Cold Fusion Phenomenon

Experimental data of excess heat generation and nuclear transmutation obtained in Ni wire multiplly nano-coated with Pd and a compound of B, Sr, Ba and Th at up to 900 degC have been analyzed using the TNCF model. The Ni wire is 50 μm in diameter and 82 cm long. The coating is made of Pd and the compound about 50 times resulting in a surface layer of about oneμm thick. The maximum excess energy Q max is 1800 W/g of the Ni wire. There have occurred various nuclear transmutations. The most notable results are enumerated as follows: (1) Elements Ti, Cr, Co, As, Ir, and Tl have increased. (2) B, Sr, Pd and Ba have decreased. (3) Fe and Ni have not showed remarkable change. (4) In the case of B, Sr and Ba, the rates of the decrease are larger for lighter isotopes. (5) 10 5 B/ 11 5 B ratio decreased over 14%. (6) 105 46 Pd decreased about 5% and 102 46 Pd increased about 9%. These data have been analyzed using the TNCF model successfully applied for explanation of various experimental data sets over the past 15 years. We can estimate the parameter of the model n n using the data for 10 5 B and 105 46 Pd as follows; n n = 1.3 × 10 9 cm-3 (by the decrease of 10 5 B) and n n = 2.5 × 10 11 cm-3 (by the decrease of 105 46 Pd). These values show the situation in the experiment belong to a range of fairly large value of the parameter where we can expect the nuclear reactions by a single neutron and also a n-p cluster. The excess heat generation of 1800 W/g at its maximum has been investigated using the value of n n estimated above and a formula for the excess energy is induced. Assuming the surface layer of 1μm thick is made of Pd only, for illustrative purposes, we have obtained Q av about 1% of the observed maximum one. If the average value of the excess energy is about 10% of the maximum, the discrepancy is about one order of magnitude. If we know the correct composition of the surface layer, the calculated value of Q av will increase a little. The nuclear transmutation of several elements confirmed by the experiment is qualitatively explained assuming the single neutron absorption by elements in the surface layer. The decrease of

This issue contains the following items: 1. Season’s Greetings to All Researchers in the Cold Fusion Research Field 2. My paper “A Sketch of the Solid State-Nuclear Sciences,” was presented at the 23rd International Conference on the Cold Fusion. 3. Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions Workshop by ARPAE, DOE, USA http://arpa-e.energy.gov/events/low-energy-nuclear-reactions-workshop The workshop written in the title was held by the Advanced Research Projects Agency – Energy, U.S. Department of Energy, USA on October 21-22, 2021. 4. A Recent News in Nuclear Research related to the Cold Fusion Phenomenon – ☼ Tetra-neutron Particle 5. JCF 22 will be held on March 5 – 6, 2022.

Recent development of the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP).

Cold Fusion Phenomenon

Using a phenomenological approach by the TNCF (trapped neutron catalyzed fusion) and the ND (neutron drop) models, we have given a unified explanation of the complex features of the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP). In the phenomenological approach, the necessary and sufficient condition for the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) has been established as the formation of the neutron energy bands in the super-lattice of host elements and the hydrogen isotopes realized by the self-organization in complexity. In this paper, the bases and applicability of the TNCF and the ND models are investigated in the CF materials with rather complicated structures in the compound (multilayered materials and materials on substrates with interfaces) and composite (alloys, ceramics and polymers) structures investigated very often recently. In the investigation we used analogy of the neutron energy bands (neutron bands) to the electron energy bands (electron bands). The neutron bands in the compound CF materials are investigated with reference to the electron bands in PN junctions. On the other hand, the neutron bands in the composite materials are investigated with reference to the characteristics of the electron bands in alloys at around symmetrical points in the Brillouin zone. The analogy between the electron bands and the neutron bands legitimates qualitatively the use of the concepts of the neutron bands for investigation of the CFP in compound and composite CF materials. In the investigation of the neutron band in alloys, we noticed two kinds of effects of the minor elements to the CFP, active (or positive) elements including the 3d and 4d transition elements and inactive (negative) elements including other than those in the active ones. The former enhances the nuclear reactions in the CFP and the latter reduces them. Direct evidence of this classification was given by experimental data by Claytor et al. and indirect evidence was given by the HER (hydrogen electrode reaction) and the UPD (underpotential deposition) in the electrochemistry. This problem will be discussed extensively in another paper. 188 It is shown that the effects of the interfaces of the CF materials on the CFP are essential to induce the nuclear reactions between the neutrons in the bands and nuclei at disordered positions generated by the thermal motion, by the statistical distribution at a finite temperature, and by the specific situation at around interfaces.

