in 1940, by the end of 1960s, the eggshell thickness of nine out of the 17 studied species was found to decrease by 5 to 19%. Studies in the U.S. and Canada also revealed a certain degree of thinning of the shell; the shell thickness and the weight of many bird species decreased by 20% (Kunisue et al., 2003;Tanabe and Subramanian, 2006;Tanabe, 2007). ...
... Non-migrating birds can reflect the background contamination of their habitat places. If there are no local pollution sources, birds reflect the global pollution resulting from the trans-boundary transfer of pollutants (Kunisue et al., 2003;Knudsen et al., 2007). ...
Organochlorine pesticides are persistent toxic substances of anthropogenic origin that affect biota. Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers (α-, β-, and γ-), DDT and its metabolites (DDD and DDE) were detected in five individuals of fulmars Fulmarus glacialis Linnaeus, 1761 from the coast of Eastern Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. The average amount of HCH isomers in the organs of ful-mars ranged from 608 ± 177 ng/g lipids in the total homogenate of the organs to 2093 ± 264 ng/g lipids in the feathers with skin. The average range of the amounts of DDT and its metabolites was from 3606 ± 333 ng/g lipids in the feathers with skin to 4076 ± 1624 ng/g lipids in the feathers. The results are discussed.
... Various physiological and biochemical factors, such as dietary habits, development, age, fertility, feather change, and migrations can affect concentrations and mineral redistribution in birds (Kim et al., 2007). Although pollution in bird habitats is minimal but exposure to heavy metals may have a negative impact on their subsequent reproductive activity in their habitats or at laying sites (Kunisue et al., 2003). All sites in the studied marshes are polluted to varying degrees, affecting the aquatic life. ...
The study was conducted in the Al-Dalmaj marsh which is one of the most important ecosystems in Iraq and the Middle East and represents one of the most important environments for the reproduction of Marbled Teal. The study evaluated the accumulation of heavy elements of Nickel, Cadmium, and Lead in the liver and small intestine tissues of MT during the summer and winter. The results showed that the concentration of heavy metals in the MT organs is consequent as small intestine > Liver. The average concentration of Ni was the highest as 6.6973 ppm in the small intestine, and the highest percentage was recorded at 4.3272 ppm in the liver during the summer. The highest cumulative rate of the element during both seasons was 5.95±0.54 in the intestine, and 1.1681 ppm was the highest rate of Cd in the liver during summer, and 0.9308 ppm was the highest concentration in small intestine during winter. The highest cumulative rate of concentration of elements in the liver during both seasons was 0.982±0.27 ppm. The highest level of Pb was 8.0715 ppm in summer, and 7.566 ppm in the small intestine. The highest cumulative average of the element during both seasons in the small intestine was 6.93±0.55 ppm.
... This usefulness of feathers in discerning habitat exogenous contaminations and exposures was also confirmed by reports of Yang et al (2018) and Jaspers et al (2013). Kunisue et al (2003) were of the opinion that feathers of avian species are useful bioindicators to elucidate contamination status of organochlorines in breeding grounds, stopover sites and wintering grounds, because resident birds directly reflect the specific local pollution status of sampling area, and migratory birds reflect not only the pollution status of sampling area but also those of their migratory routes. Adeogun et al (2022) (under review) demonstrated that feather concentrations of metals and OCPs in birds (Bronze mannikin, Bluespotted wood dove, Yellow-throated long claw, Senegal kingfisher and African jacana) were strongly correlated with the trophic tendencies and habitat preferences of each bird within lake wetlands. ...
The decline in animal population with resulting risk of eventual disruption of ecosystem functioning has necessitated moves towards non-invasive sampling methods for ecotoxicological studies. These efforts have focused on developing sampling methodologies geared towards prioritizing conservation of biodiversity. Using a rapid review approach, 106 articles covering peer-reviewed studies, theses, and manuscripts under peer-review quantifying contaminants in feathers were examined. Meta-analysis of extracted information (n=91) revealed that most studies on feather contaminants originate from Europe (47.6 %) and Asia (32.9%), with a higher occurrence of such studies between 2015 and 2020. The most utilized feather-type across studies were body feathers (28.6%) and tail feathers (20%). Majority of the studies (60.5%) used feathers alone to estimate contaminant exposure and uptake; 14.8% used feathers and blood, while 12.3% used feathers and soft tissues (liver, kidney, muscle etc.). Inferences from the review reveal that feathers as a non-invasive sampling method provide advantages by having contaminant concentrations that are relatable with internal organs of birds, captures information on ambient contaminant concentrations based on exogenous contributions and application for historic studies. However, some available data indicate that selective uptake of some metals in organs of species could significantly reduce the number of contaminants stored in feathers and may limit its accuracy for biomonitoring. Furthermore, the different degrees of external deposition of persistent organic contaminants (PCBs, PBDEs, etc) onto the feather surface due to differential degradability/metabolization may limit the use of feathers to estimate exogenous effects. Nonetheless, while feathers have been used successfully as a non-invasive method for ecotoxicological monitoring of metals, metalloids and organic pollutants, knowledge on bird ontogeny and contaminant-specific trends in feathers could improve the accuracy of monitoring. Further efforts towards broadening the impact and advancement of this field method in future studies of avian research especially in developing countries is recommended.
... For bird species that conduct seasonal migration, toxic chemical contamination can occur on the breeding or non-breeding grounds or at stopover sites during migration. Migratory bird species have been found to have different types and concentrations of toxic chemicals between their breeding and non-breeding grounds (Albert et al., 2021;Parolini et al., 2021) and when compared to resident species (Corsolini et al., 2011;Hong et al., 2014;Jin et al., 2016;Kunisue et al., 2003;Minh et al., 2002;Tanabe et al., 1998). These differences are a likely consequence of migratory species encountering different toxic chemical contamination profiles across their annual geographic distributions. ...
Anthropogenic activities generate different forms of environmental pollution, including artificial light at night (ALAN) and airborne toxic chemicals (ATCs). Nocturnally migrating birds are attracted to ALAN during migration and if ALAN occurs in unison with ATC, the chances of ground-level ATC contamination occurring at stopover sites could increase. Here, we document the relationship between ALAN and ATC within the contiguous United States based on 479 toxic chemicals from 15,743 releasing facilities. Using weekly diurnal estimates of relative abundance for 165 nocturnally migrating passerine (NMP) bird species, we assess how the species richness and relative abundance of NMP species are correlated with ALAN and ATC across the annual cycle. The concentration of ATC increased with increasing ALAN levels, except at the highest ALAN levels. The species richness of NMP species was positively correlated with ATC during the non-breeding season and migration, and negatively correlated during the breeding season. The relative abundance of NMP species was negatively correlated with ATC during the breeding and non-breeding seasons and the correlation did not differ from zero during migration. Through the disorienting influence of ALAN, our findings suggest large numbers of NMP species are being exposed to higher ATC concentrations at stopover sites. Outside of migration, large numbers of NMP species that winter along the US Gulf Coast are being exposed for an extended period of time to higher ATC concentrations. Initiatives designed to decrease ALAN during migration have the potential to reduce the acute and chronic effects of ATC contamination, lower the maternal transfer of toxic chemicals to eggs, and decrease the biologically mediated transport of toxic chemicals across regions. However, these initiatives will not benefit species that experience prolonged ATC exposure during the non-breeding season along the US Gulf Coast, a region that could be a significant source of ATC contamination for North American birds. K E Y W O R D S air pollution, community science, light pollution, nocturnal migration, seasonal bird migration, toxic chemicals
... Red symbols indicate nonroutinely monitored compounds (DDTs: excluding o,p′-/p,p′-DDTs, DDDs and DDEs; C 10 -CHLs: excluding heptachlor, cis-/trans-chlordanes and nonachlors; C 10 -CHLOs: excluding cis-/trans-heptachlor epoxides and oxy-chlordane; mirex: Cl 11 -mirex only).The OHCs accumulated at the highest concentrations in the bird liver samples were compounds related to legacy chlorinated POPs followed by PBDEs: PCBs (1.5 to 1800 µg/g) DDT-≫ related compounds (0.038 to 53 µg/g) ≈ C 10 -CHLs and -CHLOs (0.10 to 47 and 0.16 to 90 µg/g) > PBDEs (0.064 to 23 µg/g). The predominance of PCBs among POPs is consistent with previous reports on birds from Japan.43,44 Typically unmonitored compounds accounted for a significant portion of these POPs: up to 63% of total C 10 -CHLs in terms of concentrations (32 out of 37 compounds), 44% of total C 10 -CHLOs (33 out of 36 compounds), and 26% of total DDT-related compounds (26 out of 31 compounds). ...
... In addition, this method has only been applied in HRBC. In the future, similar research can be carried out in other key areas of migratory birds, such as Liao he Delta wetland, Yellow River Delta wetland, Yancheng coastal wetland, Poyang Lake Wetland and even the whole Northeast Asia region (Guo et al., 2016;Harris et al., 2013;Kunisue et al., 2003;Liu et al., 2010). The SSC evaluation and regulation of wetland ecosystem could provide a reference basis to other regions. ...
Currently, the weakened connectivity of wetland ecosystems is the most important factor leading to the destruction, degradation, and disappearance of wetlands. Studying changes in wetland ecosystems connectivity enables the understanding the hydrological processes in wetland ecosystems and provides significant support for the study of ecological water demand. However, recent research on the connectivity of wetland ecosystems has primarily focused on intuitive Heilongjiang River Basin in China (HRBC) connectivity in terms of hydrology and geomorphology, while the impact of wetland ecosystems on habitats has been ignored. The present study applied an innovative method to evaluate and regulate the stereoscopic spatial connectivity (SSC) of the wetland ecosystems in the HRBC. In this method, the water requirements of typical organisms in the region were considered, and the hydrological trends in the wetland ecosystems along with the status of the SSC were analyzed using remote sensing images. A regulation mode for improving the stereoscopic spatial connectivity index (SSCI) was proposed. The results revealed that over the past 35 years, the wetland ecosystems in the study area shrank significantly, with the SSCI decreasing from 41.30% in 1980 to 35.08% in 2015. By comparing the correlations among temperature, precipitation, agricultural land, construction land, and the wetland ecosystems during the same period, it was proven that human activity serves as the major driving force behind the observed loss of wetlands in the system. Subsequently, the key protected areas needing protection to maintain the SSC of the wetland ecosystems were clarified, and the key recovery areas were determined based on three scenarios featuring high, medium, and low feasibility, which greatly improved the SSCI and generalization route (GR) after regulation. In general, the proposed SSC evaluation and regulation method is widely applicable to all kinds of wetland ecosystems located on animal habitat and migration routes, which can fully reflect the ecological effects of wetland ecosystems, and this method has certain reference significance for the evaluation and regulation of wetland ecosystems in other regions.
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... Although levels of POPs were found in the local shiners, terns are migratory birds that have fed at multiple locations throughout the U.S. and Central and South America, and studies suggest that migratory birds do not necessarily reflect local contaminant levels (Hebert, 1998;Kunisue et al., 2003). Therefore, other locations of potential exposure must be considered in future studies. ...
