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Four decades of gasoline lead emissions and control policies in Europe: A retrospective assessment
Abstract
Over decades, large amounts of the neurotoxin lead were released into the European environment, mostly from gasoline lead additives. Emissions were growing unabatedly until the 1970s, when a series of regulations on the allowed gasoline lead content were adopted. As a result, in the 1990s most gasoline contained only small amounts of lead. We have examined this case of environmental pollution and regulation, and performed a retrospective assessment of the extent of regional-scale lead pollution and the effects of gasoline lead regulations in Europe. With the help of a regional climate model, NCEP re-analyses, spatially disaggregated lead emissions from road traffic and point sources, and various local data, the airborne pathways and depositions of gasoline lead in Europe since 1958 were reconstructed. It turns out that this approach is successful in describing the time-variable, spatially disaggregated deposition of gasoline lead. Additional data from analyses of concentrations in biota, including plant leaves, mussels and human blood, allows an assessment about the impact of the lead phase-out on the quality of the environment. Demonstrating the success of the lead policies, concentrations in leaves and human blood have steadily declined since the early 1980s. At the same time, the economic repercussions that had been feared did not emerge. Instead, the affected mineral oil and car manufacturing industries in Germany (our case-study) were able to deal with the effort without incurring significant extra costs. We suggest that our method of quantitatively reconstructing and anticipating fluxes and depositions of substances can be applied to other relevant substances as well, such as, for example, Persistent Organic Pollutants, radioactive substances or pollens.
... This is typified, for instance, by the widespread use of environmental indicators to examine the need for or impact of phase-out interventions. 23,29,30 Scholarship from the social sciences, business studies, and economics tends to encompass theoretical perspectives, frequently focusing on governance processes or societal drivers and barriers to phaseouts. 10,24,31,32 That said, a considerable volume of work from the natural sciences 22,33-38 engages with governance and societal aspects as well. ...
... 30,33,44 The rich archive of discussions about diverse phase-out targets, accumulated over five decades throughout the literature's evolution, offers opportunities to learn from historical experiences. Along these lines, scholars from multiple disciplines are increasingly attempting to generate lessons from past cases, including in the context of coal extraction, 24,71 lightbulbs, 31 leaded gasoline, 29,72 and ozone-depleting substances. [73][74][75][76] Overall, we find a strong inclination toward the study of well-known targets or individual cases. ...
... 114 Similarly, the scope of efforts to reduce human exposure to lead have expanded over time to affect multiple sectors. After initially focusing on leaded gasoline supplied by oil refineries 29 and wheel weights 115 produced in transportation manufacturing, the focus of recent phase-out efforts has shifted to lead shot used in hunting. 22,33 These results reinforce a point made by Andersen and Gulbrandsen, 88 who emphasize the need to acknowledge how the impacts of phase-out interventions can be wide reaching, spilling simultaneously across multiple industries or sectors. ...
... No anadromous fish species occurs in the study area and there are no indications of fish in the bears' diet. Aerial depositions are the primary source of environmental As, Cd and Pb in south-central Scandinavia (Renberg et al., 2001;von Storch et al., 2003). Blood samples were collected during the period 2010-2021, between mid-April and mid-June (Table 1). ...
... Scandinavia has been exposed to extensive aerial Pb depositions emitted from Pb-enriched gasoline, (von Storch et al., 2003). At peak use of Pb in gasoline at the end of the 1970's, background Pb concentrations in Scandinavia were increased by an order of magnitude (Renberg et al., 2001). ...
... Aerial transport distance of Cd might be shorter compared to Pb, thus deposition is closer to sources resulting in a decreasing south to north exposure gradient of Cd in Scandinavia (AMAP, 2005). The Scandinavian Peninsula is closer to large combustions than Alaska and the weather conditions facilitate the aerial transport from central Europe to the north, unlike in Alaska (AMAP, 2005;von Storch et al., 2003). Nevertheless, a recent study from western Canada found that organisms, including plants, fish and mammals. ...
Contamination with Arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb) is a global concern impairing resilience of organisms and ecosystems. Proximity to emission sources increases exposure risk but remoteness does not alleviate it. These toxic elements are transported in atmospheric and oceanic pathways and accumulate in organisms. Mercury accumulates in higher trophic levels. Brown bears (Ursus arctos), which often live in remote areas, are long-lived omnivores, feeding on salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) and berries (Vaccinium ssp.), resources also consumed by humans. We measured blood concentrations of As, Cd, Hg and Pb in bears (n = 72) four years and older in Scandinavia and three national parks in Alaska, USA (Lake Clark, Katmai and Gates of the Arctic) using high-resolution, inductively-coupled plasma sector field mass spectrometry. Age and sex of the bears, as well as the typical population level diet was associated with blood element concentrations using generalized linear regression models. Alaskan bears consuming salmon had higher Hg blood concentrations compared to Scandinavian bears feeding on berries, ants (Formica ssp.) and moose (Alces). Cadmium and Pb blood concentrations were higher in Scandinavian bears than in Alaskan bears. Bears using marine food sources, in addition to salmon in Katmai, had higher As blood concentrations than bears in Scandinavia. Blood concentrations of Cd and Pb, as well as for As in female bears increased with age. Arsenic in males and Hg concentrations decreased with age. We detected elevated toxic elements in bears from landscapes that are among the most pristine on the planet. Sources are unknown but anthropogenic emissions are most likely involved. All study areas facvde upcoming change: Increasing tourism and mining in Alaska and more intensive forestry in Scandinavia, combined with global climate change in both regions. Baseline contaminant concentrations as presented here are important knowledge in our changing world.
... Top soils are contaminated with Pb globally, and the Pb uptake in plants growing in these soils pose a risk for consumers (Khalid et al., 2017). Global environmental and health concerns have led to a gradual phasing out of leaded gasoline since the 1970s, which accelerated in the mid-1980s, when European Union member states started to reduce the allowed Pb limits in gasoline (von Storch et al., 2003). Consequently, atmospheric deposition of Pb decreased, especially in northern Europe (Lind et al., 2006;von Storch et al., 2003). ...
... Global environmental and health concerns have led to a gradual phasing out of leaded gasoline since the 1970s, which accelerated in the mid-1980s, when European Union member states started to reduce the allowed Pb limits in gasoline (von Storch et al., 2003). Consequently, atmospheric deposition of Pb decreased, especially in northern Europe (Lind et al., 2006;von Storch et al., 2003). For example, Danielsson and Karlsson (2015) reported that the mean Pb concentration in mosses had decreased by 96% in Sweden from 1975 to 2015. ...
... Much of the Pb in the environment of the Scandinavian brown bears is from aerial depositions originating in emissions from leaded gasoline and smelters from entire Europe (Renberg et al., 2001;von Storch et al., 2003). A possible exposure pathway are major food resources, such as bilberries and lingonberries that take up Pb from the soil. ...
Exposure to lead (Pb) is a global health problem for both humans and wildlife. Despite a dramatic decline in human Pb exposure following restrictions of leaded gasoline and industry and thereby an overall reduction of Pb entering the environment, Pb exposure continues to be a problem for wildlife species. Literature on scavenging terrestrial mammals, including interactions between Pb exposure and life history, is however limited.
We quantified Pb concentration in 153 blood samples from 110 free-ranging Scandinavian brown bears (Ursus arctos), 1–25 years old, using inductively coupled plasma sector field mass spectrometry. We used generalized linear models to test effects of age, body mass, reproduction status and spatial distribution on the blood Pb concentrations of 56 female bears. We sampled 28 females together with 56 dependent cubs and paired their blood Pb concentrations. From 20 lactating females, we measured the Pb concentration in milk.
The mean blood Pb concentration was 96.6 μg/L (range: 38.7.0–220.5 μg/L). Both the mean and range are well above established threshold concentrations for developmental neurotoxicity (12 μg/L), increased systolic blood pressure (36 μg/L) and prevalence of kidney disease in humans (15 μg/L). Lactating females had higher Pb blood concentrations compared to younger, non-lactating females. Blood Pb concentrations of dependent cubs were correlated with their mother's blood Pb concentration, which in turn was correlated with the Pb concentration in the milk.
Life-long Pb exposure in Scandinavian brown bears may have adverse effects both on individual and population levels. The high blood Pb concentrations found in brown bears contrast the general reduction in environmental Pb contamination over the past decades in Scandinavia and more research is needed to identify the sources and pathways of Pb exposure in the brown bears.
... Environmental matters in the early 1970s weighed especially heavily in German politics (Peters, 1980), and Germany would be the first European country to impose restrictions on the allowed lead content in gasoline. Starting in 1972, German production and importation of gasoline with more than 0.4 g Pb/l was prohibited (down from the usual 0.6 g Pb/l), and starting in 1976 the stricter limit of 0.15 g Pb/l was imposed (Storch et al. (2003)). ...
... British articles did not focus on lead but on urban smog instead. In 1972, a French government's group of experts did not acknowledge there to be danger in lead or in car emissions in general ( Storch et al. (2003)). ...
... French car manufacturers claimed that Germany was saying 'forest and meaning Mercedes' ('Suddeutsche Zeitung', ¨February 7, 1986). The 1980s press coverage emphasised the expected economic problems of the automobile industry and the European difficulty in finding a compromise solution (Storch et al. (2003)). ...
Review the existing technologies, including the ongoing research and development work in major universities, institutions, and manufacturer laboratories related to pollutant emission control.
... These observations initiated a change of regulation and the USA started reducing the lead concentration in gasoline though the adoption of new policies during the mid-1970s (see Nriagu (1990) for a review). In European countries, restrictions on the lead content in gasoline were gradual and finalized by the EU-regulation in 1989 and the Aarhus Treaty signed in 1998 (von Storch et al., 2003). The cycle of lead increase and decrease covering the period 1955-2000 in red coral skeletons (Fig. 8) is an illustration of a pollution crisis referred to as the 'lead gasoline anomaly' below. ...
... This could be attributed to earlier application of lead regulation in the US than in countries around the Mediterranean. It will be noted that this decrease is in good agreement with the decrease in lead concentrations observed in leaves and human blood for the same period (von Storch et al., 2003). Finally, the return to a level prior to the use of leaded gasoline is well marked in the red coral (Figs. 5 and 6). ...
... Finally, the return to a level prior to the use of leaded gasoline is well marked in the red coral (Figs. 5 and 6). This pattern is consistent with the return of lead emissions in Europe to pre-1950 levels in the years 2000 (Miralles et al., 2006;von Storch et al., 2003). ...
Lead (Pb) concentrations in long-lived Corallium species of known age, from the Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, were determined by laser ablation, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICPMS). Lead concentrations in a 2000-year-old sub-fossil Mediterranean C. rubrum are ca 0.09 ± 0.03 μg/g. For the period 1894–1955, lead concentrations in C. rubrum skeletons from the Mediterranean are stable within the range 0.2–0.4 μg/g; concentrations increase to about 1–1.2 μg/g during the period 1960–1978, then decrease progressively to stabilize and reach values in the range 0.2–0.4 μg/g in present-day corals. These variations can be related to the lead gasoline pollution event that (1) started in the early 1950s with the increase of the numbers of cars in the world, and (2) was mitigated by the implementation of new regulations starting in 1975, leading to a return to pre-1950 levels in 2000. In the Pacific, lead concentrations in C. japonicum and C. konojoi are lower than in the Mediterranean C. rubrum, with values close to 0.17 ± 0.03 μg/g. The lowest lead concentrations in present-day samples (0.11 μg/g) are found in C. johnsoni and C. niobe from the Azores islands in the Atlantic, and in a Mediterranean C. rubrum from Montecristo Island, one of the least accessible and most protected areas in the Mediterranean Sea. Using lead concentrations in C. rubrum and in the Mediterranean seawaters, a partition coefficient Kd = [Pb/Ca]calcite / [Pb/Ca]seawater of 13 ±3 is estimated; it allows calculating past and present lead contents in seawater in which corals grew. Application to Corallium species indicates that values endangering human health or threatening the preservation of aquatic ecosystem on long terms were nearly reached or exceeded in Mediterranean seawaters at the maximum of the lead gasoline pollution event in the 1980s. Measurements in C. rubrum from different places in the Mediterranean indicate that present-day seawater concentrations vary between 40 and 200 pmol/kg. As expected, the lowest concentrations come from protected areas insulated from human activities, while the highest come from places close to lead mining or processing sites.