Using our TNCF model composed in a phenomenological approach, we investigated the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) observed in the compound (combined) CF materials, the CF materials composed of host elements (Pd, Ni, C, etc.) and hydrogen isotopes (H and/or D) with solid-solid, solid-liquid, solid-gas and solid-plasma interfaces. The CF materials are surrounded by an environment composed of a gas, a liquid or by plasma according to the experimental condition to feed a hydrogen isotope into it. A CF material, therefore, has inevitably an interface dividing itself from the environment. Sometimes, a CF material has a solid-solid interface between a substrate or solid-solid interfaces between layers intentionally imposed to it. In this paper, we use the TNCF and ND models, which we have used successfully to give a unified explanation of various kinds of experimental data sets obtained in a great variety of CF materials hitherto, to investigate and deduce explanations of the specific experimental data obtained in these compound CF materials with various structures. Some characteristics and specific features of the CFP observed in these compound CF materials have been explained for the first time. In the investigation, we noticed especially the important effect of the interfaces on the CFP. The interfaces are classified into four types which have specific influences on the CFP respectively, solid-solid, solid-liquid, solid-gas and solid-plasma interfaces. The physics and chemistry of the atomic processes in the solid-liquid interface have been investigated intensively in electrochemistry for many years. The characteristics of the catalytic action found in the solid-liquid interfaces must have common characteristics to those in other interfaces and we must give more attention to them in the investigation of the CFP in the compound CF materials. It is regrettable that we have almost ignored its importance until now even if there were some electrochemists who had given their attention to this phase of the CFP in the early days in this field.

Since the discovery of nuclear reactions in PdD x alloys at around room temperature in 1989, there have been accumulated very many experimental data sets showing existence of nuclear reactions in solid materials composed of transition metals and occluded hydrogen isotopes (let us call them the CF materials, for short) resulting in various nuclear products such as neutrons, tritium, transmuted nuclei, and others accompanied with large excess energies at relatively low temperatures up to 1000 ºC (let us call these whole events the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP), for short). As the cause of these nuclear reactions in the CFP, we have to accept the existence of the interactions between nuclei in the CF material through the nuclear force (let us call this interaction the nuclear-force interaction, for short) recognized its existence in the nucleus in the nuclear physics. We can classify the CF materials, i.e. materials where CFP occurs, into three groups: (1) metallic material including transition-metal hydrides (e.g. NiH x , AuH x) and deuterides (e.g. PdD x , TiD x), (2) carbonic material including hydrogen graphite (HC x) and XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene) and (3) biological material including microorganisms, microbial cultures and biological tissues or organs. We will explain the characteristics of the CFP observed in each group in this paper. The nuclear reactions in the CF material gives rise to production of new particles from neutron, triton, and new nuclei with proton numbers Z up to 83 accompanying enormous excess energy. In addition to these events, there occurs the stabilization of unstable nuclei, including the decay-time shortening of radioactive nuclei, which is especially interesting to apply it to treat hazardous nuclear waste produced by the nuclear power plant. Finally, we give an overview of the CFP in relation to the solid state-nuclear physics and the solid state-nuclear chemistry where the nuclear-force interaction may play important roles to explain the riddles found but not given appropriate explanations in 1

The anomalous heat effect reported in the paper, “Excess heat evolution from nanocomposite samples under exposure to hydrogen isotope gases” by Kitamura et al. published in the Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 43, pp. 16187 – 16200 (2018), is investigated in the science of the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) established in these 30 years. It is concluded that the effect is a normal event in the CFP consistent with many events observed in materials with various components and compositions composed of host elements and hydrogen isotopes.

In order to confirm the reliability and accuracy of the excess heat triggered by current in the previous work [1-3], a new designed and built heat-flow calorimeter [4] was introduced in the same D/Pd gas-loading system as mentioned previously. The calorimeter was calibrated in nitrogen atmosphere and the results between the input power (P) and the exothermal electromotive force (V) could be simulated by a quadratic equation: P = (15.356 ± 0.068) V – (0.014 ± 0.039) V2. The maximum excess power (6.398 ± 0.191 W) were found at the condition of an optimum current (8.47 A) and a deuterium pressure (3 × 104Pa). The reproducibility was 3/3 and the total excess energy released in these experiments was about 0.70 ± 0.02 MJ within 40 hours, which means (1.6 ± 0.1) ×103eV for each palladium atom. The excess heat power and excess heat energy were far more than that in a chemical reaction.