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) accumulate in the food web of the Great Lakes ecosystem, causing concern that these chemicals play a role in the decline of avian species such as colonial-nesting waterbirds. In this study, samples from four life stages of the common tern (Sterna hirundo), a threatened species in New York State, were collected post-mortem in the Buffalo-Niagara region (United States). Brains (n = 26) and livers (n =27) were analyzed for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and the insecticide p,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its two metabolites p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD). Detectable concentrations of PCBs and PBDEs were observed in all samples; concentrations of total PCBs ranged from 5.59 to 2,490 ng/g wet weight (ww), total PBDEs ranged from 1.09 to 494 ng/g ww, and DDE metabolites ranged from 0.56 to 637 ng/g ww. Analysis of the primary food source for terns in the Buffalo-Niagara region, emerald shiners (Notropis atherinoides), revealed that all three classes of POPs had similar contaminant profiles in the fish to those in the brains and livers of tern samples. Overall, small chicks contained greater concentrations of pollutants than medium chicks and juveniles, likely from maternal loading to eggs. These results underline the persistence of these legacy contaminants in the Great Lakes, despite their banning, and their biomagnification in threatened species through food web interactions.
... Moreover, birds do visit adjoining agricultural fields to meet their food requirements. (Vijayan and Muralidharan 1999) and Vietnam (Kunisue et al. 2003). Further, it is noted that HCH is also one of the most frequently detected residues in many species of birds in India (Muralidharan et al. 2008;Dhananjayan et al. 2011a;Dhananjayan 2013). ...
Use of pesticides continues to be indiscriminate, and birds are one of the worst affected non-targeted organisms. Information on the ill effects of pesticides on birds far from desired in India. Despite the presence of a wide variety and number of birds, there is exceedingly little data on organochlorine pesticide (OCP) residues in colonial nesting birds in sanctuaries of India. A total of 76 individuals belonging to 14 species of birds found dead between March 2008 and March 2010 were analyzed for pesticide residues in various tissues. Of all the OCPs analyzed, concentration of HCH was found to be the highest. Magnitude of contamination varied widely among species. Accumulation pattern of OCPs in colonial nesting birds was in the order ∑HCH > ∑endosulfan > ∑DDT > heptachlor epoxide > dieldrin. Pesticides, namely p,p-DDE and β-HCH contributed most towards the total OCPs. Concentrations of DDT and its metabolites, HCH and isomers, dieldrin, and heptachlor epoxide were lower than the concentrations reported for various species of birds elsewhere in India. Although the sanctuaries presently studied have official boundaries, physical demarcations are missing and there are no proper earthen dykes particularly in Vedanthangal and Koonthankulam Bird Sanctuaries. During monsoon, runoff not only floods the Sanctuaries but also the cultivated areas nearby. Run off brings in residues of pesticides and fertilizers from the agricultural lands into the sanctuaries. Although OCP results in this study were below threshold limits, it may be noted that the long duration exposure even to low levels of pesticides could create a significant impact at population level. Hence, earthen dykes need to be built to avoid agricultural runoff entering the Sanctuary and also help to hold sufficient amount of water for breeding birds.
... The occurrence of DDx in the environment continues to pose a threat, as they may bioaccumulate in fatty tissues of all life forms, resulting in higher concentrations in higher trophic levels (LeBlanc, 1995). DDx's recalcitrant nature, persistence, and toxicity have been recognized as a serious environmental and ecological threat (Dimond and Owen, 1996;Kunisue, 2003). Ecological and environmental concerns prompted inclusion of DDx in the U.S. EPA's National Priority List (NPL) (U.S. EPA, 2000) as one of the most recalcitrant and environmentally significant pollutants (EPA, 2002). ...
... From this, researchers have proposed the use of birds as bio-indicators for monitoring POPs in the environment. According to the results of the bivalve monitoring programme in the Asia-Pacific region [37], POP concentrations in fish, bivalves and birds in Vietnam are lower than in southern China and Hong Kong, but higher than most other East Asian countries [38][39][40][41][42][43][44]. ...
We have been aware for several decades that besides the positive contributions chemicals also pose negative effects on the environment and human health. Among these chemicals Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) have been a primary concern. For example, chemicals such as DDT and PCB were great scientific achievements. However, these substances are now seen as hazardous chemical stockpiles, which need to be strictly controlled and eliminated. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was signed in 2002 with the objective of mobilizing global efforts in order to manage and eliminate these chemicals and reduce emissions from them. In the past, the environment and human health in Vietnam has suffered from negative impacts of hazardous pesticides, typically in areas contaminated by pesticide stockpiles or in “hot spots” with a high concentration of Agent Orange (AO)/dioxin. Nowadays, in the period of innovation and economic development, environmental pollution, including pollution caused by pesticide release, continues to be one of the most significant socio-economic issues that concerns the Government of Vietnam. The Government of Vietnam has ratified the Stockholm Convention on POPs. The Government has also developed and promulgated Vietnam’s implementation plan on the Stockholm Convention. The plan clearly indicates Vietnam’s viewpoints and commitments to the international community on joint effort to safely manage POPs in order to protect the environment and community health. With the effort of the Government, organizations, experts and related individuals in Vietnam, as well as international cooperation, many programmes, projects and activities on management and remediation of POP contamination have been developed and implemented over the past 10 years.
This report is the result of activities implemented over the past 10 years (2005-2015), which has contributed to protecting the environment and human health from the dangerous impacts of POPs.
This report present general information on all projects implemented in Vietnam during the past time for sound management and treatment of POPs, which ultilized national resources as well as were supported by international communities.
... Seabirds that migrate short distances can exhibit the background level of contamination in their habitat. If local pollution impact is negligible, seabirds reflect the global pollution as a result of the transboundary transfer of pollutants (Kunisue et al., 2003;Tsygankov et al., 2016a). Marine mammals are considered as bioindicators of global pesticide pollution and reflect modern trends of marine ecosystems contamination (Tanabe and Subramanian, 2006;. ...
... Therefore, harriers in Europe could be more exposed to legacy OC pesticides used for agriculture in the past. Montagu's and pallid harriers winter in either India or the Sahel/ Ethiopia fringe in Africa (Terraube et al., 2012;Trierweiler et al., 2014), where they use agricultural areas for foraging, which also makes them vulnerable to farmland toxic compounds that were used there, including DDTs (Dhananjayan et al., 2011;Kunisue et al., 2003;Yohannes et al., 2014Yohannes et al., , 2017. Additionally, these species may be also exposed to PCBs, depending on the level of industrialization in their breeding and wintering grounds. ...
Organochlorine compounds (OC) are of interest in current biomonitoring studies because of their well-known persistence, accumulation capacity and the adverse effects they caused in the past. P,p’-DDE has been shown to cause severe reproductive failures and population declines in birds of prey. However, there are knowledge gaps regarding OC exposure for some species (e.g. harriers) and to the historical record and the broader picture. The main goal was to evaluate exposure to p,p’-DDE and PCBs in two raptor species: Montagu’s and pallid harriers (Circus pygargus and Circus macrourus), and to investigate if birds from different breeding areas and wintering grounds differ in pollutant levels. For this purpose, we collected blood of adult and nestling Montagu’s and pallid harriers breeding in the natural steppes of Kazakhstan, and adult and nestling Montagu’s harriers breeding in agricultural and natural habitats of Spain, in 2007-2008. We determined the blood concentrations of p,p’-DDE and PCBs. Adult harriers generally showed higher concentrations of p,p’-DDE and PCBs than nestlings, probably because they had more time for a progressive accumulation of these compounds due to a higher intake than excretion rate. The p,p’-DDE concentrations in adults were equivalent in all the studied areas. The ratio p,p’-DDE/PCB 153 was higher in adults than in nestlings, suggesting that a portion of the p,p’-DDE in adult harriers may have come from p,p'-DDT applied in the past in the wintering areas. Overall, the concentrations of p,p’-DDE and ∑PCBs reported were generally low and below any demonstrated threshold of harm.
... Limited studies on POPs in KPs could be obtained to perform a geographical comparison. It had been pointed out that KPs from Vietnam, India and Lake Baikal, Russia, had higher levels of DDTs and PCBs based on wet weight (ww) in the earlier studies (Kunisue et al., 2003;Minh et al., 2002). Furthermore, our results indicated moderately low organohalogenated contaminant levels in KPs when compared to other avian species (Table S1, S3 and S4). ...
... Nonmigrating birds can reflect the background contamination of their habitat. If there are no local pollution sources, birds reflect the global pollution resulting from the transboundary transport of pollutants (Kunisue et al. 2003;Tsygankov et al. 2016). ...
Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), such as HCHs and DDTs, are still used as pesticides in the Southern Hemisphere and can reach the North Pacific due to long range atmospheric transfer. Marine mammals (Pacific walrus Odobenus rosmarus divergens, gray whale Eschrichtius robustus), the seabirds (Pacific gull Larus schistisagus, crested auklet Aethia cristatella, auklet crumb Aethia pusilla, northern fulmar Fulmarus glacialis, and grey petrel Oceanodroma furcata) and Pacific salmon (pink Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, chum O. keta, chinook O. tshawytscha, and sockeye O. nerka) were collected near the Kuril Islands (the northern-western part of the Pacific Ocean), in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea. The total OCPs concentration (HCHs + DDTs) was found in each organism, including the Pacific walrus (70-90,263 ng/g lipid), the seabirds (29-16,095 ng/g lipid), and the Pacific salmon (41-7103 ng/g lipid). The concentrations and possible sources of OCPs in marine organisms as biological indicators are discussed.
... These concentrations are slightly lower than those reported in bird eggs from the Baltic Sea (Nordlof et al., 2012a) and Canadian Arctic (Bouwman et al., 2014), but much higher than those in South Africa (Bouwman et al., 2014) and other Asian countries (e.g. Vietnam, India and the Philippines) (Kunisue et al., 2003). ...
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) are highly toxic to humans and wildlife. In the present study, PCDD/Fs were analyzed in the eggs of whiskered terns (Chlidonias hybrida), and genetically identified eggs from black-crowned night herons (Nycticorax nycticorax) sampled from two lakes in the Yangtze River Delta area, China. The median toxic equivalent (TEQ) of PCDD/Fs were 280 (range: 95-1500) and 400 (range: 220-1100) pg TEQ g(-1) lw (WHO, 1998 for birds) in the eggs of black-crowned night heron and whiskered tern, respectively. Compared to known sources, concentrations of PCDDs relative to the sum of PCDD/Fs in bird eggs, demonstrated high abundance of octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (OCDD), 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-heptaCDD and 1,2,3,6,7,8-hexaCDD indicating pentachlorophenol (PCP), and/or sodium pentachlorophenolate (Na-PCP) as significant sources of the PCDD/Fs. The presence of polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PCDEs), hydroxylated and methoxylated polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (OH- and MeO-PCDEs, known impurities in PCP products), corroborates this hypothesis. Further, significant correlations were found between the predominant congener CDE-206, 3'-OH-CDE-207, 2'-MeO-CDE-206 and OCDD, indicating a common origin. Eggs from the two lakes are sometimes used for human consumption. The WHO health-based tolerable intake of PCDD/Fs is exceeded if eggs from the two lakes are consumed regularly on a weekly basis, particularly for children. The TEQs extensively exceed maximum levels for PCDD/Fs in hen eggs and egg products according to EU legislation (2.5?pg TEQ g(-1)lw). The results suggest immediate action should be taken to manage the contamination, and further studies evaluating the impacts of egg consumption from wild birds in China. Likewise, studies on dioxins and other POPs in common eggs need to be initiated around China.