... To eliminate impact of road transport as the most significant source of Pb in Europe (Von Storch et al., 2003), the highest site from each mountain and valley was chosen ( (Table 1) contributed to a lower genotoxicity on Martinske hole Mt, Suchy Mt and Kopske sedlo Saddle. Despite that, Martinske hole Mt. and Suchy Mt. were the most burdened sites, where a statistically significant increase of pollen abortivity was found in comparison to the control site in both years (Table SI 3). ...
... Spatial distribution of Pb emissions in Europe was described in several studies (e.g. Dunlap et al., 1999;Von Storch et al., 2003;Pacyna et al., 2009). In our study, the average lead and cadmium concentrations at various slope exposures for all sites and for three separate groups of sites are shown in Fig. 9. ...
This study evaluated the environmental genotoxic load of mountain and alpine habitats of Slovak mountains caused by the total mixture of air pollutants at 69 sites using the phytoindicator Pinus mugo. The level of overall genotoxicity was determined by pollen grain abortion assay. This shows that the test is sensitive enough to detect contamination from more distant sources, including long-range transboundary pollutants. It extends the applicability of this test to mountain environments. Soil and plant samples (pollen, one-two year old needles) were collected during a three-year growing period (2011–2013). The study identified source regions of pollutants by assessments at different altitudes and slope exposures. The highest genotoxicity was found in the Little Fatra Mts. on Suchy Mt., with pollen abortivity 3.52 % which represented a 23.5 times higher genotoxic load than at the control site. Samples from mountain peaks showed a higher genotoxicity in 2012 than in 2011 on most mountains. A gradual increase of pollen abortivity and needle Pb content (one year old) with increasing altitude was found in the vertical transect in Belian Tatras. The influence of subsoil type was analysed; higher genotoxicity and Pb content in soil and needles were found on limestone subsoil (Sivy vrch Mt.) and higher values of needle Cd were on granite (Brestova Mt.). The highest Pb and Cd concentrations in needles were measured in the Great Fatra Mts. on Krizna Mt. situated between highly-industrialized areas. The other mountain ranges with the high loading by Pb, Cd were Chocske vrchy Mts. and Low Tatra Mts. The lead content increased with needle age, but the correlation between soil Pb and needle Pb was not confirmed. The positive correlation between soil Pb and abortivity was found only at mountain peaks. The results showed a significant impact of both local industrial and transboundary sources of pollutants. Based on the results, the studied Slovak mountains were not strongly burdened by Pb, Cd and an overall mixture of air pollutants. This methodological approach may contribute to the assessment of urban exposome by comparing the external exposure in urban environment of big cities with background - mountain areas, where the only possible source is long-range transport.
... Yet, while scientific studies of phase-outs have accumulated for decades [20][21][22][23], there has been no systematic effort to comprehensively assess the development and state of this knowledge. Our literature review addresses this gap by mapping the evolution of scientific discussions about phase-out as an approach to tackling environmental sustainability challenges. ...
... Overall, we find a tendency in the natural sciences towards empirical work using evidence like environmental indicators to examine the impact of phase-out interventions or advocate for their implementation [17,21,26]. Scholarship from the social sciences, business studies and economics is more likely to encompass a theoretical perspective and focus on governance processes or societal drivers and barriers to phase-outs [2,18]. ...
Phase-out has emerged as a policy approach to confront multiple sustainability crises. From ozone-depleting substances and hazardous chemicals to fossil fuels and transport technologies, phase-out experiences have been documented by diverse scientific communities. To consolidate this dispersed knowledge and inspire more systematic research, we map the evolution of scientific discussions about phase-out through a systematic literature review. Examining 870 papers published since 1970, we trace the evolving nature of phase-out strategies in terms of targets, geographic and industrial contexts, policy instruments and drivers. This provides a multi-faceted overview of an emerging and rapidly growing ‘phase-out science’ rooted across the full spectrum of scientific enquiry. Evolution of this science is marked by broadening engagement with a growing diversity of targets, contexts, and policies. Our analysis also shows how phase-out policies have recently gained momentum as a tool to tackle climate change, with a particular focus on fossil fuels and associated technologies.
... 87%). A detailed history of European gasoline lead content regulations and especially their implementation in Germany is given in (von Storch et al., 2003). Lead emission decreased in Germany continuously from the mid-80s due to different iterative mitigation steps. ...
... Data on lead exposure show a reduction in BLLs over time on a global scale and thus confirm the success of multiple mitigation measures implemented on national and international levels like the ban on leaded gasoline. Its impact on lead exposure has been intensively described (Bierkens et al., 2011;Muntner et al., 2005;Smolders et al., 2010;Strömberg et al., 2008;Thomas et al., 1999;von Storch et al., 2003). However, the national differences in concentration levels inevitably raise questions on different methodologies, different exposures and exposure sources and should be subjected to further research. ...
Lead is a ubiquitous pollutant with well-known effects on human health. As there is no lower toxicological threshold for lead in blood and since data gaps on lead exposure still exist in many European countries, HBM data on lead is of high importance. To address this, the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative HBM4EU classified lead as a priority substance. The German Environmental Specimen Bank (German ESB) has monitored lead exposure since more than 35 years. Using data from the early 1980s to 2019 we reveal and discuss long-term trends in blood lead levels (BLLs) and current internal exposure of young adults in Germany. BLLs in young adults decreased substantially in the investigated period. As results from the ESB sampling site Muenster demonstrate, the geometric mean of BLLs of young adults decreased from 1981 (78,7 μg/L) to 2019 (10.4 μg/L) by about 87%. Trends in human exposure closely correlate with air lead levels (ALLs) provided by the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP). Hence, the decrease of BLLs largely reflects the drop in air lead pollution. Known associations of sex, smoking, alcohol consumption, and housing situation with BLLs are confirmed with data of the German ESB. Although internal lead exposure in Germany decreased substantially, the situation might be different in other European countries. Since 2010, BLLs of young adults in Germany levelled out at approximately 10 μg/L. The toxicity of lead even at low levels is known to cause adverse health effects especially in children following exposure of the child or the mother during pregnancy. To identify current exposure sources and to minimize future lead exposure, continuous monitoring of lead intake and exposure levels is needed.
... Leaded petrol was a predominant source of atmospheric Pb until the 70's, before regulations limiting the use of Pb in gasoline were adopted. An important reduction was obvious in seawater lead concentrations during the phase-out leaded gasoline (Reuer and Weiss, 2002;von Storch et al., 2003). ...
... In fact, Pb emission has shown a decreasing tendency everywhere in the world especially after banning the use of leaded gasoline ( Figure 5-3). (Von Storch, 2003) When comparing levels of trace elements analyzed using modern methods with data of past studies, the difference reveals to be important which makes the results somehow questionable. The historic trend in concentration of trace metals in the ocean shows a decrease across the years (Ansari et al., 2004). ...
Global food fish consumption has been in continuous increase and fishery products have become some of the most traded items in the world. However, the quality of these products is becoming an issue of concern to human health with the increase of anthropogenic activities threatening marine coastal ecosystems. Therefore, despite the well-known health benefits of fishery products, their consumption may be a route of human exposure to different kinds of chemical contaminants including trace elements. In this context, evaluating the contamination levels in these products and the risks they may engender to human health proves to be a necessity in the absence of local guidelines and monitoring programs. Thus, the thesis has 2 main objectives: i) the evaluation of environmental quality through marine organisms and, ii) the assessment of health risks related to the consumption of a selection of fishery products.The first objective was to study the levels of metallic contaminants (20 trace elements) in six marine species from different trophic levels of a food web (algae, mussel, shrimp and fish), representative of Lebanese coastal waters. The results showed that species accumulated metals differently underlining the importance of a multi-specific approach to reflect the contamination level of a certain site. Inter-site variations have been found mainly during the rainy period of the year while they were less prominent during the dry season, highlighting the effect of land-based sources and riverine effluents on the marine coastal area. Levels of trace elements in the muscles and edible tissues in species from our study, were similar to the ones reported in the Eastern Mediterranean (Levantine Basin) whereas livers showed higher levels compared to other studies suggesting that the Lebanese coast is exposed to strong environmental pressure. The second objective was to evaluate the health risks related to the consumption of different fishery products sampled along the Lebanese coast. In this prospect, five commonly consumed local species belonging to different compartments of the food chain, (1 bivalve, 1 crustacean and 3 fish species) sampled from three sites with different levels of anthropogenic pressures were selected. The samples were all analyzed for their content of trace elements. Metals such as mercury (Hg) are found in several chemical forms, the most toxic form being methylmercury (MeHg). The main route of human exposure to MeHg is the consumption of fishery products. That’s why, a method for the speciation of mercury in fishery products by HPLC-ICP-MS was optimized and validated based on an accuracy profile. The results showed that the levels of trace elements and MeHg in the selected species were all below the allowed maximum levels set by the European commission and so their consumption is not likely to cause any adverse effects to human health.
... I gratefully acknowledge financial support from Stiftelsen för Miljöstrategisk Forskning, Grant no. 2016/3. 2 For more on these pollutants and their regulation see Storch et al. (2003) , Sunstein (2007) , Ellerman et al. (2000) , and Stern (2008) observations, Grossman and Krueger (1991) start by discussing potential mechanisms, arguing that a scale effect causes the initial increase in pollution, and suggesting two candidates for countervailing effects that kick in later: a composition effect (a shift out of pollution-intensive industries), and a technique effect (a shift into clean technologies). Furthermore, they suggest that the driving force could be that with increasing wealth 'the body politic may demand a cleaner environment...[leading to]...more stringent pollution standards and stricter enforcement of existing laws'. ...
... For evidence on the respective cases see Storch et al. (2003) and Sunstein (2007) . See also Fig. 6 , where we see that in each case the steep decline in emissions starts with the introduction of regulation; furthermore, in Fig. 6 (a) we see that it is not associated with a reduction in petrol (gasoline) consumption. ...
We investigate long-run patterns in pollution flows in an optimally regulated, growing economy in which consumption and environmental quality are imperfectly substitutable and pollution is a by-product of production. We show that by-production implies that a scale effect will always drive increasing pollution when productivity is sufficiently low. On the other hand, if a clean technology exists it will always be chosen in the long run (hence emissions will approach zero) because for any strictly positive flow of pollution, willingness to pay to reduce that flow grows without bound as consumption grows without bound, whereas the cost of switching is bounded. We clarify the intuition using a specified model in which pollution arises as a by-product of the use of natural-resource inputs.
... Since the 1990s, Pb isotopes have proved to be powerful tracers of Pb contamination related to gasoline emissions (Erel et al., 1997;Luck and Ben Othman, 2002;von Storch et al., 2003) and to emissions from industrial areas (Cloquet et al., 2006;Jeon et al., 2017;Wen et al., 2015). Furthermore, Pb isotopes have been used for tracing the transport and redistribution of Pb in the atmosphere (Desenfant et al., 2006;Hamelin et al., 1997;Shotyk et al., 2002;Véron et al., 1999;Weiss et al., 2002). ...
... EXAFS results highlighted the precipitation of a Zn-Layered Double Hydroxide (Zn-LDH) phase which was dominant (~77% , Table S2) in S1 topsoil, while in the S5 soil, Zn was mostly sorbed onto Fe and Mn oxides (Table S2). Zn-LDH precipitates have been identified as markers of Zn contamination in calcareous soils (Jacquat et al., 2008;Juillot et al., 2003;Voegelin et al., 2011) or other contaminated soils (Aucour et al., 2015;Voegelin et al., 2005). Zn-LDH precipitation occurs once all sorption sites have been saturated (Luxton et al., 2013) and is kinetically favored over precipitation of Znphyllosilicates, although these precipitates are also thermodynamically stable (Voegelin et al., 2005). ...