... Several studies have shown that there are seasonal differences in body burdens for migratory birds; there have also been observed differences in the levels and specific contaminant profiles between migrants and residents (Tanabe et al. 1998;Kunisue et al. 2003;Yogui and Sericano 2009;Seegar et al. 2015). Migration is energetically costly, and birds rely primarily on fat stores to fuel their flights. ...
For many years, it has been hypothesized that Neotropical migrants breeding in the United States and Canada accumulate organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) while on their wintering grounds in Latin America. We investigated the seasonal accumulation of persistent organic pollutant (POPs) in migrant and resident passerines in Texas, Yucatán, and Costa Rica collected during the fall, winter, and spring from 2011 to 2013. A total of 153 birds were collected, and all contained detectable levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and OCPs with dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) being the most predominant pesticide. OCPs and PCBs were the predominant contaminants, accounting for ≥80 % of the total POPs burden, whereas PBDEs accounted for ≤16 %. Only spring migrants from Texas had significantly greater DDE concentrations (64.6 ng/g dry weight [dw]) than migrants collected in Costa Rica (23.2 ng/g dw). Resident birds in Texas had significantly greater levels of DDE (121 ng/g dw) and ΣPBDEs (34.8 ng/g dw) compared with residents in Yucatán and Costa Rica. For ΣPCBs, resident birds from Costa Rica had significantly lower concentrations (9.60 ng/g dw) compared with their migrant counterparts (43.7 ng/g dw) and residents from Texas (48.3 ng/g dw) and the Yucatán (32.1 ng/g dw). Migrant and resident passerines had similar congener profiles for PCBs and PBDEs suggesting similar exposure and retention of these contaminants. No significant accumulation of DDE was observed in migrants while on their wintering grounds. Relatively high concentrations of PBDEs in resident birds from Costa Rica warrant future studies of PBDE contamination in Latin America.
... Water pollution referred to the contamination of water by any excess of foreign material which is harmful to human, animals and fish 28) . Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are of immense concern as environmental contaminants owing to their bioaccumulation , potential for magnification in food chain and adverse effects on human and wild life 20) . They are widely used in control of pests and diseases since 1940s causing wide spread contamination of the environment 24) . ...
The current study aimed to afford baseline information on the level of twenty one organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and four heavy metals in muscles of Oreochromis niloticus and Mugil cephallus. This will help elucidating the present status as chemical contaminants in the fish species. A total number of thirty fish from each species were collected to set up this study. Nile tilapia (Oreochromis.niloticus), was noticed to contain higher levels of most estimated types of ∑ HCH in (40% of Tilapia) and ∑ CHLRs. While Mullet (Mugil cephallus) was higher only in DDTs. Meanwhile, ∑ HCB, ∑ DRINs and ∑ HPTs were the lowest. The recorded results demonstrated that organochlorines were within the permissible limit according to FAO except for the CHLRs, it exceeds the permissible limit in 100% (N=30) of tested samples of Nile tilapia for all isomer. The analytical data obtained from such study declared that the level of Cd, Zn and Cu were significantly (p≤ 0.05) higher in Mullet than Tilapia but vice versa for Pb. It was evident, that all the detected metals were within the permissible limits according to FAO and WHO. Except for Zn, It exceeded the permissible limits in 50% of the analyzed samples in Mullet. © 2016, Japanese Journal of Veterinary Research. All rights reserved.
... Recently, these organochlorine compounds have been replaced with less-persistent substances (Morales 2013). However, organochlorine contaminants continue to be detected in environmental samples (Kunisue et al. 2003) and still need to be monitored in wildlife populations (Dhananjayaj and Muralidharan 2010). ...
Concentrations of organochlorine pesticides were quantified in samples of feathers (n = 17) and blood (n = 15) of the ferruginous pygmy owl (Glaucidium brasilianum). The individuals were captured near the Protected Natural Area Cerro Sonsonate, Chiapas, Mexico, between February and June 2014. In both tissues, pesticides belonging to seven organochlorine chemical families were detected. However, the organochlorine pesticide concentrations differed between feathers and blood. The highest concentrations of hexachlorocyclohexanes were found in feathers (0.63 ± 0.89 μg/g), whereas the highest concentrations of ΣDrines were found in blood (0.31 ± 0.47 μg/mL). By using the summed concentrations for each of the seven families of pesticides found in feathers, we did not find any significant correlation between the pesticides and pectoral muscle or body weight (p > 0.15). The ΣDDT group was the only pesticide family that showed a positive correlation with owl body weight (r = 0.60, p = 0.05); the concentrations of these pesticides were also high in feather and blood tissues (r = 0.87, p = 0.02). Our results confirm that ferruginous pygmy owls in the study area are exposed to these pesticides.
... Four of those publications that have 'Mussel Watch' in the title were by , Sudaryanto et al. (2002), Monirith et al. (2003) and Ramu et al. (2007). Other publications also contain the results obtained by analyzing the Mussel Watch samples (Minh et al., 2000;Kunisue et al., 2003Kunisue et al., , 2008Kajiwara et al., 2006;among others). ...
We chronicle the extensive influence over the past forty years of Professor Edward D. Goldberg and his call in 1975 for a "Mussel Watch" or bivalve sentinel organism approach to assess geographic status and temporal trends of several chemicals of environmental concern in the coastal ocean. Examples of local, regional, national and international programs are discussed briefly as are examples of interesting useful findings and limitations to the Mussel Watch concept. Mussel Watch continues to provide useful data about status and trends of chemical contamination in coastal ecosystems.
... Migratory raptors have been found to uptake DDTs, PCBs, HCHs and other OCs along their wintering and stopover sites (Becker and Sieg, 1987;G omara et al., 2004;Kunisue et al., 2003;Martinez-Lopez et al., 2007;Chen et al., 2009), and accumulation patterns seem to reflect the birds' dietary habits (i.e. Elliott and Martin, 1994;Glaser and Connolly, 2002;Martinez-Lopez et al., 2007;G omez-Ramírez et al., 2014). ...
... The members of the POME group have analyzed the status of pollution by OCs on various types of samples. In addition to analyses of sediment core samples (Boonyatumanond et al. 2007), the levels in animal tissues were analyzed actively on, for example, mussels (Monirith et al. 2003), fish (Ueno et al. 2005), birds (Kunisue et al. 2003, marine mammals (Kajiwara et al. 2002(Kajiwara et al. , 2004, and human breast milk (Kunisue et al. 2004). ...
... Later, the continued works taken up by CMES scientists on Indian samples in the 21st century on organochlorine pesticides and PCBs showed remarkable variations like reduction in the levels of classical organochlorines as a result of the various bans and restrictions imposed by government of India on their manufacture and usage (Senthilkumar et al., 2001; Kunisue et al., 2003; Kannan et al., 2005; Subramanian et al., 2007; Devanathan et al., 2009) (Fig. 1). Apart from evaluating the temporal and spatial variations of persistent chemicals in India, the efforts of CMES scientists also focused on some specialized environments like the municipal solid waste dumping sites which are now proved by their works as possible hubs of global pollution by toxic chemicals like dioxins and related compounds (DRCs) (Kunisue et al., 2004; Watanabe et al., 2005; Minh et al., 2006). ...
The research work done by the Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, Japan for the past three decades in India on its pollution scenario shows the need for every concern and a coordinated effort from the viewpoint of global pollution sources of persistent chemicals in the country. Our past and present results obtained through analyses of freshly collected as well as archived samples in our es-BANK shows the possibility of using the status of pollution in the environmental and biological matrices of India as tracers and indicators of global pollution. Clear spatial and temporal variations in the levels of persistent chemicals like DDTs, HCHs, CHLs, HCB, PCBs, dioxins and related compounds (DRCs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs) like PBDEs and HBCDs, etc. were noticed. Further, the vast data source that we have gathered through our past and present studies indicates, in the absence necessary facilities and manpower to monitor the toxic chemicals at present, there is a need for the establishment of at least a pilot scale specimen bank in India, to archive the biological and environmental samples for future use.
... For pesticides in fog see Glotfelty et al. 1987, Rice & Chernyak 1997. For pesticides in rain see Kirknel 1992, Trevisan et al. 1993, Doerfler & Scheunert 1997, Nohara, et al. 1997 For residues in animals see Colborn & Smolen 1996, Ayas et al. 1997, Reid 1999, Kunisue et al. 2003. For residues in the bark of trees see Simonich & Hites 1995. ...
... However, it is possible that the differences in the number of samples and sample types (captured alive or dead) might influence the outcome of this comparison. Being this, DDTs level in our study were higher than the concentration levels reported from southern China (Zhang et al., 2011), and India (Dhananjayan, 2012) at which DDT is still in use, and from Japan (Kunisue et al., 2003). However, they are lower than those in birds from Belgium , northern China (Chen et al., 2009), and Greenland (Jaspers et al., 2013). ...
... Contamination of human milk by organochlorine and other related compounds has been reported throughout the world (GEMS, 1998). During the recent decade, investigations on POPs pollution in the Asian regions and found that relatively high residue levels of DDTs and HCHs exist in foodstuffs (Kannan et al., 1997), mussels (Monirith et al., 2003) and avian species (Kunisue et al., 2003) from some developing countries and these contaminants are possibly in use for public health purposes even now. Among Asian developing countries, concentrations of DDTs in human breast milk from Vietnam, mainland China, Cambodia, and Malaysia were relatively higher than those from other countries (Kunisue et al., 2004). ...
Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) contaminant in human breast milk research is an environmental indicator. Because, diet is a major factor that influences breast milk levels of persistent organic pollutants, with patterns in fish consumption playing a particularly significant role. In this paper review available data on levels of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) in breast milk of Hong Kong. After reviewing all available data demonstrated that organochlorine pesticides consumption in Hong Kong is decreasing according to time trend.
Flamingos (Phoenicopteridae) are a distinctive group of birds associated with wetlands, one of the habitats most threatened by human activities. The abstraction of water, mining, agricultural expansion, and rapid urbanization around wetland areas has direct and indirect effects that cause the deterioration of waterbodies, also impacting the species that depend on them for reproduction and survival. Due to their unique features and high popularity, flamingos can also be an important tool for conserving and protecting their wetland habitats, serving as flagship and umbrella species. Nevertheless, due to limited resources, conservation efforts should be prioritized to mitigate major threats and protect species that are more threatened, which necessitates understanding the pressures that most impact these species and their habitats. This systematic review of the literature aimed to search the available literature on flamingo conservation for information on the most common and intense threats and use the information gathered to indicate the conservation priority of the wetlands cited in the literature. The filtering and selection processes resulted in 349 different articles citing 698 different wetlands used by the six species of flamingos in the world. Among the most common threats described were human disturbance and biological resource use, although more drastic changes could be caused by threats such as mining, abstraction of surface and ground water, and pollution. The data showed that European and North American wetlands, many under some form of protection, are highly cited in the literature, while there is less published information available for South American and African wetlands. Our results also highlight the necessity to integrate scientific research, policies and the needs and aspirations of communities that live and depend on these wetlands into land use plans to reverse and mitigate major threats, recover impacted areas, and avoid further wetland habitat loss for flamingos.
The study presents the levels of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in the organs of the rhinoceros auklet (Cerorhinca monocerata) from the coast of Boysman Bay (Sea of Japan). A priority group of toxic chemical compounds for this species and in the region has been identified.
The results of measurements of HCH isomers and DDT and its metabolites in the organs of seabirds (Larus schistisagus, Aethia cristatella, A. pusilla, Fulmarus glacialis, and Oceanodroma furcata) and marine mammals (Eschrichtius robustus and Odobenus rosmarus divergens) from the Sea of Okhotsk and Bering Sea are considered in this chapter. It has been shown that the species-specific features of accumulation of lipophilic xenobiotics can largely be explained by the type of food consumed and the total fat content of the organs.
Coastal environments provide important foraging, resting, breeding, and stopover sites for resident and migratory shorebirds. Shorebirds are a key biodiversity feature in coastal habitats that attracts considerable public interest, providing ample wildlife tourism opportunities, especially for birdwatching. However, these shorebird communities are under increased threat due to the rising demand for recreational activities in coastal environments. In this context, a better understanding of how shorebirds perceive and respond to human recreational disturbances is essential in sustainable nature-based tourism planning in coastal environments. Much of the published scientific information on the recreational impacts of shorebirds is from Europe, North America, and Australia, while Tropical Asia has received scant scholarly attention. This chapter sets the context and highlights the pressing need for research that informs management actions to minimize the impacts of recreational disturbance on shorebirds at coastal destinations in Tropical Asia.KeywordsCoastal tourismRecreational disturbancesMigratory shorebirdsImpact management
The Western Sandpiper, Calidris mauri, is one of the most abundant migratory shorebirds in the Western Hemisphere. Both Bahia Santa Maria (SM) and Ensenada Pabellones (EP) in Sinaloa, Mexico, are critical wintering sites for this species. We described the presence and concentration of 16 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in Western Sandpiper muscle and liver tissues collected from SM and EP during the wintering (December–January) and premigration (March–April) periods of 2010 and 2011, respectively. The individual OCP concentrations varied from 0.003 to 0.127 μg/g dry weight (dw) and were lower than the established thresholds for either acute or chronic effects. Western Sandpipers in SM-Premigration had the highest frequency of OCPs (39.3%), followed by EP-Winter (32.1%) and SM-Winter (28.5%). The frequency of occurrence of all OCPs in the liver presented differences between sites during the wintering period as well as between the wintering and premigration periods in SM. As the primary organ responsible for pollutant detoxification, the liver may bioaccumulate these compounds. No clear trends were observed in muscle tissues or among age-sex groups. Our results showed evidence of OCP bioaccumulation in the Western Sandpiper during the wintering period, which may be related to hyperphagia during the premigration period and to the differential intake of OCP types and quantities between sites due to differences in their availability. However, these conclusions are based on relatively low sample sizes for some groups and require further study with non-pooled samples.
Organochlorine compounds (OCs) pose a serious threat towards the wildlife due to their well-known adverse effects. India is the second largest producer of pesticides in Asia, with DDT production still ongoing, and is ranked amongst the leading countries of pesticide consumption. However, a significant data gap in avian biomonitoring studies has been identified in Asia. The objective of this review is to compile and discuss the available literature on concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and PCBs in Indian birds. The review of 18 articles showed that DDTs were the OCs most frequently analysed, followed by HCHs and PCBs (highest hepatic mean values: 11.6, 1.8 and 1.03 µg/g ww, respectively). The most frequently analysed matrix was whole body homogenates, followed by internal tissues. Plasma, eggs, feathers and guano were poorly sampled. The range of sampling years was 1980–2007. In general, hepatic OC concentrations were below the level known to cause adverse effects, although p,p’-DDE in eggs was found in concentrations associated with eggshell thinning. Most of the studies were carried out in Southern India (Tamil Nadu). Out of 106 species studied, house crow (Corvus splendens) was the most frequently monitored. However, the number of individuals sampled per species is generally low and different sample types are used, thus, huge limitations to compare OC exposure exist. This review shows that there is a clear deficit of data on OC concentrations and sublethal effects that needs to be addressed to understand the status of OC exposure, spatio-temporal trends and potential impacts in Indian avifauna.
Our group of scientists at the Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, Japan has been carrying-out studies in India from the 1980s on chemicals contamination. Due to its agrarian economy, use of fossil fuels, industries, growing population and urbanization, chemicals such as pesticides, dioxins and related chemicals (DRCs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), heavy metals, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widely spread in India. We have published a review (Subramanian and Tanabe, 2007) covering papers published until 2005, on India. A decade had passed and this is the time to provide an update of the spatial and temporal changes during this period and hence this review. At many instances organochlorines such as DDTs and HCHs showed decreasing trends even though they are still at considerable levels. Novel chemicals such as PCDDs/Fs are seen at municipal solid waste dumping sites of India at levels equivalent to similar locations of the developed world. In the e-waste processing sites in India, especially the informal ones, apart from PCDDs/Fs, some brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and heavy metals were present as contaminants. Metro cities of India showed location specific contamination by HCHs, DDTs, PCDDs/Fs, BFRs, PAHs, etc. Coastal regions of India seem to be still unpolluted when compared to the nearby inland locations. This review is concerned mainly with the chemicals that we (CMES) have been evaluating in India in the past three decades. We suggest the importance of further studies, future directions for policy decisions and also for implementing control measures.
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Mercury concentrations were examined in the liver, kidneys, and tail and breast feathers of common and green sandpipers from Zayanderud Dam in west-central Iran. The aim was to provide indirect information about habitat contamination. Tail feathers of both species had higher mercury levels compared to other tissues. Moreover, tissues of common sandpipers had significantly higher mercury concentrations compared to tissues of green sandpipers. Male specimens of both species had higher values of mercury compared to females. The pattern of larger body size-higher mercury body burden was not completely true in the current study. Smaller and shorter common sandpipers had higher mercury concentrations compared to taller and heavier green sandpipers. At the intraspecific level, body weight was positively correlated with mercury concentrations in tissues of common sandpipers. Based on the data presented here, it appears that these sandpipers, especially common sandpipers, are at potential risk from the toxic effects of mercury.
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) was analyzed in various marine organisms of Korea. HCB was detected in all organism samples with residual concentrations from 0.51 to 222 pg/g wet weight. HCB residue was the highest content in crustacean, and followed by bivalves, fish, cephalopods and gastropods. The residues were comparable to or lower than those in marine organisms of other countries. Daily dietary intake of HCB from seafood was estimated to be 13.4 pg/kg body weight/day. The relative contribution of taxonomic group to the total dietary intake of HCB were in the order of crustaceans , bivalves , fish , cephalopods , and gastropods . Daily dietary intake of HCB expressed as toxic equivalent (TEQ) value was estimated to be TEQ/kg body weight/day. This value did not exceed tolerable daily intake (TDI) proposed by the WHO, the UK toxicity committee and the KFDA. Cancer risk and target hazard quotient (THQ) due to the consumption of the marine organism in Korean adult population were evaluated using the exposure equation of food ingestion. This result suggests that dietary intake of HCB by the consumption of Korean seafood seems to be safe for human health with negligible cancer and non-cancer risks so far.
Headspace solid phase microextraction combined with gas chromatography (HS-SPME–GC) method has been studied for determination of 7 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in seawater samples. To perform the HS-SPME polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) (7, 30 and 100 µm film thickness) fibers were compared on the basis of their absorption capacities for the selected compounds, and PDMS 100 µm film thickness was selected. The influence of various parameters on PCBs extraction efficiency by HS-SPME was studied using GC-electron capture detector (ECD) compared with solid phase. The performance of proposed HS-SPME–GC methodology with respect to linearity, reproducibility and limit of detection (LOD) was evaluated by water spiked with target compounds. The linear range of most compounds was found to be between 0.1 and 100 µgL−1 and the limits of detection were between 15.2 and 63.8 ngL−1. The reproducibility of the method (n = 6), expressed as relative standard deviation (RSD), was between 4 and 10%. Finally, developed procedure was applied to determine selected PCBs in seawater samples.
We investigated selected chlorinated pollutants (β-HCH, γ-HCH, DDDs, DDEs, o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDT, heptachlor, aldrin, dieldrin, and endrin) in the Lahore and the Sialkot districts of Pakistan, using eggs of cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) collected during May and June 2007. The pollutant with highest level and frequency was ΣDDT, followed by β-HCH, γ-HCH, heptachlor, aldrin, dieldrin, and endrin in descending order. The concentration(s) were significantly higher in Sialkot heronry for all the pollutants (except p,p'-DDT) than in Lahore. The values for DDTs, β-HCH, γ-HCH, and heptachlor were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the egg(s) than in sediment(s) and in the chicks' diet, due to biomagnification. Among DDTs analogues, p,p'-DDD was the major contaminant with >60 % of total DDT burden, reflecting the widespread aged as well as recent use of DDT as well as anaerobic degradation (DDD/DDE > 1 in many cases) in the nearby paddy soils. In few samples, p,p'-DDT/(DDD + DDE) > 0.5 suggested the recent emission patterns from surrounding contaminated areas of demolished DDT units and obsolete pesticide stores. The higher levels of HCHs (i.e., β-HCH) in the samples collected from Sialkot indicate exposure from long-term agricultural use. Overall, concentrations of all studied POPs were less than the threshold levels known to affect reproduction. Nevertheless, total DDTs and/or HCHs burdens in some eggs contained concentrations of greater than what would educe adverse effects on birds. This is among few studies on OCPs exposure to avian species, which provide the evidence of Pakistan's contribution toward the Global POPs emission.
This chapter reviews studies conducted in our laboratory at CMES, Ehime University on various aspects of contamination by persistent toxic substances (PTS) in Asia-Pacific region. The sources, distribution, environmental fate, temporal trends and toxic impacts of PTS on wildlife and humans were examined using archived samples from our environmental specimen bank (es-BANK). The hot spots of PTS pollution were found in the areas where they have been heavily used, e.g., elevated HCH residue levels were found in samples from India and South China, while pollution by DDTs was found to be high in China and Vietnam. PBDEs exhibited higher concentrations in coastal waters of Korea and Hong Kong and areas around East China Sea, suggesting the presence of PBDE sources in highly industrialized zones. Our recent study on temporal trends of PBDEs in this region clearly demonstrated a substantial increase in PBDE levels in small cetaceans collected from Hong Kong coastal waters. The role of extensive manufacturing of computers and other electronic appliances as well as dumping of e-waste in some East Asian countries as substantial sources of brominated flame retardants such as PBDEs should be elucidated in future. Based on our monitoring surveys involving different environmental media and biological samples, the transport behavior of PTS could be characterized as “local” and “global”. DDTs and PCDD/Fs have less potency for long range atmospheric transport, and their sources are, therefore, located in the proximity of areas where they are used/released. On the other hand, HCHs and, to a lesser extent, PCBs and PBDEs exhibit relatively high ability for transport through atmosphere and their contamination may extend globally in future. As far as toxic impacts of PTS are concerned, the open dumping sites for municipal wastes in Asian developing countries are potential sources of various chemical contaminants. Residue levels of dioxins and related compounds were higher in soils, human breast milk and bovine milk from dumping sites when compared to reference sites. Possible impacts of PTS on health of people, especially those living in and around these dumping sites, are of great concern and deserve systematic and long-term investigations. Considering these critical issues of PTS pollution, it is clear that continued and constant efforts should be made to deal with the environmental problems caused by the contaminants not only in developed nations but also in developing countries.