Sourcing and understanding the fate of anthropogenic metals in a historical contamination context is challenging. Here we combined elemental and isotopic (Pb, Zn, Cu) analyses with X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) measurements (Zn) to trace the fate, in undisturbed soil profiles, of historical metal contamination emitted by a 167-year-old Pb-Ag smelter decommissioned 100 years ago located in the Calanques National Park (Marseilles, France). Lead isotopic measurements show that entire soil profiles were affected by 74 years of Pb emissions up to ~7 km from the smelter under the main NNW wind, and indicate particulate transfer down to 0.8 m at depth. This vertical mobility of anthropogenic Pb contrasts with previous studies where Pb was immobilized in surface horizons. The contribution of anthropogenic Pb to the total Pb concentration in soil was estimated at 95% in surface horizons, and 78% in the deepest horizons. Zinc isotopic signatures of past emissions that are enriched in light isotopes compared to the natural geological background (−0.70 ± 0.04‰ and −0.15 ± 0.02‰, respectively), were detected only in the surface horizons of the studied soils. Using XAS analyses, we showed that anthropogenic Zn was transformed and immobilized in surface horizons as Zn-Layered Double Hydroxide, thus favoring the enrichment in heavy isotopes in these surface horizons. No clear evidence of copper contamination by the smelter was found and Cu isotopes point to a bedrock origin and a natural distribution of Cu concentrations.
... Pb can exist in the marine environment as organic or inorganic Pb [57], with organic Pb being more toxic than inorganic Pb. Most Pb in the marine environment is organic, accounting for about 50%-70% of the total Pb. ...
Marine traditional Chinese medicines (MTCMs) hold a significant place in the rich cultural heritage in China. It plays an irreplaceable role in addressing human diseases and serves as a crucial pillar for the development of China's marine economy. However, the rapid pace of industrialization has raised concerns about the safety of MTCM, particularly in relation to heavy metal pollution. Heavy metal pollution poses a significant threat to the development of MTCM and human health, necessitating the need for detection analysis and risk assessment of heavy metals in MTCM. In this paper, the current research status, pollution situation, detection and analysis technology, removal technology and risk assessment of heavy metals in MTCM are discussed, and the establishment of a pollution detection database and a comprehensive quality and safety supervision system for MTCM is proposed. These measures aim to enhance understanding of heavy metals and harmful elements in MTCM. It is expected to provide a valuable reference for the control of heavy metals and harmful elements in MTCM, as well as the sustainable development and application of MTCM.
... In addition to natural disasters, the frequent exposure of contamination occurs through a mixture of lithogenic and anthropogenic sources, including traffic and gasoline emissions, industrial emissions, atmospheric depositions, household wastes, plumbing, painted wall and environmental clean-up sites which influence element enrichment in urban soils (Banerjee 2003, Von Storch et al. 2003, Komárek et al. 2008, Amato et al. 2009, McConnell et al. 2014, Doyi et al. 2019, Chen et al. 2021. A number of studies have described the PTE contents in the urban soils in many cities (Mielke et al. 1999, De Kimpe and Morel 2000, Govil et al. 2001, Krishna and Govil 2004, Chen et al. 2005, Lee et al. 2006, Wong et al. 2006, Krishna and Govil 2008, Naidu 2013. ...
Accumulation of potentially toxic heavy metals at elevated concentrations constitute one of the threats to the natural environment, ecosystems and the health of living organisms. In this study, the prevalence of trace metal (As, Cd, Pb, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn) exposure in backyard chickens via multiple exposure routes (soil, water, feed) was determined to better understand risks to the chicken and implications for egg production in relation to human consumption. Sixty-nine domestic chickens from 55 Sydney urban backyards were tested for their Pb concentrations using a LeadCare Plus™ Analyzer with their matched eggs analysed for Pb and other trace elements using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Corresponding soil, drinking water and feed were also sampled and subjected to a combination of ICP-MS and portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (pXRF) analysis. A significant association is observed between garden soil concentration and domestic chickens and their eggs and enables a broader determination of risk by using existing soil trace element data to domestic chicken. In addition, age of homes, distance to CBD and age of birds were also correlated with higher Pb in chicken blood and egg. As maximum limit has not been assigned to lead and other elements in chicken egg in the Australian New Zealand Food Standards Code, the relevant Health Based Guidance Values (HBGVs) were used as a benchmark dose to compare the dietary exposure assessment values from chicken eggs to assess the food safety risk through the consumption of domestic eggs. The study also showed that the Pb and other residual concentrations of metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu and Zn) in 9 different commercial free-range farm eggs had significantly lower mean concentrations. The health risk for consumers was assessed for two age categories of consumers (children:2-6 years, adult >18 years) by calculating the estimated daily intake (EDI), the target hazard quotient (THQ) and the cancer risk (CR) for each contaminant and showed a carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk for children with an exceeding elevated metal concentration (As, Cd, Pb and Zn) through the consumption of backyard chicken eggs. This assessment can be used to make recommendation for risk assessment and for soil screening and clean up values in order to ensure chicken safety and mitigate human exposures through consumption of home-grown chicken products.
... The changes in Pb and Cd deposition (Figures 3 and 7) have not been simultaneous, however, as these elements originate from different emission sources. The major emission source for Pb was leaded petrol used in cars until its phase out in the CR in 2001 [56]. The major emission sources for Cd are burning of fossil fuels in thermal power plants, burning of refuse and glass manufacturing [57]. ...
Lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) levels in ambient air were explored due to their toxicity and deleterious environmental effects. The aim of this study was to assess the time tendencies and spatial changes in Pb and Cd atmospheric deposition in a Central European country with a long history of ambient air pollution. We used measured data on precipitation chemistry and ambient air pollutant concentrations in the Czech Republic (CR) obtained within a nation-wide monitoring network. Our analysis is based on spatial patterns of annual wet-only and dry deposition fluxes constructed for 1996–2021. The results indicated that both Pb and Cd deposition over the CR during the last three decades decreased substantially, about 10 times, the absolute values for Cd being one order of magnitude lower than those for Pb. The wet-only deposition pathway dominated over the dry deposition pathway. This trend reflects the heavy metal (HM) emission reductions in the CR and neighboring countries and is in line with decreasing trends in ambient air HM concentrations in Europe. The spatial patterns showed that the northern industrial portions of the CR were loaded more as compared to the southern parts, and that the extension of affected regions has recently decreased substantially.
... Les aérosols présents dans l'atmosphère issus de la combustion de l'essence des véhicules contribuent à la présence des éléments traces dans l'atmosphère (As, Ce et Cr, Pb, par ex.) (Kitto, 1993 (Storch et al., 2003). ...
... Lead has been a great concern due to its harmful effects on human health and the environment. Pb may impair the normal neurological development of children even at low exposure levels and increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases and renal deficiencies in adults [45]. The accumulation of Pb was recorded in the bivalves' shells [21,46,47]. ...
Clams, Meretrix meretrix, were one of the favorite aquatic products in Taiwan and the world. It was reported that the water pollutants such as heavy metals and chemicals might accumulate in the clam body and shell through filter-feeding behavior. Thus, the bivalves could be used as bioindicators in the aquatic environment. The present study analyzed 20 trace elements, Mg, Sr, Li, Cd, Ba, Mn, Al, U, Ti, Pb, Nd, B, S, Zn, Fe, P, Na, K, Cu, and Ni, in the shells of the clams collected from the wild coastal area and cultured ponds to evaluate which elements have the potential to be biomarkers. The concentrations of 20 elements were detected by Solution-Based Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (SB-ICPMS). Among them, Cd, Al, U, Ti, Nd, S, and K were below the detection limit. The remaining elements were analyzed for accumulation. The levels of Zn, Fe, and Ni possess high variation in an identical environment; so, a PCA was conducted without these three elements to reduce noise. The PCA result proved that the clam could absorb specific trace elements from the habitat. After a period of time, the contents of the absorption in the shells of the clams living in an identical environment became more similar. The analyzed element, Pb, was not found with a special difference in this study. The levels of Na, Sr, Mg, B, Mn, P, Ba, Li, and Cu reflected different sampling sites, which suggested that these elements in the species M. meretrix had the potential to be used as biomarkers for assessing heavy metal accumulation in the environment.
... Major sources of anthropogenic Pb emissions to the environment include the combustion of fossil fuels, the mining, processing and smelting of lead and other metal ores, the use of lead-containing products (including batteries, paint and ammunition), waste disposal and vehicular traffic (Pattee and Pain 2003;Cullen and McAlister 2017;Kristensen et al. 2017;Pain et al. 2019;Kanstrup et al. 2020). Due to the use of alkyl-lead additives in gasoline, emissions from the latter source were the major cause of massive global lead pollution during much of the 20th century, with severe impacts on human and environmental health (von Storch et al. 2003;Cullen and McAlister 2017;Filella and Bonet 2017). Lead uptake into the mammalian body occurs via the gastrointestinal tract and the respiratory system. ...
The periodically detached and regenerated antlers are a diagnostic trait of deer (family Cervidae) and represent the most rapidly growing bones of mammals. During their species-specific and seasonally fixed growth period of a few months, antlers can accumulate large amounts of ‘bone-seeking’ elements that are incorporated into the bone mineral. This makes antlers ‘naturally standardised’ environmental samples that can be used to monitor environmental pollution of deer habitats by these elements. The present contribution reviews studies utilising hard antlers as environmental archives to reconstruct temporal and spatial variation of contaminant levels in different geographic regions. We further discuss the use of lead isotope signatures in antlers for source apportionment of environmental lead and the impact of excess fluoride uptake on antler mineralisation. In addition, promising areas for future research using antlers as bioindicators are discussed.
... Over the recent decades ongoing efforts to reduce lead in the environment have been undertaken worldwide. Measures such as the phasing out of leaded fuels, the ban of lead-containing paints, and a reduction of lead in toys have resulted in a lower lead burden within the general population in countries around the globe [10,[19][20][21][22]. Therefore, the according reference values (based on the 95th percentile of the general population) have been adapted to the new situation. ...
After centuries of mining in the district of Euskirchen, that is, in the communities of Mechernich and Kall, the lead concentration in the soil remains high, often exceeding regulatory guidelines. To clarify the lead body burden among residents in the region, a human biomonitoring study on a voluntary basis was initiated in which the blood lead level (BLL) was assessed. A questionnaire was distributed to evaluate lead exposure routes and confounders. Overall, 506 volunteers participated in the study, of whom 7.5% were children and adolescents, 71.9% were adults from 18 to 69 years, and 19.4% were residents 70 years or older. While the BLLs in the adult population were inconspicuous, among the children and adolescents investigated, 16.7% of the children between 3 and 17 years had BLLs above the recently revised German reference values for BLL in children. These results point towards a higher lead exposure in children living in the region. The hierarchical regression analysis based on the BLL and the questionnaire revealed the significant influence of the factors age, sex, smoking, construction age of the real estate, occupancy, and intensive contact with soil on the BLL. Measures to reduce lead exposure include a focus on improved personal and domestic hygiene to minimize lead intake.
... Lead isotopes are measured from livers and muscles of the AC specimens and compared to regional imprints both in the atmosphere and at sea in the vicinity of AC sampling sites (Table S2). French urban areas are chosen to best represent the transient pollutant Pb isotopic imprint in the Algero-Balearic basin owing to (1) regional climatic patterns characterized by dominating northerly main wind regimes at sea level in North-western Mediterranean regions (Alhammoud, 2005;Ulbrich et al., 2012), (2) the overwhelming French Pb emissions as compared to other Western Mediterranean countries until the late 1980s (Pacyna and Pacyna, 2000;von Storch et al., 2003) and (3) the apparent restricted deposition of African pollutant Pb emissions in the lower atmosphere within 100 km offshore northern African countries (Guieu et al., 2010). Fig. 3 shows atmospheric Pb imprints ( 208 Pb/ 206 Pb vs. 206 Pb/ 207 Pb) in French urban areas since the early 1980s. ...