This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the studies on persistent toxic substances (PTS) in the Philippines environment. Many of these persistent organic pollutants (POPs) including pesticides and industrial chemicals, which were either banned or restricted for use in most northern industrialized countries, are still in use in some developing countries. This review focuses on organochlorine compounds (OCs) such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), chlordane compounds (CHLs) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) in the Philippines environment and biota. It also includes a review of residue levels of industrial chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), unintentional contaminants such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and also the new candidates of POPs, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs). Environmental monitoring of POPs in the Asia-Pacific region, including the Philippines, revealed apparent POPs contamination particularly of PCBs and dioxins. Consequently, these studies suggest higher risk and exposure of the general populace to these toxic contaminants, more so for people residing near dumping site areas, where elevated concentrations of PCDD/Fs have been noted. PBDEs and HBCDs in human breast milk samples are widely present in general population of the Philippines as that of OCs. It can be presumed that PBDEs may become a major environmental concern in the Philippines as they were found at elevated levels in our work and were higher than in Japan, an industrially developed country. HBCDs were also higher than those reported in other available reports. Although decrease in POPs contamination may have been observed recently on a global scale, developing countries, such as the Philippines, may act as potential sources for certain contaminants for many more years. Therefore, a more systematic and continuous multi-media monitoring of these toxic substances in the Philippines seem imperative. Human health implications and toxic effects to wildlife must likewise be investigated.
Persistent organochlorines, such as PCBs, DDTs, chlordanes (CHLs), hexachlorocyclohexane (HCHs) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and tributyltin (TBT) were determined in oysters and rock shells collected from coastal waters of the Ariake Sea in 2001. In general, PAHs showed the highest concentration in oysters (average: 1340 ng/g, range: 51-8,300 ng/g lipid wt.), followed by PCBs (average: 530 ng/g, range: 28-2,000 ng/g), DDTs (average: 310 ng/g, range: 37 to 1,000 ng/g), CHLs (average: 190 ng/g, range: 72-450 ng/g), HCHs (average: 22 ng/g, range: 3.1-140 ng/g) and HCB (average: 7.0 ng/g, range: 1.0-20 ng/g). The greater concentrations of PAHs, PCBs and HCHs were found in oysters from the Omuta River, implying the occurrence of potential sources of these contaminants in this river. A positive correlation was found between TBT concentrations and RPL (Relative Penis Length) Index in rock shells, suggesting that TBT has induced an imposex in gastropods, even though the use of TBT has been banned in Japan for more than ten years.
Recent studies have added substantially to our knowledge of spatial and temporal trends of persistent organic
pollutants and heavy metals in the Canadian Arctic marine ecosystem. This paper reviews the current state of
knowledge of contaminants in marine biota in the Canadian Arctic and where possible, discusses biological effects. The geographic coverage of information on contaminants such as persistent organochlorines �OCs. �PCBs, DDT- and chlordane-related compounds, hexachlorocyclohexanes, toxaphene. and heavy metals �mercury, selenium, cadmium, lead. in tissues of marine mammal and sea birds is relatively complete. All major beluga, ringed seal and polar bear stocks along with several major sea bird colonies have been sampled and analysed for OC and heavy metal contaminants. Studies on contaminants in walrus are limited to Foxe Basin and northern Quebec stocks, while migratory harp seals have only been studied recently at one location. Contaminant measurements in bearded seal, harbour seal, bowhead whale and killer whale tissues from the Canadian Arctic are very limited or non-existent. Many of the temporal trend data for contaminants in Canadian Arctic biota are confounded by changes in analytical methodology, as well as by variability due to agersize, or to dietary and population shifts. Despite this, studies of OCs in ringed seal blubber at Holman Island and in sea birds at Prince Leopold Island in Lancaster Sound show declining concentrations of PCBs and DDT-related compounds from the 1970s to 1980s then a levelling off during the 1980s and early 1990s. For other OCs, such as chlordane, HCH and toxaphene, limited data for the 1980s to early 1990s suggests few significant declines in concentrations in marine mammals or sea birds. Temporal trend studies of heavy metals in ringed seals and beluga found higher mean concentrations of mercury in more recent �1993-1994. samples than in earlier collections �1981]1984 in eastern Arctic, 1972-1973 in western Arctic. for both species. Rates of accumulation of mercury are also higher in present day animals than 10-20 years ago. Cadmium concentrations in the same animals �eastern Arctic only. showed no change over a 10-year period. No temporal trend data are available for metals in sea birds or polar bears. There have been major advances in knowledge of specific biomarkers in Canadian Arctic biota over the past few years. The species with the most significant risk of exposure to PCBs and OC pesticides may be the polar bear which, based on comparison with EROD activity in other marine mammals �beluga, ringed seal., appears to have elevated CYP1A-mediated activity. The MFO enzyme data for polar bear, beluga and seals suggest that even the relatively low levels of contaminants present in Arctic animals may not be without biological effects, especially during years of poor feeding.
Plant biomass plays a significant role in the global environmental partitioning phenomena and plants are good indicators of tropospheric contamination levels by chlorinated hydrocarbons. In the present research 300 samples of plants were collected in 265 areas distributed worldwide and analyzed for HCB (hexachlorobenzene), α-HCH (hexachlorocyclohexane), γ-HCH, p,pâ²-DDT,o,pâ²-DDT, and p,pâ²-DDE (degradation product of DDT). Global HCB distribution is strongly dependent on the temperature, the HCB being present mainly in samples from cold areas. The sum of DDTs show higher concentrations in samples from topical areas, while the sum of HCHs is higher in the plants from the Northern Hemisphere. These results are discussed, taking into account the role of physicochemical properties in determining the global distribution as well as the air age of the contamination.
Isomer-specific concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) including non-, mono-, and di-ortho-substituted congeners, DDT and its metabolites, hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers, chlordane compounds, and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) were determined in river dolphin blubber and prey fishes collected during 1993 through 1996 from the River Ganges in India. Concentrations of organochlorines were also measured in the milk and liver of dolphins, benthic invertebrates, and sediments. The DDTs and PCBs were the predominant compounds found in dolphin tissues and fish that comprise the diet of dolphins. Concentrations of DDTs and PCBs in the blubber of dolphins were in the range of 30 to 120 and 1.5 to 25 μg/g, lipid weight, respectively. Pentaand hexachlorobiphenyls collectively accounted for 68 to 80% of the total PCB concentrations in river dolphins. Hexachlorobiphenyl congener 138 (2,2′,3,4,4′,5′-) was the most abundant in dolphin blubber and prey fishes. The isomer/congener pattern of PCBs and organochlorine pesticides suggested that there is less metabolism due to cytochrome P450 enzymes in Ganges river dolphins than in marine or terrestrial mammals. The mean 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin equivalents (TEQs) estimated in river dolphin blubber was greater than those that can cause adverse effects in mink. Comparison of organochlorine concentrations in river dolphins with those of the values reported for samples analyzed during 1988 through 1992 suggested that the contamination by these compounds has increased in the River Ganges.
A wide range of organochlorine residues were determined in the blubber of harbour porpoises from the Black Sea. Concentrations of DDTs (8.3–180 μg g−1 wet weight) were the highest followed by PCBs (1.6–39 μg g−1), HCHs (1.5–17 μg g−1), CHLs (0.11 – 2.4, μg g−1) and HCB (0.057 – 0.61 μg g−1). The composition of DDT and its metabolites was in the order of p,p′-DDT (46%), -DDD (34%), p,p′-DDT (16%) and o,p′-DDT (4%). A similar pattern was also observed in fish from the Black Sea. Relatively higher concentrations of p,p′-DDD in these animals suggested the reductive condition of the Black Sea resulting from organic waste pollution. The residue levels of organochlorines were lower in older female porpoises possibly due to lactational transfer of these contaminants to their calves, while in males the organochlorine concentrations were positively correlated with age. When compared with other cetaceans, the organochlorine residues in harbour porpoises showed a perceptible male-female difference. It is noteworthy that the contamination by DDTs and HCHs in the Black Sea harbour porpoises were elevated amongst a worldwide comparison of organochlorine residues in the same species.
We examined human adipose tissue, liver, and bile from humans in Japan to understand the contamination status, specific accumulation, and elimination of two newly identified environmental contaminants, tris(4-chlorophenyl)methane (TCPMe), tris(4-chlorophenyl)methanol (TCPMOH), and other persistent organochlorines such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), DDT and its metabolites (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and chlordane compounds (CHLs). TCPMe and TCPMOH concentrations in Japanese human adipose tissue were slightly higher than those reported previously, indicating widespread exposure to these compounds in humans. Elevated residues of PCBs and DDTs are found in adipose tissue and liver. Concentrations in bile strongly correlated with concentrations in adipose fat and liver, which may suggest an equilibration in adipose fat/bile and liver/bile and possible biliary excretion of persistent organochlorines in humans. Composition of the organochlorines accumulated further indicates a metabolic capacity in humans higher than that of marine mammals. We observed age-dependent accumulation for TCPMe, TCPMOH, and other organochlorines, but there were no significant gender differences. p,p'-DDE and TCPMe were estimated to have low biliary excretion rate. Elimination potential of persistent organochlorines may be related to their octanol-water partition coefficient. The relationship between excretion rate and octanol-water partition coefficient may be used to predict the biliary excretion potential of some other lipophilic organochlorines such as dioxins and dibenzofurans in humans. The presence of organochlorines in bile suggests that the hepatic excretory system plays a major role in the elimination of xenobiotics in humans. To our knowledge, this is the first study of accumulation and elimination of TCPMe and TCPMOH in humans.
Contamination by organochlorine compounds (OCs) was examined in fish and mussels collected from Cambodia and other Asian developing countries in 1997 and 1998. DDT and its metabolites were the predominantly detected compound in both fish and mussel samples. PCBs were second highest; followed by HCHs, CHLs, and HCB. Freshwater fish contained higher concentrations of DDTs than marine fish and mussels, implying that the source of DDTs originated from inland watersheds such as the Mekong River, Basac River, Tonlesap River, and Tonlesap Great Lake. Comparison of the OC residue levels in fish and mussels from Cambodia with those in other Asian and Oceanic regions suggested that Cambodia is one of the countries least contaminated by OCs. In other words, it can be concluded that among Asian and Oceanic countries Cambodia has kept a 'Clean Environment'.
A number of persistent organic chemicals (POCs) are found across the landscape of the former Soviet Union. Most notable are dioxins, dioxin-like compounds, DDT, and miscellaneous pesticides. These POCs have collected in the environment during recent decades and today they represent a serious ecological danger. This paper describes the production, distribution, and potential impacts of POCs on nature and human health.
Concentrations of DDT and its metabolites (DDTs), HCH isomers (HCHs: hexachlorocyclohex‐anes), chlordane compounds (CHLs), HCB (hexachlorobenzene) were determined in agricultural soils, dumpsite soils, and riverine sediments collected from Manila and its nearby provinces in the Philippines. Relatively low DDT and HCH residue levels were detected in agricultural soil samples examined. These findings reflect the decline in the usage of organochlorine chemicals for agricultural purposes in the Philippines. In the case of the dumpsite soils collected from Smokey Mountain, significant DDT, HCB, and HCH residue levels were detected, which may be attributed to the extensive use of organochlorine chemicals for public health purposes. While marked levels of PCB residues could be due to the PCB‐contaminated industrial wastes dumped in the area. Significant levels of CHLs and DDTs were also observed in Pasig river sediments coming from industrial sources, as the river is used as an internal artery for the transport of raw materials used in the processing and manufacturing of various industrial plants and factories that abound along the river. Although organochlorine residue levels found in agricultural soils and riverine sediments were comparable with other developing tropical countries in Asia, concentrations of some organochlorine residues in non‐agricultural (dumpsite) soils examined in this study were higher than those reported from other countries. This finding underscores the significant contamination of the soils in a major open dumpsite (Smokey Mountain).
The occurrence and distribution of metals (Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn), organochlorine residues (HCH, DDT and metabolites, PCBs) and EOC1 (extractable organic bound chlorine) were monitored in 1993 and 1996 in sediment, water and fish in the catchment area of Lake Baiyangdian, China. The levels of the metals, especially Cd and Zn, were significantly higher in the sediment than those in non‐polluted areas. PCBs and chlorinated pesticides constituted only a minor part (< 8.4%) of the extractable organic bound chlorine, indicating the presence of additional, unknown, organochlorine residues. Among the pesticides, DDT was widely distributed and high levels occurred in fish despite a ban of its production and use in 1983. The low quotient of pp‐DDT/pp‐DDE in sediment and fish indicated that the input of DDT to the catchment area was not of recent origin.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were determined in the sediments, soils, fishes and birds from Nakdong River estuarine environment in Korea which included both industrial and non‐industrial areas. PCB levels (30–8500 ng/g, dry wt.) in sediments from industrial areas, were significantly higher than those from non‐industrial areas (0.3–32 ng/g, dry wt.). Lower chlorinated PCBs (KC‐300, 400) were the major components in the polluted sediments, based on the comparison with technical PCB formulations.
The residual patterns of PCBs in fish samples from the industrial area were similar to those of sediments collected at the same area. In bird samples, elevated concentrations in muscle tissues in migratory birds indicated exposure to the aquatic food web in this area.
Butyltin compounds (BTs) and organochlorine residues (OCs) were determined in green mussel (Perna viridis L.) collected along the coastal waters of India in 1994 and 1995 to elucidate their contamination levels and distribution. BTs were detected in all of the mussel samples, ranging from 2 to 378 ng/g wet wt, which indicated that BTs are widely distributed, with elevated concentrations in intense boating areas. BTs concentrations in green mussels were lower than those reported for developed nations as well as developing countries such as Thailand. Concentrations of OCs were much lower than those of BTs. Among OCs examined, DDTs were found to be greatest, followed by HCHs, PCBs, CHLs and HCB. Considering the fact that the usage of tributyltin (TBT), DDTs and HCHs are not controlled in India, their contamination in the aquatic environment may increase unless regulatory measures are imposed. To our knowledge, this is a first report on the detection of BTs in Indian mussels.
The global usage of technical HCH and lindane in 1980 and 1990 are presented. The total global usage for technical HCH was estimated to be 40 000 t in 1980 and 29 000 t in 1990, and for lindane it was 5900 t in 1980 and 4000 t in 1990. Based on these data, the global usage of both α-HCH and γ-HCH were calculated. The total usage of α-HCH was around 28 000 t in 1980 and 20 400 t in 1990, while the total usage of γ-HCH was around 11 900 t in 1980 and 8400 t in 1990. The ratio of γ-HCH to α-HCH was 0.43 in 1980 and 0.41 in 1990. The usage data on countries are then mapped to a grid system with 1° × 1° longitude/latitude resolution to be useful for modeling. It is suggested that banning usage of technical HCH by a number of countries, such as China in the early 1980s and the former Soviet Union in the beginning of 1990s, may contribute to the decline of the atmospheric concentrations of both α-HCH and γ-HCH in 1992−1993. While many countries banned use of technical HCH in 1980s, lindane was still used by many countries around world in 1990.
The composition of two technical polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) formulations, Sovol and Trichlorodiphenyl, has been characterized by high-resolution gas chromatography (HRGC) with electron capture detection (ECD) and HRGC-mass spectrometry (MS) techniques. Identification of the individual PCB components has been made by comparison of relative retention times (RRTs) for seven individual PCB standards, for individual peaks of Sovol and Trichlorodiphenyl, and for different types of Aroclor mixtures. Also, the correlation to literature data was analyzed. The accuracy of PCB determination with this approach depends on the similarity of the production process and the high reproducibility of retention time data obtained for individual peaks by HRGC-ECD. Average weight percent distribution of the PCB isomer group was calculated for Sovol and Trichlorodiphenyl and compared to Aroclor data. The results indicate that Sovol and Trichlorodiphenyl formulations are fairly close to Aroclors 1254 and 1242, respectively. 22 refs., 8 figs., 2 tabs.
Ringed seals collected from the KaraSea in the Russian Arctic during 1995 were analyzed for persistent organochlorines (OCs) such as DDTs, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), chlordane compounds (CHLs), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), and hexachlorobenzene to understand the present status of contamination. Noticeably higher levels of DDTs and PCBs were detected in ringed seals from the Russian Arctic when the values compared with same species from the Canadian Arctic and the Norwegian Arctic. This suggests the presence of significant local sources of DDTs and PCBs in Russia or nearby areas. Concentrations of CHLs and HCHs in ringed seals were comparable with those in this species elsewhere in circumpolar regions, probably as a consequence of uniform distribution of CHLs and HCHs due to the atmospheric transport of these compounds to the Arctic region. Larga seals collected from the Sea of Okhotsk were also analyzed for OCs to compare residue levels and accumulation patterns with those in ringed seals. In larga seals, the prominent residues were DDTs and PCBs, with levels comparable or slightly lower than those in ringed seals. Lactational transfer of PCBs, DDTs, and CHLs was evident in ringed seals based on increasing concentrations with age in males but not in females. The transfer rates were estimated to be 38% for DDTs, 25% for PCBs, and 30% for CHLs of the whole body burden in the mature female. Comparison of the PCB congener pattern accumulated in seals suggested that ringed seals have an greater capacity to degrade toxic non-ortho (IUPAC 126) and mono-ortho (IUPAC 105 and 118) coplanar congeners than did Baikal seals, but a lower capacity than found in larga seals.
Sediments and soils collected from the Ya-Er Lake area in China were analysed for the polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs), hexachlorocyclohexane (HCHs) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB). The results indicated the main pollution problems in the Ya-Er Lake area, which was heavily polluted by HCHs and chlorobenzenes, now is dominantly polluted by PCDD/Fs, PCBs and HCB. The occurrence of PCDD/Fs and PCBs with relatively high levels of HpCDDs, OCDD and low chlorinated-substituted PCBs, is attributed to the discharge of waste water and biodegradation. The vertical distributions of HCH-residues are related with the content of organic carbon and particle size.
Concentrations of polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), DDT compounds (DDTs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide were determined in foodstuffs collected from different locations in Vietnam. Elevated levels of PCBs, DDTs, HCHs, and aldrin and dieldrin were found in animal fat, butter, meat, and seafood. Caviar and butter samples imported from the Soviet Union contained considerably higher amounts of PCBs, HCHs and DDTs. The average daily intake of some organochlorines by Vietnamese people were higher than those observed in most of the developed nations. The dietary intake of DDTs was the highest among various chemicals studied. Interestingly, the daily dietary intake of PCBs was comparable to those in developed countries. Fish, shellfish, prawn, and crab were the primary route of DDTs to humans, whereas cereals and vegetables were the predominant sources of PCBs and HCHs.
Residue levels of persistent organochlorines in deep-sea organisms collected from Suruga Bay, Japan, were determined. PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) were the predominant group of organochlorines ranging in concentrations from 380 to 2800 ng g−1 on a lipid weight basis. DDTs (DDT and its metabolises) were the next most abundant organochlorine compounds followed by CHLs (chlordane compounds), HCHs (hexachlorocyclo-hexanes) and HCB (hexachlorobenzene). In comparison with coastal shallow water organisms, higher concentrations of HCHs were found in deep-sea organisms, while no significant difference was noted for other organochlorines. Organochlorine residue levels in Suruga Bay were comparatively lower than those in other deep-sea organisms reported elsewhere. The deep-sea organisms showed no consistent trend between organochlorine concentrations and food chain relationships. Lipid-dependent accumulation of organochlorines by equilibrium partitioning may be attributable to this residue pattern. Among DDT compounds, p,p′-DDE was the highest in most deep-sea organisms. Trans-nonachlor and β-HCH were the major constituents of CHLs and HCHs, respectively, in these organisms.
Concentrations of persistent organochlorines were determined in the blubber and melon of 11 species of adult male odontocetis collected from the North Pacific, Indian Ocean and nearby seas. Mean concentrations of DDs (33 μg/g wet wt) were the highest followed by PCBs (32 μg/g wet wt), chlordane compounds (CHLs: 3.7 μg/g wet wt), HCHs (1.1 μg/g wet wt), and HCB (0.32 μg/g wet wt). Odontoceti species inhabiting temperate waters revealed maximum residual concentrations of these contaminants, and the elevated DDT and PCB residues detected seem to suggest that some of the present species might potentially be at high risk. Relatively high DDT concentrations were found in tropical water species, which could be attributed to the current usage of DDT in the tropics and the less movable nature of this compound via long-range atmospheric transport. The HCH levels in animals inhabiting cold and temperate waters were higher than those inhabiting tropical waters, a result that was perhaps reflective of atmospheric transport from the tropical source to the northern sinks. A similar pattern was also observed in PCBs, CHLs and HCB, probably indicating the ongoing discharge of these compounds from mid-latitudes as well as those originating in tropical regions.
Bottlenose and Risso's dolphins found dead along the Italian coast in 1992 were analysed for the presence of PCB isomers and DDT. High concentrations of PCBs (90–1400 μg/g wet wt) were detected in the blubber of stranded carcasses. The concentrations were higher than those found in animals showing reproductive failure and physiological impairment following prolonged PCB exposure, suggesting that the contamination by PCBs as well as DDT may be a major causative factor for the large-scale deaths of dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea. The 2,3,7,8-TCDD toxic equivalents estimated for bottlenose and Risso's dolphins were 18.8 and 20.8 ng/g, respectively, with a major contribution from mono-ortho PCBs. The monoortho congeners of IUPAC Nos 105, 118 and 156 accounted for most of the toxicity exerted by PCBs in these dead dolphins. An increase in the proportion of non-ortho coplanar PCB congener of IUPAC No. 169 to No. 126 with an increase in the total PCB concentration in the blubber suggested a strong induction of drug metabolizing enzymes. It is possible to use concentration ratio to indicate whether there has been a strong activation of cytochrome P450 enzyme system in severely exposed/contaminated dolphin populations. The total PCB concentrations in the adipose fat of sharks from Italian coasts ranged from 70 to 4000 ng/g wet wt and that of DDT from 14 to 300 ng/g wet wt. In bluefin tuna, the total PCB and DDT concentrations were 170–2200 and 56–780 ng/g wet wt, respectively. These values were comparable to those reported for the same species in the Mediterranean Sea during the 1970s, suggesting the existence of PCB sources near this marine ecosystem.