We report lead (Pb) analyses in juvenile (n = 37; mean length = 24.7 ± 2.3 cm) and adult (n = 16; mean length = 52.3 ± 9.3 cm) Centroscymnus coelolepis Mediterranean deep-sea sharks that are compared to Pb content in bathy-demersal, pelagic and shallow coastal sharks. Median Pb concentrations of C. coelolepis muscle (0.009–0.056 wet ppm) and liver (0.023–0.061 wet ppm) are among the lowest encountered in shark records. Stable Pb isotope imprints in adult C. coelolepis muscles highlight that most of Pb in C. coelolepis is from human origin. Lead isotopes reveal the persistence of gasoline Pb emitted in the 1970s in low-turnover adult shark's muscle while associated liver imprints are in equilibrium with recent pollutant Pb signatures suggesting an efficient pollutant Pb turnover metabolism. The comparison of Pb distribution between adult and juvenile cohorts suggests the role of dietary exposure and possible maternal offloading of Pb during gestation, likely associated to vitellogenesis in this aplacental viviparous deep-sea shark.
... This lead, in high concentrations present in the atmosphere, settles down on to the dirt and dust particles and is inhaled, contributing to the major cause of lead exposure in individuals particularly children. [5][6][7][8] The heavy use of lead in industries has caused high levels in water and urban polluted air causing global contamination of air, water and soil. Multiple researchers have found that lead can cause neurological, hematological, gastrointestinal, reproductive, circulatory and immunological pathologies. ...
Background: Lead is a poisonous metal and is widely used in daily life. Increased use of lead in industry, and its excessive inhalation and ingestion can adversely affect the major biological functions in human body. This study was conducted to determine the serum lead levels and its toxic effects on hematological indices.
... Tropical mountains are acknowledged for harbouring high diversity of avifauna with many coexisting species within habitat types (Jankowski et al., 2009). Human activities such as farming, settlement, charcoal making, pole cutting and firewood collection have contributed in removal of forests (degradation) which has extensively damaged the natural habitat of birds, affecting their variety and variability (Storch et al., 2003). Uluguru mountains is known as an important Bird Area due to its high diversity of avifauna in Africa including endemic species such as Uluguru bush-shrike and threatened species such as love ridge sunbird (Burgess et al., 2002). ...
Forest is the most significant habitat for birds by supporting around 75% of all bird species while only 45% of all bird species have adapted to humans modified habitats. The research was conducted in the Montane Forest Research Station, Jos, Plateau State, in other to determine the abundance, diversity and effect of habitat types on bird’s species diversity. Fifteen transects of 200m were laid in the three habitat types (riparian forest, farmland and residential area) using stratified random sampling method. The data collected were analysed using R console. Shannon Weiner diversity index was used to analyse species diversity while generalized linear model was used to determine the effect of the habitat variables on bird species diversity. The result showed a total number of 1466 individual birds belonging to 17 families and 60 bird species were sighted. The abundance of birds was highest in riparian forest (2252), farmland (1732) and Residential area (1094) with no significance difference (p=0.177). Species richness was higher in the riparian forest (57), farmland (49), and the residential area (44). It also revealed that bird diversity index was highly significant. Riparian forest had the highest diversity (4.77), and the species were more evenly distributed (0.6) as compared to the other habitat types. The higher the number of trees and canopy cover the higher the diversity of species as was observed in the riparian forest where forest species that weren’t seen in the other habitats were found. The farmland and residential areas also hold a considerable number of some generalist bird species due to some patches of vegetation found in the habitat. Therefore, conservation efforts should be directed towards keeping vegetation intact in human dominated areas, as it serves as repository for bird species which are ecologically important. Hence, planting trees (economic, fruit and ornamental) should be encouraged.
... On the UK, Sweden and Switzerland, see Lennart Danielsson's report from December 1967, SNA, Expertgruppen för att leda utvecklingen på bilavgasområdet, box 8, "Blybensin," 3-4. 311 Markowitz andRosner (2013), 37, andStorch et al. (2003). 312 Lovei (1998), 1. health experts, regulators and the car and petroleum industries in connection with its introduction in the US, research on the lead' health impact virtually ceased until the late 1960s in the US and Europe. ...
The purpose of this thesis is to contribute to an improved historical understanding of the challenges and complexities involved in constructing systems of governance of motor vehicle air pollution. The specific aim of the study is to explore the development of regulatory vehicle emission standards in Sweden between 1960 and the 1980s as well as to analyze this development within its broader European economic, regulatory and environmental policy context by adopting a transnational approach. The overarching research question concerns the historical dynamics and processes that created obstacles to implementation of stringent vehicle emission standards in Sweden from 1960 through the 1980s. To answer this question, the study focuses specifically on expert, business, and governmental actors’ interaction in the political process in Sweden, seeking to reveal these actors’ motivations, justifications, and power to influence the outcome.
The study concludes that one set of difficulties concerned the relationship between vehicle emission standards and international trade, in the sense that stringent emission standards, which in turn are dissimilar from internationally adopted norms, raise trade barriers with implications for trade and foreign relations. The Swedish government, however, implemented stricter standards than those in Europe on three occasions between 1968 and 1982. Both the Swedish and the international car industry were greatly opposed to the Swedish government’s implementation of standards that were more stringent than those adopted in Europe, though the Swedish industry was not opposed to the government’s environmental ambitions as such. On the international arena, since the late 1960s, the thesis shows that the car industry favored international harmonization of technical regulations and lobbied national governments toward this end, while the study further concludes that the Swedish car industry was unsuccessful in its attempts to oppose regulation at home. Another set of challenges was related to the knowledge creation process and the requirement that these standards should reflect technical, economic, and scientific knowledge. The thesis shows how Swedish techno-scientific experts were key actors in the Swedish system of vehicle emission governance, while techno-scientific knowledge was an important tool in justifying Swedish unilateral policies to industrial actors and foreign governments. Still, producing techno-scientific knowledge is a time-consuming process and requires considerable resources. For small countries, the relative costs of producing techno-scientific knowledge are higher than producing it in the immediate political, economic, and technical context – i.e., together with other European countries and car industries. However, the thesis further concludes that the knowledge created in the Swedish system for vehicle emission governance was an important tool for linking standards with other progressive countries: both in terms of implementing goals on air pollution control that were more ambitious than those adopted by most European countries and for coordinating implementation of these standards as well as new fuel infrastructures.
This thesis contributes new historical knowledge and perspectives of relevance to several bodies of literature. By displacing the EEC/EU from the center of analysis, the thesis offers the literature on European integration new perspectives. The thesis also adds knowledge regarding the construction of technical standards by shedding light on the role of knowledge creation in developing and implementing standards in a transitional setting. The thesis, moreover, contributes to the literature on the political power of business by closely tracing the car industry’s attempts to influence the regulatory development.
... 3 Similar decreases were noted in other HICs, such as Sweden and Germany. 4,5 Phase-outs were slow to be adopted in low-income and middleincome countries (LMICs); however, by the end of 2005, nearly all LMICs had eliminated use of leaded petrol in automobiles. 6 Despite phase-outs of leaded petrol, reports in LMICs suggest that average blood lead levels in the general population are substantially higher than that in HICs. ...
Background
Since the global phase-out of leaded petrol, reports have suggested that lead exposure remains substantial or is increasing in some low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). However, few studies have attempted to systematically assess blood lead levels over the full range of LMICs. We aimed to describe values for blood lead level in LMICs.
Methods
In this systematic review, we searched PubMed for studies published between Jan 1, 2010, and Oct 31, 2019, that reported blood lead levels in the 137 countries in World Bank LMIC groupings. Studies were reviewed for inclusion if they contained blood lead level data from human populations residing in any given country; comprised at least 30 participants; presented blood lead level data derived from venous, capillary, or umbilical cord samples of whole blood; had data that were collected after Dec 31, 2004; and were published in English. Data on blood lead level were extracted and pooled, as appropriate, to make country-specific estimates of the distribution of background blood lead levels among children and adults, along with information on specific sources of exposure where available. This study is registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42018108706.
Findings
Our search yielded 12 695 studies, of which 520 were eligible for inclusion (1100 sampled populations from 49 countries comprising 1 003 455 individuals). Pooled mean blood lead concentrations in children ranged from 1·66 μg/dL (SD 3·31) in Ethiopia to 9·30 μg/dL (11·73) in Palestine, and in adults from 0·39 μg/dL (1·25) in Sudan to 11·36 μg/dL (5·20) in Pakistan. Background values for blood lead level in children could be pooled in 34 countries and were used to estimate background distributions for 1·30 billion of them. 632 million children (95% CI 394 million–780 million; 48·5%) were estimated to have a blood lead level exceeding the US Centers for Disease Control's reference value of 5 μg/dL. Major sources of lead exposure were informal lead acid battery recycling and manufacture, metal mining and processing, electronic waste, and the use of lead as a food adulterant, primarily in spices.
Interpretation
Many children have a blood lead level exceeding 5 μg/dL in LMICs, despite leaded petrol phase-outs. Given the toxicity of lead, even at low amounts of exposure, urgent attention is required to control exposures and to expand population-based sampling in countries with no or scant data.
Funding
This work was supported by the United States Agency for International Development (Cooperative Agreement number AID-OAA-A-16-00019).
... Meybeck et al., 2007). Or, durant cette période-là, le plomb entrait dans la composition d'un additif anciennement utilisé dans les carburants, avant d'être fortement régulé dans les années 1970 (Von Storch et al., 2003). Les eaux de ruissellement provenant des infrastructures routières en étaient donc potentiellement enrichies. ...
Hydrosystème affecté par des « pressions multiples», le Rhône est un cours d’eau franco-suisse fortement anthropisé. En effet, ce fleuve alpin est à la fois chenalisé depuis la fin du 19ème siècle par des ouvrages de correction appelés « casiers Girardon » (sorte de champs d’épis fermés par une digue longitudinale submersible) et à partir du milieu du 20ème siècle, est équipé pour la production hydro-électrique par de nombreux barrages en dérivation. Les secteurs d’étude, situés sur le Rhône moyen et aval (Pierre-Bénite, Péage-de-Roussillon, Montélimar et Donzère-Mondragon) ont enregistré ces deux phases d’aménagement. Sujets à l’atterrissement et à la végétalisation, les « casiers Girardon » présentent dans ces secteurs des patrons sédimentaires qui témoignent de l’impact de chacune des phases d’aménagement. Grâce à un découpage géohistorique sous SIG (Système d’Information Géographique), nous obtenons des patrons planimétriques d’atterrissement très concordants avec l’organisation topographique et macrostructurale sédimentaire des dépôts (identifiée à partir de radargrammes et de transects topographiques). Ces données permettent de comprendre l’histoire de la dynamique et des processus sédimentaires au sein de ces milieux et les différences existant également entre eux. Les sédiments fins piégés sont généralement peu à modérément contaminés en ETM (e.g. Igéo plomb : 1,22 ± 0,48), mais portent tout de même les marques de l’histoire des usages du 20ème siècle : les signatures chimiques (zinc, plomb) obtenues par spectrométrie à fluorescence X (FP-XRF) corroborent une concordance spatio-temporelle entre les périodes d’atterrissement et un pic de contamination durant la période des années 1970 à 1980 (période connue de flux de polluants sur le Rhône). Les concentrations en ETM retrouvées dans les matrices végétales (foliaires et dendrologiques) reflètent la complexité des dépôts sédimentaires et révèlent notamment certaines de leurs spécificités (e.g. concentrations en nickel importantes, à l’image du fond géochimique rhodanien).