Contamination by butyltin (BTs) and organochlorine compounds (OCs) in green mussels collected along the coastal areas of Thailand, Philippines and India during the period of 1994–1997 was examined. The BT residues in green mussel were widely detected, suggesting a widespread contamination along the coastal waters of Asian developing countries. Relatively high concentrations of BTs in green mussel were found in high boating activity and coastal aquaculture areas, implying the usage of TBT as a biocide in antifouling paints used on boat hulls and marine aquaculture facilities. The composition of BT derivatives in mussel was in the order of TBT>DBT>MBT, suggesting also the presence of significant butyltin source in Asian coast. BT residues pattern in green mussels from Thailand revealed higher levels in aquaculture than in boating activity sites. This result may indicate that the developing countries showing high economic growth rate (like Thailand) tend to increase the usage of TBT for aquaculture activities. BT contamination levels in Asian developing countries were lower than those in developed nations. However, considering the fact that the unregulated usage of organotins in Asian developing countries and the increasing demand for antifouling paints in Asia–Pacific regions, BTs contamination in aquatic environment may be serious in future. Concentrations of OCs detected in green mussels were lower than BTs. Considerable residues of p,p′-DDT found in mussel indicated the current usage of DDTs in Asian regions. HCHs and DDTs contamination in India is apparently higher than in other Asian developing countries. The present study clearly indicates that the aquatic environment in Asia–Pacific regions is still being contaminated by some OCs. To our knowledge, this is a first report on the detection of butyltin compounds in green mussels (Perna viridis) from Thailand, Philippines and India.
Blubber samples of 12 accidentally netted dolphins from the coastal waters of Porto Novo, southeast coast of India were monitored to assess the persistent organochlorine (HCHs, DDTs, PCBs, and HCB) contamination in these animals. ΣDDT concentrations ranked first, followed by PCBs, ΣHCH, and HCB. HCHs were detected for the first time in dolphins from the tropical waters. The variations in residue levels could be attributed to the physicochemical and biochemical properties of the above compounds. International comparison of residue levels in cetaceans in the recent decade revealed that DDT concentrations in Indian dolphins were comparable to those from other localities whereas PCB levels were low. The continuing contamination by these persistent organochlorines and their toxic effects in tropical cetacean species is predicted in the future.
Information on historical and future trends in use and emissions of persistent organochlorines on a global scale is essential for interpreting present and predicting future environmental concentrations of these compounds in remote regions. In this study, which is now a recognized project under the Global Emissions Inventory Activity of the International Geosphere Biosphere Program, information on registration status, trends in regional use/emissions, and mode and time of applications of 10 pesticides is being compiled. Results pertaining to four pesticides are presented here. The cumulative global usage accounted for (in metric tonnes) is 450 000 for toxaphene, 1 500 000 for DDT, 550 000 for technical HCH, and 720 000 for lindane. The interpolated usage of toxaphene and DDT was 1 330 000 and 2 600 000 tonnes from 1950 to 1993 and 670 000 and 990 000 tonnes from 1970 to 1993. The compounds are still legally used in several countries, and illegal use in other countries has been suggested. International cooperation, changes in legislations and regulations, and improved record keeping by governments and other bodies are required to restrict usage, as well as to improve the estimates.
Concentrations of organochlorines such as PCBs, DDTs, chlordanes (CHLs), HCHs and HCB were determined in the liver of common cormorants from two different colonies to understand the current status of contamination and geographical differences. The birds from Shinobazu pond, central Tokyo, exhibited significantly higher OC levels than those in the Lake Biwa. Residue level of PCBs was the highest followed by the DDTs regardless of the locations and growth stages. CHLs and HCB were also higher in the Shinobazu pond adults and juveniles, whereas HCHs were comparable with the Lake Biwa. The OC levels, excluding PCBs, were relatively higher in regurgitated fish in Lake Biwa than Tokyo Bay fish. The inverse relation of bioaccumulation between fish and birds emphasized that cormorants from both colonies, at least, would have seasonal and preferential feeding habits in a widely extended area. The calculated biomagnification values showed that DDTs and CHLs had lowest and highest metabolic capacities, respectively. This study also made evident that present OC contamination levels in common cormorants may not pose a serious threat to their reproduction. However, contaminant related risk in cormorants, if any, could be higher in Shinobazu pond than that in Lake Biwa.
Organochlorine compounds (OCs) such as DDTs (DDT and its metabolites), PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), CHLs (chlordane compounds), and HCHs (hexachlorocyclohexanes) were determined in the blubber of Baikal seal (Phoca sibirica) and their fish diet collected from Lake Baikal in 1992. Residue levels of DDTs and PCBs were in the ranges of 4.9-160 mu g/g and 3.5-64 mu g/g on a lipid weight basis, respectively. The concentrations of CHLs and HCHs were approximately 1 or 3 orders of magnitude lower than those of DDTs and PCBs. Comparison of OC residue levels with those reported for other pinnipeds suggests that Baikal seal is highly contaminated species vulnerable to OC toxicity. A positive age-dependent accumulation of DDTs, PCBs, and CHLs was found in males, while a steady state observed in females suggested the transfer of these chemicals from mother to pup through gestation and lactation. On the basis of contaminant burdens in adult seals, it was estimated that an adult female Baikal seal transfers about 20% of its total DDTs and 14% of its total PCBs to the pup during a reproductive process. Based on the data from isomer-specific analysis of PCBs, it can be suggested that Baikal seals have a higher or comparable capacity to metabolize toxic contaminants than marine mammals, but it is apparently lower than terrestrial mammals, which seems to be a causative factor for the higher accumulation of OC residues in this species.
Concentrations of persistent organochlorine residues were determined in fish collected from several locations in eastern and southern Asia and Oceania to identify the accumulation features of such residues in tropical aquatic organisms and to elucidate their distribution in tropical developing countries. DDT and its derivatives (DDTs) were the predominantly identified compounds in most locations. In general, the concentrations of organochlorines in tropical fish were lower than those in fish of the temperate regions. Residue levels in fish showed little spatial variability, as reported for tropical sediments. This is different from the patterns observed for air and water in which higher concentrations occur in tropical latitudes compared to mid-latitudes. Compilation of limited available data on the organochlorine residue levels in fish in tropical Asian countries seemed to indicate little temporal variability due to the low levels of accumulation in aquatic organisms, despite the continuous use of these compounds. A short residence time of semivolatile organochlorines in the tropical aquatic environment results in lower levels of accumulation of residues in fish. Examination of walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) collected from the Bering Sea indicated that organochlorine residue levels are declining in temperate water bodies near the Arctic Ocean in recent years.
Contamination of semivolatile organochlorines (OCs) such as hexachlorobenzene (HCB), hexa chloro cyclohexanes (HCHs), DDTs, chlordanes, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)was assessed in air, water, sediments, and soils from the Lake Baikal region, Russia. Comparison of the residue levels in the lake with those in other regions suggested the presence of local sources of DDTs and PCBs, although the residues were considered to be lower than those in the low-latitude areas in the eastern Asia and Oceania. Larger proportions of p,p'-DDT to total DDTs and similarities of PCB congener compositions to a Russian technical PCB formation were found in the samples analyzed, implying their usages nearby the lake. The estimated fluxes of OCs by gas exchange across the air-water interface applying the two-film model indicated that the lake water plays a role as a sink for HCB, HCHs, and DDTs and also serves as a source for PCBs. The magnitude for PCB volatilization in this lake was found to be smaller than those in the Great Lakes for which the values have been previously reported.
Organochlorine contaminants were measured in water, fish, and Baikal seal from Lake Baikal, Siberia. Organochlorine levels in water were comparable to those reported from the upper Great Lakes, with the exception of chlordanes, which were a factor of 2 lower. Dissolved toxaphene and SIGMADDT (sum of 4,4'-DDE, 4,4'-DDD, 2,4'-DDT, and 4,4'-DDT) averaged 64 +/- 37 pg/L and 87 +/- 37 pg/L, respectively. Total polychlorinated biphenyl (SIGMAPCB) concentrations in biota ranged from 1.2 to 26 mg/kg of lipid in the omul (an endemic salmonid) and the Baikal seal, respectively. Tetra- and pentachlorobiphenyl congeners accounted for a greater proportion of SIGMAEPCB in omul and hexa-, hepta-, and octachlorobiphenyl congeners in pelagic sculpins and seal. Toxaphene concentrations in biota ranged from 1.1 to 2.3 mg/kg of lipid in sculpin and seal, respectively. A linear relationship was observed between the log bioconcentration factor and log octanol-water partition coefficient with slopes ranging from 0.47 +/- 0.08 for the omul to 0.88 +/- 0.11 for seal (r2 = 0.45 and 0.62, respectively).
Persistent organochlorines such as DDT and its metabolites (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), chlordane compounds (CHLs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were determined in whole-body homogenates of resident and migratory birds collected from South India. Organochlorine contamination pattern in birds varied depending on their migratory behaviour. Resident birds contained relatively greater concentrations of HCHs (14-8,800 ng/g wet wt) than DDTs and PCBs concentrations. In contrast, migrants exhibited elevated concentrations of PCBs (20-4,400 ng/g wet wt). The sex differences in concentrations and burdens of organochlorines in birds were pronounced, with females containing lower levels than males. Inland piscivores and scavengers accumulated greater concentrations of HCHs and DDTs while coastal piscivores contained comparable or greater amounts of PCBs. Global comparison of organochlorine concentrations indicated that resident birds in India had the highest residues of HCHs and moderate to high residues of DDTs. It is, therefore, proposed that migratory birds wintering in India acquire considerable amounts of HCHs and DDTs. Estimates of hazards associated with organochlorine levels in resident and migratory birds in India suggested that Pond Heron, Little Ringed Plover, and Terek Sandpiper may be at risk from exposure to DDTs.
"Following the publication, in 2001, of the list of Standardized Common and Scientific Names of the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent ... the common and scientific names have been modified based on this list"--P. v
The residue levels of persistent organochlorines, such as HCH (BHC: 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane) isomers, DDT [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethane] compounds, PCBs (polychlorobiphenyls) and HCB (hexachlorobenzene), were measured in wildlife. The wildlife were sampled from terrestrial and aquatic habitats in and around the agricultural watershed of Parangipettai, South India. On the basis of overall concentrations sigma HCH ranked first followed by sigma DDT, sigma PCB and HCB, reflecting the increasing usage of HCH in recent years in India. The residue levels of organochlorines in birds varied according to their feeding habits and showed the following pattern: inland piscivores and scavengers greater than coastal piscivores greater than insectivores greater than omnivores greater than granivores. High levels of HCH and DDT residues were recorded in Pond heron and Cattle egret which feed in the agricultural fields. Comparison of HCH concentrations in fish and birds in the study area to other locations was made to further understand the dynamics of contaminant accumulation in tropical wildlife. Regarding birds, a wide variation in residue levels could be seen among various countries, with tropical regions registering high levels. In contrast, the variation is not prominent in the case of fish. The residue levels in fish measured in the present study were generally comparable to values reported from other locations. This suggests that the bioavailability of contaminants to the aquatic fauna is less due to the smaller flux and shorter residence time of these chemicals in the tropics.
The chlorinated organic pesticides BHC, DDT, Aldrin etc. which are extensively used in agriculture and public health programme are very persistent in nature. As is well known, they are lipid soluble toxic chemicals and cumulative accumulation of low concentrations of these pesticides in the body fat of mammals might pose potential hazards in the long run (Metcalf 1977). These pesticides not only exist in target organism and soil system for a considerable period of time but also enter into natural waters by percolation and runoff from agricultural land and channels, and city sewage from urban site, affecting the quality of various water sources. The persistence of these organochlorines in water has a special significance as they are taken up by unicellular aquatic organisms like plankton and thus enter into the food chain. Although some reports concerning the pollution of Ganga water by pesticides are available (Sinha 1988; Halder 1990; Agnihotri 1992) but there appears to be no systematic investigations, particularly in middle stream of Ganga and specifically in Varanasi area. Moreover, Varanasi is densely populated city and heavily pressurised by the tourists. It is also famous as one of the most important as well as popular vegetable belt in India. There are about eightyfour ghats situated at the western bank over a span of 10km and the main city ends in these ghats; the eastern bank is totally agricultural belt. Organochlorine pesticides are extensively used in both the banks for public health and agricultural purpose throughout the year. Thus it was thought worth while to monitore the levels of runoff organochlorine pesticides viz. BHC, DDT and endosulfan along with their isomers and metabolites in the Ganga water in Varanasi area.
Isomer-specific concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) including planar, mono- and di-ortho congeners and concentrations of DDT were determined in striped dolphins affected by a morbillivirus epizootic in the western Mediterranean in 1990. Extremely high concentrations of PCBs ranging from 94 to 670 micrograms/g (wet wt) were detected in the blubber. Similarly, DDT concentrations were high, between 22 and 230 micrograms/g (wet wt). The concentrations of three non-ortho coplanar PCBs were 43 (3,3',4,4'-T4CB), 6.8 (3,3',4,4',5-P5CB), and 7.8 (3,3',4,4',5,5'-H6CB) ng/g (wet wt), respectively, the highest residue levels reported to date. The estimated 2,3,7,8-TCDD toxic equivalents of non-, mono- and di-ortho PCB congeners in striped dolphins were several times higher than those observed for other marine mammals and humans. Mono-ortho congeners contributed greater 2,3,7,8-TCDD toxic equivalents than non-ortho members. The higher ratio of 3,3',4,4',5,5'-H6CB/3,3',4,4',5-P5CB (IUPAC 169/126) suggested a strong induction of mixed function oxidase enzymes and highlighted the possibility of using this ratio as an index for risk assessment of PCB contamination in marine mammals. Elevated concentrations of PCBs may have played a role in the immune depression in striped dolphins, ultimately leading to the development of morbillivirus disease.
The need to increase world food production for the rapidly growing population is well recognized. One of the strategies to increase crop productivity is effective pest management because more than 30% of annual food production is lost to pest infestation (Pimentel 1992). In tropical countries, crop loss is even more severe because the prevailing high temperature and humidity are highly conducive to rapid multiplication of pests. Thus, the application of a wide variety of pesticides on crop plants is necessary in the tropics to combat pests and diseases. Although there is a wide variety of pesticides, only a few fully satisfy the basic requirements of low cost, effectiveness, and safety. The economic situation of farmers in tropical developing countries renders the choice that of considering cheaper and effective pesticides with less emphasis on safety (Plestina 1989).
Persistent organochlorines, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) including coplanar congeners, DDTs, HCHs, chlordanes (CHLs), and HCB, were determined in the blubber of Caspian seals (Phoca caspica) and their fish diet (Rutilus sp.) collected in 1993 from the northern Caspian Sea, Russia. Notable concentrations of DDTs and HCHs were found at mean values of 19 and 1.3 microg/g on wet-weight basis in adult male seals, respectively. PCB pollution in Caspian seals was not so considerable compared with those of seals that suffered mass mortality. Less gender difference of organochlorine residue levels in adult animals implies less excretion of organochlorines from the body of adult females through lactation and gestation, probably due to the higher rate of pregnancy failure. Immature seals had a wide range of organochlorine concentrations, which decreased as body length increased, suggesting dilution. Caspian seals can be considered to have higher degradation capacity for coplanar PCBs. Mean TEQs (2,3,7,8-TCDD toxic equivalents) for non-, mono- and di-ortho coplanar PCBs was 51 pg/g on wet-weight basis, which was lower than those in seals that have suffered mass mortality, but comparable to those found in Arctic seals.
Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were determined in sediments and clams collected from the coast of the north of Vietnam during the rainy season (August-September 1997). Results show that the organochlorine pesticides of major concern are HCHs (1.2-33.7 ng g-1 dry wt.), DDTs (6.2-10.4 ng g-1 dry wt.) and HCB (0.1-6.5 ng g-1 dry wt.). PCBs, in aroclor 1254 equivalents, were also generally present in concentrations ranging from 0.47 to 28.1 ng g-1 sediment dry wt. Concentrations measured in the soft tissues of clams (Meretrix meretrix) generally reflect the level of contamination at the sampling sites. In the clams, the concentrations of DDTs (12.0-23.3 ng g-1 dry wt.) and PCBs (5.1-25.3 ng g-1 dry wt.) were generally higher than those of other chlorinated hydrocarbons. These results underscore the need to improved environmental protection measures in order to reduce the exposure of the population to these persistent and bioaccumulative compounds through food ingestion.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides and organotin compounds were determined in the blubber and liver of Caspian seals (Phoca caspica) found stranded on the coast of the Caspian Sea during an outbreak of canine distemper virus (CDV) in 2000. Among organochlorines analyzed, DDTs were the most dominant contaminants with concentrations ranging from 6.3 to 470 microg/g on a lipid-weight basis. Caspian seals collected in 2000 during the epizootic had higher concentrations of organochlorines than healthy individuals sampled in 1998. However, the blubber layer was generally thinner in the seals collected in 2000 than those in the previous surveys. Although compositions of organochlorine pesticides in seals suggested that the contamination status in the Caspian Sea is improving, the levels found in Caspian seals in 2000 were comparable to those in other marine mammals that have suffered from epizootics. This implies that the present status of contamination found in Caspian seals poses a risk of immunosuppression. Concentrations of butyltin compounds in livers of seals ranged from 0.49 to 17 ng/g on a wet-weight basis and octyltin compounds were below limit of detection in all the samples analyzed, suggesting less contamination by organotin compounds in the Caspian Sea.
Concentrations of persistent organochlorines (OCs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), DDT and its metabolites (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), and chlordane compounds (CHLs) were determined in whole body soft tissue homogenates and in muscles of resident and migratory birds collected from Lake Baikal, Russia. The residue pattern in both resident and migratory birds was in the following order: PCBs > DDTs > HCHs > CHLs. OC concentrations in migratory birds varied, depending on the feeding habit. The maximum levels of OCs were found in piscivores, followed by insectivores, omnivores, and herbivores. OC residue levels in Lake Baikal birds were lower than those in the Great Lakes region as well as in other lakes in Europe and Japan. Concentrations of HCHs and DDTs in most of the migratory birds collected in the spring were higher than for those collected in the autumn, indicating a notable accumulation in wintering grounds. Compilation and analysis of the available data in fish and birds from Asia suggested that the tropical and subtropical regions in south Asian countries may be a source of pollution for the wintering accumulation of migratory birds from Lake Baikal. Relatively higher compositions of alpha- and gamma-HCH in total HCHs, p,p'-DDT in total DOTs were observed in some migratory species, indicating recent exposure to HCHs and DDTs in Lake Baikal or wintering areas. PCB isomer patterns were different between residents and migrants, with the predominance of lower chlorinated congeners in migratory species, suggesting recent PCB accumulation in stopover sites during wintering. TEQ concentrations of toxic non- and mono-ortho coplanar PCBs in common terns from Lake Baikal were comparable to those reported in some species from Japan, the United States, and Europe. Relative contributions of non-ortho coplanar congeners to toxic equivalents (TEQs) were predominant, in which CB-126 accounted for the highest toxicity contribution. Estimated TEQ concentrations in the common tern from Lake Baikal exceeded the levels associated with enzyme induction in bald eagles. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive study showing the seasonal variations of OC accumulation in the birds from Lake Baikal.
Concentrations of persistent organochlorines (OCs), such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT) and its metabolites (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and chlordane compounds (CHLs), were determined in whole-body homogenates of resident and migratory birds collected from the Red River estuary, North Vietnam, during March and October 1997. Contamination pattern was in the order of DDTs > PCBs > HCHs > CHLs > HCB in both resident and migratory birds. Residue concentrations, according to the feeding habit, showed little variability, which may reflect relatively similar trophic levels of the bird species analyzed. Resident birds accumulated greater concentrations of DDTs as compared to migrants. In contrast, HCH residues were greater in migratory species. Higher proportions of p,p'-DDT to total DDT concentrations were found in many species of residents and migrants, indicating recent exposure to technical DDT in northern Vietnam. Congener-specific PCB analysis showed the predominance of penta- and hexachlorobiphenyls in all the species analyzed. Estimation of hepatic microsomal enzyme activities suggested higher metabolic capacity for PCB congeners in shore birds from Vietnam as compared to higher-trophic predator birds and marine mammals. Comparison of OC residues in avian species in Asia-Pacific revealed that DDT residues in resident birds in North Vietnam are among the highest values reported for the countries surveyed, suggesting recent usage of DDT in Vietnam. Available data for birds, fish, and bivalves from the recent Asia-Pacific Mussel Watch Program suggested that Vietnam might be a potential source of DDT contamination in Asian developing countries. To our knowledge, this is the first study of the OC accumulation in avian species from Vietnam.
Water samples collected from Vellar river and Pichavaran mangroves at Porto Novo (11 degrees 29' N, 79 degrees 46' E), Tamil Nadu State, South India, from December 1987 to January 1989 were analyzed to determine the seasonal variation of the levels of organochlorine insecticides such as HCH (BHC) and DDT. Both these insecticides showed higher levels from October to February, although this trend was more pronounced in HCH than DDT, reflecting the application of technical HCH largely and probably small quantities of DDT during the flowering season of rice. The alpha-HCH was detected as a dominant isomer for all seasons monitored followed by beta-HCH. Among DDT compounds, p,p'-DDT was the highest in river water except in the dry season when p,p'-DDD showed a higher percentage. On the other hand, in mangroves p,p'-DDE was highest during the wet season and p,p'-DDD during the dry season. Air-water partitioning data of HCH isomers and DDT compounds in Vellar river revealed that these chemicals tend to be in the water phase. These observations may aid in understanding the role of a tropical paddy area on the behavior and fate of man-made chemicals in view of worldwide contamination.
Paddy soil and sediment samples collected from the Vellar River watershed, Tamil Nadu state, South India from December, 1987 to January, 1989 were analysed to understand the comprehensive behaviour of organochlorine insecticides (HCH and DDT) in the tropical environment. HCH (BHC) showed higher levels in soil during wet season, reflecting the application of technical HCH largely during the flowering season of rice. On the other hand, DDT residues were low and did not show a significant seasonal trend in soil or sediment, indicating small quantities of DDT utilized at present for agricultural purposes in India. When compared to soil, the residue levels in sediments are low and the seasonal variation is less pronounced. This indicates that in tropical watersheds, the relative flux of residues into the aquatic environment is smaller than the amount volatilized to the atmosphere.
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