Ainsi, face à ces « Impacted ecosystems », pour la plupart atterris ou s’atterrissant encore, les casiers Girardon sont des milieux pour lesquels il existe des enjeux de gestion. Entre action de conservation et de démantèlement, une stratégie alternative consisterait à abaisser ou enlever stratégiquement certaines digues afin de recréer des conditions d’écotone et des gradients de connectivité hydrologique favorables à une mosaïque d’habitats semi-aquatiques.
... This likely reflects the isolation of the Southern Ocean from natural and anthropogenic aerosol sources, limiting surface input (e.g. Duce et al., 1991), as well as a continued regional decrease in leaded fuel combustion (Thomas & Kwong, 2001;von Storch et al., 2003;Lee et al., 2014). A slight enrichment of Pb is observed from 50-200 m at stations 18 and 19, south of and in the Drake Passage, relative to the adjacent sampling sites, though the reason for this is unclear. ...
The Southern Ocean is the largest high-nutrient low-chlorophyll environment in the global ocean, and represents an important source of intermediate and deep waters to lower latitudes. Constraining Southern Ocean trace metal biogeochemical cycling is therefore important not just for understanding biological productivity and carbon cycling regionally, but also for understanding trace metal distributions throughout the lower latitude oceans. We present dissolved Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb and macronutrient concentrations in the Indian and Pacific sectors of the Southern Ocean from the Antarctic Circumnavigation Expedition (austral summer 2016-17), which included the first opportunities to study trace metal cycling at the Mertz Glacier Polynya and the Balleny Islands, as well as two meridional cross-frontal transects. Dissolved Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd and macronutrient concentrations show similar or greater variability latitudinally within surface waters than vertically through the water column, reflecting the combined influence of circulation and biological drawdown in shaping the distributions of nutrient-type elements in the Southern Ocean. Slopes of Cu-Si(OH)4 and Cd-PO4 increase from the Polar Frontal Zone to south of the Southern ACC Boundary (Cu-Si(OH)4) and from the Subantarctic Zone to the Antarctic Zone (Cd-PO4). Latitudinal differences are also observed for Ni-Si(OH)4 and Zn-PO4, with distinct Subantarctic Zone trends relative to those south of the Polar Front. Similarities between our Zn-Si(OH)4 and Cd-PO4 correlations and global compilations reflect the importance of exported Southern Ocean waters in setting these metal-macronutrient couples globally. Distinct Ni-macronutrient correlations are observed in this dataset relative to the global ocean, which supports a distinct cycling of Ni in the Southern Ocean compared to other basins. Concentrations of Pb are among the lowest observed in the global ocean; however, a local maximum is seen along the density level corresponding with Antarctic Intermediate Water. Concentrations within this isopycnal decrease with increasing latitude, which can be explained by decreasing atmospheric Pb input to more recently subducted waters.
Substantial biological uptake of metals and macronutrients is observed at the Mertz Glacier Polynya. Here, inferred metal:macronutrient uptake ratios are comparable to those found in the Amundsen Sea Polynya, in Southern Ocean phytoplankton, and to metal-macronutrient correlations in our data set as a whole, highlighting the potential of Southern Ocean polynyas as natural systems for trace metal uptake and export studies. The Balleny Islands are a source of Fe to surface waters and the islands also appear to influence distributions of Zn, Cu and macronutrients, which may reflect the combined impact of Fe supply on biological uptake, mixing, and scavenging in deeper waters. The Kerguelen Plateau is also a source of Fe, as previously identified. Throughout our dataset, the ferricline is found deeper than the nitricline, in agreement with existing data and indicating that Fe is less easily entrained into the surface ocean than NO3. Additionally, Fe:NO3 ratios in most samples throughout the water column are Fe-limiting (<0.01 mmol mol⁻¹). Therefore deep mixing, identified previously as the main Fe source to much of the Southern Ocean, would ultimately act to maintain Fe limitation.
... The harmful effects of heavy metals, even at low levels, are well documented (Flora et al., 2012;Mason et al., 2014;Taylor et al., 2017). Owing to the detrimental health effects of (heavy) metal exposure, numerous evidence-informed policies have reduced the release of metals into the environment (Von Storch et al., 2003). ...
... The harmful effects of heavy metals, even at low levels, are well documented (Flora et al., 2012;Mason et al., 2014;Taylor et al., 2017). Owing to the detrimental health effects of (heavy) metal exposure, numerous evidence-informed policies have reduced the release of metals into the environment (Von Storch et al., 2003). ...
Recycling of scrap metal into artisanal cookware is widespread in poorly resourced countries. The aim of the study was to determine the risk of metal exposure from the use of artisanal cookware available in South Africa. Twenty cookware samples were purchased from local manufacturers and informal traders across South Africa. Aluminum and silicon concentrations were determined using XRF and the total content of 18 elements (Ag, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn, V and Zn) were evaluated using ICPMS. Leaching of metals from cut pieces of cookware over a 2-h period of boiling in a 3% acetic acid solution was repeated 3 times and revealed multi-metal migration that was compared to EU maximum permissible levels. The mean Al migration of 509 mg L⁻¹ was over 100 times the EU maximum permissible level allowed for cookware. Lead was detected in all samples with 11 (55%), 12 (60%) and 9 (45%) of samples being over the maximum EU permissible level (10 μg Pb L⁻¹) for 1st, 2nd and 3rd migrations respectively. The mean As migration concentrations in the first leaching event ranged from 0.23 to 24.1 μg L⁻¹ with four pots (20%) over the maximum EU permissible limit for As (2 μg L⁻¹). Notably, all four pots were well below the maximum EU permissible As limit by the 3rd migration. Cadmium and mercury were detected in each pot across all three migrations however the levels were relatively low. Transmission electron microscopy revealed dramatic changes in surface structure after leaching of cookware.
... The profile of total Pb from Caminha increases from AD 1930 towards 1960s and 1970s and then decreases, following a similar pattern than those found elsewhere (see references above). Global Pb emissions from leaded gasoline started in the 1920s, peaked in Europe by the 1950s (Dunlap et al., 1999), and then dropped since the 1970s, mainly as a result of the European Union regulation (von Storch et al., 2003) (Fig. 4). ...
... At the same time, heavy metal level has generally been lowered in the air in an urban residential area in the advanced countries [15][16][17] . The general improvement of air quality is mainly attributed from an effective regulation of atmospheric exhaust from vehicles and factories 18 . ...
This study compared state of pollution around an intermediate treatment plant of industrial wastes before and after the change of its treatment procedure. Bulk atmospheric deposition, surface soil, suspended particulate matter and groundwater were collected after the plant changed main operation to waste crushing and volume reduction. Their heavy metals content were comparatively investigated with the previous results obtained when it was burning wastes. The bulk heavy metals deposition showed a clear distance-related attenuation both in burning and crushing periods, indicating that the plant was the main emissions source in either case. High concentrations of heavy metals in suspended particles, soil, and groundwater during the crushing period indicated their diffusion to water environment over time. The bulk atmospheric heavy metals deposition decreased significantly, 0.20~ 0.49 times for Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb and 0.69~0.94 times for Cr, during the crushing period than burning period. However, change of their enrichment factors was not significant. It may indicate that the pollution state did not change qualitatively in a bulk deposition basis and quantitatively in a depositing particle basis. The results showed that heavy metals deposition is dominated by suspended and precipitated particulate matters that adsorb and transport the metals.
... Despite the fact that lead emission into the environment decreased in the past few decades (mainly due to the introduction of unleaded petrol (von Storch et al. 2003)), it still has severe effects on human health (Järup 2003). There are regions where the concentration of this harmful element still is very high. ...
Kidney vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria L.) is a well-known Zn hyperaccumulator. Zn often occurs with Pb in one ore; thus, plants inhabiting waste dumps are exposed not only to Zn but also to Pb toxicity. While the response of kidney vetch to Zn toxicity is relatively well known, the Pb survival strategy of Anthyllis vulneraria has not been the subject of investigations. The aim of presented research was to determine the survival strategy of kidney vetch exposed to high lead concentrations. Shoot explants of a calamine kidney vetch ecotype were placed on agar media containing 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 mM Pb. Morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses, in particular photosynthetic apparatus of plantlets, were examined. The most pronounced changes were observed in plants grown on media supplemented with 1.5 mM Pb after 8 weeks of culture. Increased dry weight and high lead accumulation were observed in roots. Similarly, in shoots, increased dry weight and a decreased number of newly formed shoots were recorded. The accumulation of lead was many times lower in shoots than in roots. In leaf cells’ ultra-structure, looser arrangement of chloroplast thylakoid grana was observed. Despite the decrease in chlorophyll a and carotenoid content, the photosynthetic apparatus remained efficient due to the lack of photoinhibition and increased electron transport rate beyond photosystem II (PSII). For the first time, an acclimatization mechanism based on maintaining the high efficiency of photosynthetic apparatus resulting from increasing of electron transport rate was described.
... In more recent times, the massive use of alkyl -Pb as anti-knocking additive for fuels caused a strong increase in the Pb concentration in the atmosphere, so that, during 1940-1970, 99 % of the concentration for this toxic metal was estimated to have originated from human activities in the Northen Hemisphere (Murozumi et al. 1969). The following decades were characterised by a constant decrease of the concentration of atmospheric Pb as a result of the phasing-out of the alkyl -Pb additives (Boutron et al. 1991) and more strict regulations for atmospheric emissions (von Storch et al. 2003). ...
In the context of environmental studies, isotope ratio measurements can help to discriminate between natural and anthropogenic inputs, as well as to identify their source regions and transport pathways. However, environmental samples can be characterised by a low amount of the target elements, thus hindering the measurement of precise and accurate isotope ratios. During this doctoral study, research activity was carried out taking into account both analytical and environmental aspects related to the determination of isotope ratios in environmental matrices. On the analytical side, much effort was focused on obtaining precise and accurate isotope ratios at low amount of the target element, using single-collector and multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). In particular, performances obtained measuring 208Pb/207Pb and 206Pb/ 207Pb ratios by single-collector ICP-MS at low sample consumption rates were investigated evaluating two micro-sample introduction systems: the PFA micro-nebuliser, working at 150 μL/min, and the torch integrated sample introduction system (TISIS), working at 20 μL/min. Under optimal conditions and using ammonia as damping gas, repeatability was 0.12 ± 0.03 and 0.17 ± 0.04 % RSD at 10 ng/mL of Pb, whereas the sample consumption was < 1.5 and 0.2 mL. TISIS was also coupled with multi-collector ICP-MS achieving a repeatability of 0.016 % consuming only 0.2 mL of sample solution. The coupling of the instrumental method with a pre-concentration step provided accurate ratios at Pb concentration levels down to 5 pg/g. Finally, the use of multi-collector ICP-MS with a membrane nebuliser desolvating system was also investigated for the measurement of precise and accurate 87Sr/86Sr ratios, obtaining an intermediate precision of 0.019 % at 0.4 ng/mL Sr concentration. The developed methods were largely applied to various environmental studies in the framework of PNRA (Italian National Program for Antarctic Research) and RIS (Research in Svalbard) projects. Indeed, Pb isotope ratios were precisely and accurately measured in atmospheric particulate, surface snow, marine suspended particulate matter and sediment samples, collected from both the Arctic and Antarctica. Data were discussed in a multidisciplinary context and provided very useful information on sources and transport pathways of trace elements. In particular, results for atmospheric particulate matter collected at Ny-Ålesund (Svalbard islands), showed a recurring seasonal transition with higher load of atmospheric Pb related to mining activities in Russia during spring, and inputs of anthropogenic Pb coming from eastern North America during summer. Similar measurements were also applied to suspend particulate matter collected from the marine environment of the Kongsfjorden (close to Ny-Ålesund) and distinguished between anthropogenic Pb associated to intruding Atlantic water, and crustal Pb associated to glacial run-off. In the context of the Antarctic research, the chemical and isotopic characterisation of size-segregated atmospheric particulate collected at Terra Nova Bay (Northern Victoria Land) revealed that both the crustal and anthropogenic elements were related to the air masses carried by the katabatic wind from the inland, whereas the marine input appeared to be higher in January when the sea-ice extent was reduced. Furthermore, the Pb isotope ratios pointed out that the anthropogenic input was likely related to the polluted aerosols from South America and Australia, representing the predominant fraction (50–70 %) of the Pb measured in the samples. Finally, the precise measurement of Pb isotope ratios in surface snow from the Antarctic plateau enabled the identification of seasonal and inter-annual variations in the main sources of atmospheric Pb reaching Antarctica.
... After this, industrial production and emissions increased again (Danmarks Statistik, 1967), which is clearly reflected in the sediment as a renewed increase of Pb contents, reaching a maximum at 3 cm, showing the "peak of pollution" in the 1970/80s. The decreasing trend spotted afterwards is probably due to several measures for air purification and especially due to removal of Pb as anti-knock additive from gasoline (von Storch et al., 2003). However, the TPb contents did not reach the background contents in the surface sediments as otherwise expected for a remote and rural area like the catchment surrounding Lake Grane Langsø. ...
The land use within a catchment may markedly affect the environmental conditions in a lake and the storage capability of its sediments. This study investigated how changes in the dominant catchment vegetation (from local stands of deciduous trees over extensive heathland with some agriculture to mainly coniferous forest) occurring during the last ca. 200 years were reflected in the sediments of a soft water lake and how these changes influenced the lake ecosystem. Pollen, macrofossils, metals, different phosphorus (P) forms, organic matter, carbon and nitrogen contents were determined in short sediment cores. This novel combination of proxies revealed that 1) the reduction of deciduous trees in the watershed seemingly reduced the calcium (Ca) supply to the lake and thereby its buffering capacity. This development was accompanied by decreased abundances of Ca-dependent species and subsequent increases in acidophilic species. 2) The sedimentary contents of organic matter, non-reactive P and humic-bound P were evidently higher in sediments deposited during the time when deciduous trees were abundant, which is probably linked to a stabilising effect by Ca. 3) An erosion event clearly reduced the amounts of macrofossils of isoetid species and characeans, indicating a reduction in their maximum distribution depth because of lower water transparency. Overall, the results of our paleolimnological study are of importance within lake management by convincingly showing how land use changes may (irreversibly) affect environmental conditions and species composition in soft water lakes and the storage of organic matter and P in their sediments.
... Pb continued to fluctuate after the cessation of mining in 1942: subsequent peaks probably relate to the remobilisation of mining waste during flood events in the 1960s (Schillereff et al. 2014(Schillereff et al. , 2016. Any atmospheric signal from leaded petrol in automobiles during 1950-1970(von Storch et al. 2003 was likely masked by the particulate flux from the catchment. Previous research at Brotherswater found no evidence for post-depositional remobilisation in the sediment column (Rae and Parker 1993) or bottomwater redox conditioning driven by ferromanganese enrichment (no correlation is observed between Fe and Pb (p [ 0.6) and Mn and Pb (p [ 0.4)). ...
Metal ore extraction in historical times has left a legacy of severe contamination in aquatic ecosystems around the world. In the UK, nationwide surveys of present-day pollution discharged from abandoned mines are ongoing but few assessments of the magnitude of contamination and impacts that arose during historical metal mining have been made. We report one of the first multi-centennial records of lead (Pb), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) fluxes into a lake (Brotherswater, northwest England) from point-sources in its catchment (Hartsop Hall Mine and Hogget Gill processing plant) and calculate basin-scale inventories of those metals. The pre-mining baseline for metal contamination has been established using sediment cores spanning the past 1500 years and contemporary material obtained through sediment trapping. These data enabled the impact of 250 years of local, small-scale mining (1696–1942) to be quantified and an assessment of the trajectory towards system recovery to be made. The geochemical stratigraphy displayed in twelve sediment cores show strong correspondence to the documented history of metal mining and processing in the catchment. The initial onset in 1696 was detected, peak Pb concentrations (>10,000 µg g⁻¹) and flux (39.4 g m⁻² year⁻¹) corresponded to the most intensive mining episode (1863–1871) and twentieth century technological enhancements were reflected as a more muted sedimentary imprint. After careful evaluation, we used these markers to augment a Bayesian age-depth model of the independent geochronology obtained using radioisotope dating (¹⁴C, ²¹⁰Pb, ¹³⁷Cs and ²⁴¹Am). Total inventories of Pb, Zn and Cu for the lake basin during the period of active mining were 15,415, 5897 and 363 kg, respectively. The post-mining trajectories for Pb and Zn project a return to pre-mining levels within 54–128 years for Pb and 75–187 years for Zn, although future remobilisation of metal-enriched catchment soils and floodplain sediments could perturb this recovery. We present a transferable paleolimnological approach that highlights flux-based assessments are vital to accurately establish the baseline, impact and trajectory of mining-derived contamination for a lake catchment.
Since low-level lead exposure is still of concern for neonates, it is worth further characterizing the temporal transition trends of cord blood lead levels (CBLLs) globally and locally in Taipei, Taiwan, after the cessation of leaded gasoline use. A literature review on CBLLs around the world was performed by searching three databanks, i.e., PubMed, Google Scholar and Web of Science, with the search keywords "cord blood" combined with "lead" or "Pb" for studies published from 1975 to May 2021. In total, 66 articles were included. Linear regressions for the reciprocal of sample size weighed CBLLs against calendar year presented a high r2 value (0.722) for the very high Human Development Index (HDI) countries and a moderate r2 value (0.308) for the combined high and medium HDI countries. The predicted CBLLs in 2030 and 2040 were 6.92 (95% CI: 6.02-7.81) μg/L and 5.85 (95% CI: 5.04-6.66) μg/L, respectively, for the very high HDI countries and 13.10 (95% CI: 7.12-19.09) μg/L and 10.63 (95% CI: 5.37-15.89) μg/L, respectively, for the combined high and medium HDI countries. To characterize the CBLL transitions in the Great Taipei metropolitan area, data from five studies conducted from 1985 to 2018 were employed. Although the results of the early four studies indicated that the Great Taipei metropolitan area did not reach the pace in CBLL reduction among the very high HDI countries, the CBLLs of the latest study during 2016-2018 were pretty low (8.1 ± 4.5 μg/L), approximately 3 years in advance of the very high HDI countries as one group to reach this low CBLL. In conclusion, further effective reduction in environmental lead exposure is challenging and must be based on the efforts from the aspects reflected by the HDI index compositions, i.e., economics, education and health, mostly implying health disparity and inequality.
Heavy metal residues in former mining areas can pose a burden to the local environment and population even decades after closure of the mining sites. In the North Rhine-Westphalian (Germany) communities of Mechernich and Kall, both parts of the district of Euskirchen, lead residues are a source of health concerns for local residents. A statistically representative collective of both communities depending on sex, age, and area of residence was created, mirroring the local underage population. The blood lead levels (BLL) of 182 children and minors in the two adjacent communities were assessed via ICP-MSMS. The results were compared to German lead reference values, valid for the general underage population. In total, 32 (17.6%) of the subjects investigated exceeded the according reference values of 15 µg/L and 20 µg/L, respectively, depending on sex and age, thus pointing out an additional lead burden affecting children in the area. Potential lead sources contributing to the BLL were evaluated using a questionnaire. Factors that showed significant impact on the BLL were, other than age, sex, height, and weight, the factors occupancy, time spend in the garden, garden hand-to-mouth contact, consumption frequency of homegrown products, and lifestyle factors. The data presented enable both residents and the local authorities to further reduce lead exposure and to take appropriate personal and public action.
Zusammenfassung
Anamnese Wir berichten den Fall eines jungen Patienten, der sich mit reduziertem Allgemeinzustand, Anämie und krampfartigen Bauchschmerzen in unserer Notaufnahme vorstellte. Eine vorangegangene stationäre Abklärung inklusive abdomineller Bildgebung und Knochenmarkpunktion hatte keine Diagnose erbracht. Auf Nachfrage berichtete der Patient von der oralen Einnahme eines Ayurveda-Präparats über 1 Monat.
Untersuchungen 24-jähriger kreislaufstabiler Patient in reduziertem Allgemeinzustand mit grauem Hautkolorit und einem dunklen Gingivalsaum. Im Labor zeigten sich ein Anstieg der Transaminasen und eine normozytäre Anämie. Der periphere Blutausstrich ergab eine basophile Tüpfelung der Erythrozyten. In Blut und Haaren des Patienten ließen sich deutlich erhöhte Bleispiegel nachweisen. Es gelang der Nachweis toxischer Bleilevel im eingenommenen Präparat.
Diagnose Schwere Bleivergiftung, ausgelöst durch Eigenmedikation mit einem ayurvedischen Heilmittel. Die Analytik ergab eine tägliche orale Bleibelastung vom 136-Fachen der maximal zulässigen Dosis.
Therapie und Verlauf Mittels Chelatortherapie ließen sich die Blutbleispiegel deutlich senken, und es kam zur völligen Regredienz der Beschwerden sowie zu einer Normalisierung der Laborbefunde.
Folgerung Blei hat toxische Wirkungen auf praktisch alle Organsysteme des Körpers und wird für Jahrzehnte im Knochen gespeichert. Die Symptome einer Vergiftung sind unspezifisch; zielführend sind eine gründliche Anamnese sowie die großzügige Indikationsstellung zur Messung der Bleispiegel.
W publikacji zostały opisane zagadnienia związane z naturalnym występowaniem ołowiu w środowisku oraz jego wtórnymi, antropogenicznymi koncentracjami w glebach, wodach i pyłach atmosferycznych. Przedstawiono zmieniające się kierunki wykorzystania ołowiu w okresie ostatnich kilku tysięcy lat. Zwrócono uwagę, że stosunkowo niskie temperatury hutniczej produkcji oraz korzystne właściwości sprzyjały masowemu wykorzystaniu ołowiu, jednego z siedmiu najwcześniej poznanych metali. Wskazano, że jedną z przyczyn szybko rosnącego wydobycia ołowiu było pozyskiwanie srebra ze złóż galeny. Omówiono geochemię i mineralogię ołowiu w kontekście koncentracji oraz form występowania tego pierwiastka w różnych środowiskach litosfery. Silna skłonność ołowiu do wiązania się z siarką powoduje, że najczęściej występuje w siarczku Pb, galenie. W etapie utlenienia powstaje węglan Pb, cerusyt, znacznie rzadziej, w obecności jonów innych pierwiastków, np.: P, As, Mo, V, Cr tworzy fosforany, arseniany, molibdeniany, wanadyniany i chromiany ołowiu. Scharakteryzowano geologię oraz zespół minerałów występujących w śląsko-krakowskich złożach rud Zn-Pb. Stosunkowa niska aktywność geochemiczna jonów ołowiu Pb2+ powoduje, że w warunkach naturalnych transfer ołowiu do organizmów żywych jest ograniczony, jednak znacząco rośnie dla syntetycznych minerałów lub związków ołowiu.Opisano metody przeróbki rud Zn-Pb oraz hutniczej produkcji ołowiu, która od XIX wieku była związana z szybko rosnącą produkcją cynku, dlatego jednym ze znaczących źródeł emisji ołowiu są huty cynku. Wskazano na znaczącą rolę regionu śląsko-krakowskiego dla globalnej produkcji ołowiu, cynku i kadmu w okresie XIX i na początku XX wieku. Przedstawiono wielkość produkcji ołowiu na świecie i w Polsce. W kontekście rożnych zastosowań ołowiu (akumulatory, stopy, farby, dodatek czteroetylku Pb do benzyn itp.) wskazano na najważniejsze źródła emisji ołowiu i jego związków do gleb, wód i atmosfery. Zestawiono źródła i wielkośćemisji Pb w Europie w latach 1955–2010. Bardziej szczegółowe informacje dotyczące emisji ołowiu do środowiska odnoszą się do regionu śląsko-krakowskiego, gdzie od ponad 200 lat liczne huty produkowały ołów, cynk oraz stopy metali nieżelaznych, co wiązało się z lokalnym i regionalnym zanieczyszczeniem środowiska metalami ciężkimi. Szczególnie silne, toksyczne oddziaływania na organizmy żywe wywiera ołów, szczególnie jego syntetyczne formy emitowane przez huty oraz zakłady wykorzystujące ten metal. Okresy największej prosperity śląskiego hutnictwa ołowiu, cynku i kadmu wiązały się ze wzrostem zatrudnienia, z rozwojem gospodarczym i ogromnymi zyskami dla właścicieli. Z drugiej strony przyczyniły się do katastrofalnego zanieczyszczenia środowiska oraz trudnej do oszacowania skali zachorowań dzieci i dorosłych w wyniku zatrucia ołowiem.
We analyzed the lead content in antlers of 90 adult European roe bucks (Capreolus capreolus) that had been culled between 1901 and 2019 in an agricultural-dominated hunting district in Lower Saxony (Northern Germany). Antler lead values ranged between 0.2 and 10.9 mg/kg dry weight. Median lead concentration was highest after World War II, during a period (1956–1984) of rapidly increasing mass motorization and use of leaded gasoline. Lead levels in antlers decreased markedly after the phase-out of leaded gasoline, but high values were still found in some recently collected antlers. This could indicate persistent lead pollution from former use of lead additives to gasoline, other traffic-related sources, or from agricultural sources (e.g., sewage sludge, fertilizers). This study highlights the suitability of analyzing roe deer antlers for the historical monitoring of changing lead levels in the environment. By collecting antlers and providing them for study, local hunters can significantly contribute to environmental surveillance and the monitoring of environmental pollution by bone-seeking contaminants.
This manuscript presents the largest review of lead (Pb) content in bony fish collected worldwide. Lead analyses are assigned to specific species and localized using the Food and Agricultural Organization geographical fishing zones. The data set is expanded according to the number of analyses in each cohort leading to a record of 22190 and 5954 Pb concentrations for muscle and liver, respectively. Descriptive and comparative statistics demonstrate the usefulness of this chronicle to examine Pb content differences in bony fish from the Atlantic, Indian, Pacific oceans, and basins of the Mediterranean Sea. Investigation of distinct tissues are indicative of contaminated habitat imprints on metabolic Pb accumulation at global and regional scales. Muscle and liver Pb content from all mixed species are significantly correlated above 0.1 ppm (wet weight) suggesting a threshold above which liver metabolism may not efficiently balance uptake and excretion of Pb that accumulates more readily in both tissues. This review constitutes a prerequisite to monitor the effect of environmental policies on fish bioindicators, and to examine inter- and intraspecies responses to environmental Pb insult according to various habitats and biological factors.
The research aims to determine the content of arsenic, mercury, cadmium and lead in 13 species of marine fish marketed in Salvador, Bahia, northeastern Brazil and assess the risk to human health associated with the consumption of these fish by using the Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) as a tool. The levels of these metals in fish are of great interest to the public health due to the toxicity of these elements and biomagnification in the food chain. The elements arsenic, cadmium and lead were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and mercury by cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry (CVAAS). In general, intra and interspecific variations in arsenic concentrations were observed (0.01 - 1.85 mg kg ⁻¹), cadmium (0.03 to 0.32 mg kg ⁻¹), lead (< 0.01 - 0.10 mg kg ⁻¹) and mercury (0.001 - 1.85 mg kg ⁻¹), with arsenic having the highest levels in the vast majority of fish species, followed by mercury, cadmium and lead. THQ¿1 value was observed only for mercury in Seriola spp. and Mycteroperca intertitialis indicating a potential risk of consumption of these species.
Atmospheric trace elements (Al, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, V, Zn) in particulate matter have been measured since 1996 at Pallas, a subarctic site in Finland. The results indicate a very low level of pollution as the concentrations were among the lowest measured in Europe. The annual average concentration during the whole time series (1996–2018), from the lowest values to the highest, was Co < Cd < Cr < As < V < Ni < Cu < Mn < Pb < Zn < Al < Fe, ranging from 0.02 to 20 ng m⁻³. For the priority elements As, Cd, Ni and Pb, the annual average concentration was 0.10, 0.02, 0.21 and 0.65 ng m⁻³, respectively, in 2018. The concentrations were compared with the results from three other sites in Finland, and a clear south-to-north decreasing gradient was found for most elements except for Ni, which was found to be mostly associated with emissions from the Kola Peninsula together with the trace elements of Cu, As and Co, as confirmed by the source apportionment analysis using positive matrix factorization. Cd, Pb, V and Zn were attributed to long-range transported (LRT) pollutants originating from combustion while Al, Fe and Mn were related to the soil origin. Gaseous Hg was included in the source analysis and was found in a separate LRT and marine factors. Considering the full time series, a trend analysis showed statistically significant decreasing trends for As, Cd, Co, Cu, Ni, Pb and V up to 64% in the whole period. Since 2010 Since 2010, six elements (Cd, Co, Ni, Pb, V, Zn) have continued the positive development of declining trends (P < 0.05) with changes between 25% and 53% during the period. No statistically significant increasing trends were observed for the studied elements.
This chapter deals with the monitoring of the air quality using nanosensors. Main air pollutants and their concentration limits fixed by national and international organizations are described. A study of the existing nanostructured materials for gas sensors are presented. These include 0D, 1D, 2D and 3D materials mainly focused in the development of resistive nanosensors. Then, several examples of field applications with commercial sensors and some recent research projects that use nanosensors for air quality monitoring are presented. By the end of the chapter future perspectives of nanosensors in this field are envised.
Background:
No safe blood lead concentration in children has been identified. Lead can affect nearly every system in the body and is especially harmful to the developing central nervous system of children. The aim of this study is to analyze blood lead in a population of children and its association with sociodemographic variables, biochemical parameters, copper, iron, selenium and zinc.
Methods:
We recruited 155 children (86 boys and 69 girls) with a mean age of 7.3 (SD:4.1). Blood lead and serum selenium concentrations were measured by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. Serum copper and zinc concentrations were measured by flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Serum iron levels were determined by colorimetric assay. A risk exposure questionnaire for lead was administered to the participants.
Results:
The median blood lead level was 1.1 (IQR 0.7-1.6) μg/dL. Regarding risk exposure factors, the youngest children (<2 years) who played outdoors presented a median blood lead concentration of 1.1 μg/dL IQR: 0.48-1.48, compared to the median of 0.3 μg/dL IQR:0.2-0.48 in the children who stated they played at home (p = 0.024). Significant differences were also found when taking into account those parents who smoked (median 1.3 IQR 0.8-1.9 μg/dL vs 0.9 IQR 0.5-1.4 μg/dL of non-smokers, p = 0.002). Children who drank tap water had higher blood lead levels (median 1.2 IQR 0.7-1.6 μg/dL) than those who drank bottled water (median 0.7 IQR 0.2-1.3 μg/dL p = 0.014). In addition, children whose mothers had not finished school had higher blood lead levels (median 1.7 IQR 1.2-2.3 μg/dL) than those whose mothers had finished school (median 1.2 IQR 0.7-1.7 μg/dL) and those whose mothers had gone to university (median 0.9 IQR 0.5-1.4 μg/dL) p = 0.034. In the multivariate lineal regression analysis we continue to observe the association between mother's higher level of education and lower blood levels (p = 0.04) and the interaction between age and outdoor play (p = 0.0145).
Conclusions:
In spite of the decline in blood lead concentrations, associated risk factors continue to exist in vulnerable populations such as children.
The study of three lacustrine sedimentary archives along an altitudinal transect in the Southern Central Pyrenees - lakes Estanya, Basa and Marboré- has provided a unique record of changes in anthropogenic trace metal concentrations over the last six centuries in NE Iberian Peninsula. Although site-specific processes influence metals enrichments in each lacustrine system, significant enrichments of Hg and Pb and minor to moderate enrichments of Cu, Cd, and Zn with respect to baseline (Pre-industrial) concentrations highlight intensive release of anthropogenic trace metals with the advent of the Industrial Revolution leading to maximum values during the 20th century. The largest trace metal pollution occurred between 1840s and 1920s CE mainly derived from the increasing demand of ore resources in Southern Europe during the Industrialization. A second, less distinct pollution phase occurred between 1950s and 1990s, associated with the “Great Acceleration” and increased trace metal emissions related to road-transport, use of fertilizers in agriculture and the global boost of the Chemical Industry. Enrichment of mercury during the Industrial Period correlates well with Hg production in Spanish Almadén mines and global emission inventories. Local mining in the Pyrenees and regional smelting activities in Spain and Southern France may explain the enrichment of lead (and associated by-products cadmium and zinc) during the first pollution phase while the use of leaded gasoline since the mid-20th century drives the higher Pb enrichment factor found till the late 20th century. This investigation demonstrates that environmental regulations controlling emissions of hazardous metals during the last decades have greatly contributed to a significant reduction of these anthropogenic trace metals enrichments in natural ecosystems although they still double pre-industrial levels. This study also exemplifies the different sensitiveness of lacustrine systems to record past atmospheric pollution phases and highlights the need of multi-archive studies to conduct regional (rather than local) pollution reconstructions.
Lead is widely utilized in manufacturing of paints. It has been reported a number of times that paints used for commercial and industrial purposes contain high lead content. During their work, painters are constantly exposed to these leaded paints. Increased use of lead in industry, its excessive inhalation and ingestion can adversely affect major biological functions in the human body.
With the number of vehicles increasing, the analysis of urban air pollution becomes expedient. This article deals with the integrated evaluation of road transport realised pollutant impact on the urban air. During research, it was carried out complex measurements of the air quality involving passive diffusive sampling for nitrogen dioxide, active measurement for particle matters, lichen sampling for heavy metals and visual assessment of trees defoliation. Obtained results showed the statistically reliable (p < 0.05) strong correlation (r = 0.83) between the number of passing vehicles and the concentration of particulate matter and there is even stronger correlation (r = 0.94; p < 0.05) between the concentration of nitrogen dioxide and the number of passing vehicles. It was observed during the analysis, that in measuring sites in which was determined 30% more intense defoliation process, also determined a higher NO2 (>10μg/m3) and lead (~10 mg/kg) concentrations. It can be argued that the source of mentioned pollutants is the same – motor transport, and their presence in the environment influences defoliation phenomenon.
Metals are important chemicals occurring in various ecosystems. Some of them are toxic, some are toxic when appearing in excess and some are essential for the environment and human health. They are ubiquitous constituents of various natural materials in the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere.
High-temperature processes in the primary non-ferrous metal industries are the major source of atmospheric arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), indium (In), antimony (Sb), and zinc (Zn), and an important source of lead (Pb) and selenium (Se). Combustion of coal in electric power plants and industrial, commercial, and residential burners is the major source of anthropogenic mercury (Hg), molybdenum (Mo), and selenium and a significant source of arsenic, chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), antimony, and thallium (Tl). Combustion of oil for the same purpose is the most important source of vanadium (V) and nickel (Ni). Combustion of leaded gasoline is estimated to be the major source of lead. Atmospheric chromium and manganese derive primarily from the iron and steel industry. The largest discharges of these metals are estimated for soils followed by discharges to water.
The degree of human alteration of metals biogeochemical cycles caused by their anthropogenic emissions affects human health impacts of these chemicals. The information on alteration degree on global and regional scale is discussed.
Emissions of metals from various anthropogenic sources can be reduced using technological (e.g. Best Available Technology (BAT) solutions) and non-technological measures (e.g. Best Environment Practice (BEP) option). Various emission reduction measures are presented.
Regional atmospheric models have matured in the past few years. They now find broad applications
that range from process studies, reconstruction of recent and paleoclimates, simulation
of pathways and deposition of anthropogenic matter, construction of plausible scenarios of future
climate change, and regional weather analysis. The initial major problem-- namely, the illposed
boundary value problem--has been efficiently fixed by including a sponge zone that ensures
the consistency of the interior flow with the boundary conditions at the outflow boundaries,
or by introducing large-scale control in the interior. With these setups, regional models
may now be integrated stably over many decades and thereby provide information on spatial
and temporal scales not sufficiently resolved by present-day global climate models and weather
analyses.
The "spectral nudging" method imposes time-variable large-scale atmospheric states on a regional atmospheric model. It is based on the idea that regional-scale climate statistics are conditioned by the interplay between continental-scale atmospheric conditions and such regional features as marginal seas and mountain ranges. Following this "downscaling" idea, the regional model is forced to satisfy not only boundary conditions, possibly in a boundary sponge region, but also large-scale flow conditions inside the integration area. In the present paper the performance of spectral nudging in an extended climate simulation is examined. Its success in keeping the simulated state close to the driving state at larger scales, while generating smaller-scale features is demonstrated, and it is also shown that the standard boundary forcing technique in current use allows the regional model to develop internal states conflicting with the large-scale state. It is concluded that spectral nudging may be seen as a suboptimal and indirect data assimilation technique.
The NCEP and NCAR are cooperating in a project (denoted "reanalysis") to produce a 40-year record of global analyses of atmospheric fields in support of the needs of the research and climate monitoring communities. This effort involves the recovery of land surface, ship, rawinsonde, pibal, aircraft, satellite, and other data; quality controlling and assimilating these data with a data assimilation system that is kept unchanged over the reanalysis period 1957-96. This eliminates perceived climate jumps associated with changes in the data assimilation system. The NCEP/NCAR 40-yr reanalysis uses a frozen state-of-the-art global data assimilation system and a database as complete as possible. The data assimilation and the model used are identical to the global system implemented opera- tionally at the NCEP on 11 January 1995, except that the horizontal resolution is T62 (about 210 km). The database has been enhanced with many sources of observations not available in real time for operations, provided by different coun- tries and organizations. The system has been designed with advanced quality control and monitoring components, and can produce 1 mon of reanalysis per day on a Cray YMPI8 supercomputer. Different types of output archives are being created to satisfy different user needs, including a "quick look" CD-ROM (one per year) with six tropospheric and stratospheric fields available twice daily, as well as surface, top-of-the-atmosphere, and isentropic fields. Reanalysis information and selected output is also available on-line via the Internet (http//:nic.fb4.noaa.gov:8000). A special CD- ROM, containing 13 years of selected observed, daily, monthly, and climatological data from the NCEP/NCAR Re- analysis, is included with this issue. Output variables are classified into four classes, depending on the degree to which they are influenced by the observations andlor the model. For example, "C" variables (such as precipitation and surface fluxes) are completely determined by the model during the data assimilation and should be used with caution. Never- theless, a comparison of these variables with observations and with several climatologies shows that they generally contain considerable useful information. Eight-day forecasts, produced every 5 days, should be useful for predictabil- ity studies and for monitoring the quality of the observing systems. The 40 years of reanalysis (1957-96) should be completed in early 1997. A continuation into the future through an identical Climate Data Assimilation System will allow researchers to reliably compare recent anomalies with those in earlier decades. Since changes in the observing systems will inevitably produce perceived changes in the climate, par- allel reanalyses (at least 1 year long) will be generated for the periods immediately after the introduction of new ob- serving systems, such as new types of satellite data. NCEP plans currently call for an updated reanalysis using a state-of-the-art system every five years or so. The suc- cessive reanalyses will be greatly facilitated by the generation of the comprehensive database in the present reanalysis.
Bulk deposition samples were collected during a summer (1997) and a winter (1998) measurement campaign at four coastal stations along the southern Baltic Sea coast and on the Island of Gotland. The data were used to construct Pb and Cd deposition fields over the Baltic Sea. A weak gradient with decreasing deposition rates from the southwest towards the east and north was obtained for Pb. In the case of Cd, the spatial distribution pattern was characterized by an extreme deposition maximum at the Polish station on the Hel Peninsula. The total atmospheric input of Pb and Cd into the Baltic Sea was 550 and 33 t/year, respectively, and exceeds the riverine input by approximately about 50%. Previous measurement-based estimates were higher by a factor 2–3 and indicate a decrease of the atmospheric deposition during the past 10–15 years. The comparison with modelled deposition data yielded partly large differences and was impaired by the fact that 1990 emission inventories were used whereas our measurements were performed in 1997/1998.Relating our deposition estimate and the Pb/Cd input by rivers to the mean concentrations in Baltic Sea water, residence times of 0.29 and 3.6 years were obtained for Pb and Cd, respectively.
The distribution with depth of lead in cores of peat shows that the annual fallout in the U.K. has not changed greatly since the middle of the last century. Increased fallout of lead from vehicles has been balanced by decreases in other sources. Fallout of lead from vehicles since 1946 has contributed about 3 ppm in country districts and less than 10 ppm in towns to topsoils. This represents a small addition to the amounts naturally present or attributable to dissemination of industrial and domestic waste over the centuries. However, the current rate of fallout can be ascribed mainly to vehicle emissions.Although many surveys and experiments comparing lead in plants and soils have been done, the contribution of root uptake to lead in crops remains uncertain. Contamination of foliage with particles of soil may be more important than uptake by roots in many instances. Foliage near motorways and other sources of airborne lead shows evidence of direct contamination, and extrapolation of the results indicates that foliar uptake accounts for most of the lead in grasses and other plants having high leaf surface area per unit mass. Translocation of lead from outer to inner leaves, and to tubers, fruits and seeds is very slight, and it seems that not more than a few μg per day of lead enters diet by this route.Measurements of the naturally-occurring radioisotope 210Pb in fallout and in diet can be used to calculate an equivalent area, defined as Equivalent area = Amount in average adult diet per day/ Amount falling per unit area of ground per day The equivalent area for 210Pb is 0.18 m2, and if it is assumed that stable lead in fallout enters diet to the same degree as does 210Pb, it follows that together the various pathways contribute about 13 μg day−1 to the average adult diet.
To assess the relations between use of lead in gasoline (GPb) and population blood lead levels (BPb), we examined 19 studies from six continents. In 17 of the studies, there are data on changes in BPb before and after changes in use of lead in gasoline. In 11 of the studies, there are data on air lead levels (APb). For a given location, there is a strong linear correlation between BPb and GPb, with a median correlation coefficient of 0.94. Across locations for a given GPb, BPb is positively correlated with city population. As GPb is reduced to zero, blood lead levels across locations converge to a median of 3 μg/dL. This convergence of BPb levels occurs at different times for different locations and corresponds to the timing of gasoline lead reductions. For those locations with available air lead data, air lead concentrations converge to ≤0.2 μg/m3 as GPb is reduced to zero. Together, these features indicate that reductions in gasoline lead levels have been a major causal factor in the observed reductions in population blood lead levels at these locations and show that BPb levels of about 3 μg/dL are widely achievable.
Environmental protection policies in the automobile market were not implemented until the motorisation of the masses in the 1960s caused an increasing environmental burden. The rising air pollution was considered a latent danger to humans, animals and plants. In the years up to 1985 the EU passed several regulations to limit the mass pollutants CO, CxHy and NOx. Germany was the first EU-member nation to also be concerned with lead in gasoline, passing reduction regulations as early as 1971. In 1986, several EU-member nations implemented the supply of unleaded gasoline. This decision was predominantly based on information about widespread forest damage.
The reduction of lead emissions due to these regulations could be verified in different environmental systems. An example of this was the decline of atmospheric lead concentrations and human blood lead levels in Germany. With regard to industries, the German mineral oil and automobile markets were affected mostly. The price trend of gasoline was no longer only influenced by varying crude oil prices but also by tax discrimination between leaded and unleaded fuel. With regard to the distribution system, the market positions particularly of the medium-sized traders and the independent importers were weakened. In the automobile market, favourable terms of competition were experienced by producers who had already gained experience with catalyst systems in the US market. The Gasoline Lead Content Regulations had no significant effects on further economic indicators, except for competition.
Lead contamination of abiotic and biotic systems has beenstudied closely since the early 1970s, when lead was firstperceived as an environmental problem. Lead emission reductionpolicies were implemented throughout Europe during that time.Nonetheless, analyses of lead loads in aquatic systems, such asthe River Elbe, showed no decline over time in either suspendedmatter or surface sediments. Regional differences in leadconcentrations of fluvial, i.e. riverine systems were found,due to tidal influence, runoff and local emissions. Leadcontamination of sediments from the North Sea was highest inestuaries. Concentrations in sediment cores were quite stabledown to the depth of background values, due to bioturbation,flow, waves and meandering channels. Terrestrial soils inEurope were highly polluted in industrial and ore mining areasand large cities. No decline in lead concentrations was evident in foraminifera,bladder wrack or fish. It was found that contamination insediments, mammals and fish livers was higher in coastal zonesthan in the open sea. In contrast to aquatic organisms,positive impacts of lead reduction regulations were detected interrestrial plants, which adsorbed or took up lead mainlythrough atmospheric lead deposition. European leadconcentrations in plants decreased coincidently with leademissions. That trend could also be identified in the bloodlead levels of the human population in Europe: since 1979 theyhave declined in every group of the population. Mainlyinfluenced by age, sex and the living environment, overall, thelead loads of humans had never been high enough to cause healtheffects.
Leaded gasoline has become one of the few “environmentally unsafe” products to be forced out of the market place. The history of lead additives in gasoline is outlined, from the discovery of the antiknock properties of tetraethyllead in 1921 (the first gallon of leaded gasoline was sold on 2 February 1923 to a motorist in Dayton, Ohio), to recent measures to remove lead from the gasoline of the 1980s. This report provides an historical backdrop to the continuing debate on environmental lead pollution.
A new regional atmospheric model was set up in a joint effort by DKRZ (Deutsches Klimarechenzentrum), DWD (Deutscher Wetterdienst), GKSS (Forschungszentrum Geesthacht) at the MPI (Max-Planck-Institut fuer Meteorologie). This model, called REMO (REgional MOdel) can be used in the weather forecast mode as well as in the climate mode. It is based on the Europa-Model (EM), the main weather forecast model of the new numerical weather prediction system of the Deutscher Wetterdienst. In addition to the physical parameterizations implemented in the EM, REMO has the possibility of using the same physics as the global climate model (MPI) into which it is nested to assess the scale dependence of physical parameterizations within the same dynamical framework.
This paper gives an overview over different case studies investigating the dependence of model results on simulation domain size, horizontal resolution, initial conditions and lateral boundaries especially for long term calculations. A sample of one month long integrations for an arbitrary July month, a four year long run for the Baltic Sea and its drainage basin and two summer seasons of the Indian Monsoon will be used to demonstrate the sensitivity of regional climate model results to different environments.
The sensitivity studies show that it is very important to use realistic large scale driving fields at the lateral boundaries. The regional model results are strongly influenced by the driving fields. The domain size and the simulation length are also influencing the results.
Within the framework of a research contract with the German Federal Environmental Agency the long range transport of trace metals over Europe and the deposition of trace metals into the North Sea and the Baltic Sea are estimated using the EMEP- (European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme) trajectory model. The methodology for the model calculations is explained. Preliminary results for the total deposition of lead into the North Sea and the Baltic Sea show, that the calculated values are lower than previous estimates based on extrapolations from measurements at coastal sites and ship measurements in the southern Baltic Sea, respectively.
Ambio, vol. 9, nr. 3/4, 168-173
Analysis of the Greenland ice core covering the period from 3000 to 500 years ago—the Greek, Roman, Medieval and Renaissance
times—shows that lead is present at concentrations four times as great as natural values from about 2500 to 1700 years ago
(500 B.C. to 300 A.D.). These results show that Greek and Roman lead and silver mining and smelting activities polluted the
middle troposphere of the Northern Hemisphere on a hemispheric scale two millennia ago, long before the Industrial Revolution.
Cumulative lead fallout to the Greenland Ice Sheet during these eight centuries was as high as 15 percent of that caused by
the massive use of lead alkyl additives in gasoline since the 1930s. Pronounced lead pollution is also observed during Medieval
and Renaissance times.
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