Previously on the work [1-3] of excess heat triggering in a D/Pd gas-loading calorimeter system, we got that the system had the maximum excess power (6.398 ± 0.191 W) at the condition of an optimum current (8.47 A) and a deuterium pressure (3 × 10⁴ Pa). In order to get higher excess heat power and to confirm the reliability and accuracy of the excess heat triggered by current in the previous work, we did a serials of experiments under different conditions. The results came from the heat-flow calorimeter system showed that the system produced the maximum excess heat power (10.284 ± 3.402 W) when the D2 pressure was 220 Pa. The key conditions of generating excess heat need to be further studied.

Hysteresis of electrical resistance-hydrogen (deuterium) content relationship in the α + β two-phase region of the Pd-H(D) system measured by a gas phase method was found by Sakamoto et al. [20,21], and subsequently verified and extended to Pd alloy-H(D) systems by Kibria et al. [22-28]. However, the evidence of this phenomenon is not reliable because the resistance was measured from one sample and the hydrogen content was determined from other samples in the same vessel. In this paper, it is proposed that the ‘hysteresis’ is attributed to the inequality of plateau pressures between these two sorts of samples during the α ↔ β phase transitions of the Pd-H(D) and Pd alloy-H(D) systems. Some phenomena accompanied are also discussed on this basis.

March 23, 2019 is the birthday of the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP). On this day 30 years ago, the existence of the nuclear reactions in a solid at near room temperature was declared by Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons at the press conference held in the University of Utah (Salt Lake City, Utah, USA). This event, right or wrong, is the start of the open researches on the CFP lasted 30 years since and has given a specific destiny to the research field we have had involved in. The investigation on the physics of the CFP has lasted without interruption and is developing day by day now. We give an overview of the CFP from its discovery by Martin Fleischmann et al. to the recent unified explanation of the complicated experimental facts by our phenomenological model. The science of the CFP is now understood as a part of the solid state-nuclear physics in between the solid state physics and the nuclear physics in which the nuclear interaction between host elements at lattice points and interstitial protons/deuterons plays a fundamental role to induce nuclear reactions in solids composed of specific host elements and hydrogen isotopes.

March 23 is the birthday of the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP). On this day 30 years ago, the existence of the nuclear reactions in a solid at near room temperature was declared by Martin Fleischmann at the press conference held in the University of Utah, USA. This event, right or wrong, is the start of the open researches on the CFP lasted 30 years since then and has given a specific destiny to the research field we have had involved in it. Anyway, the investigation on the physics of the CFP has lasted without interruption and is developing day by day now. I would like to recollect the history of the cold fusion research from my point of view focusing at my research activity kept about 30 years from the beginning of this science. First of all, it is necessary to recollect the great pioneering works accomplished by Martin Fleischmann. We give a brief survey of Fleischmann’s work in Section II focusing on his mental phase of the cold fusion research. It is interesting to notice the motivation of the scientist who discovered the new phenomenon – nuclear reactions in transition metal deuterides and hydrides at around room temperature – with an inappropriate premise on the nuclear reaction between two deuterons. In Appendix A, we cite several sentences on this point from writings by Martin Fleischmann.

The cold fusion phenomenon is characterized by nuclear reactions in CF materials, i.e. materials including hydrogen isotopes (H or/and D) with high concentration, with no mechanisms to accelerate particles in them. The CF materials are not confined to deuterium but also protium systems and classified into three groups; (1) metallic materials include transition-metal hydrides (e.g. NiHx, AuHx) and deuterides (e.g. PdDx, TiDx), (2) carbonic materials include hydrogen graphite (HCx) and XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene) and (3) biological materials include microorganisms, microbial cultures and biological tissues or organs. Looking for the common cause of nuclear reactions in these CF materials, we have to notice the characteristics of the nuclear reactions in the CFP very different from the nuclear reactions in free space investigated extensively in nuclear physics. In free space, the liberated energy of a nuclear reaction, the energy difference between the initial and the final states, is carried out by a particle or two; the energy difference is in general of a few MeV. On the other hand, the nuclear reactions in the CFP where the liberated energy is more than eight orders of magnitude larger than the thermal energy of the particles in the system, show, in general, no emission of high energy particles, especially photons which are probable to be observed if emitted in CF materials. It should be noticed also that there is generation of new elements with large shifts of proton numbers from those of the preexisting elements in the system and emission of neutrons with energies up to more than 10 MeV. These characteristics of nuclear reactions in the CFP have been consistently explained by our phenomenological approach with using the TNCF and the ND models. In this paper, we investigated experimental data sets on the nuclear transmutations obtained recently in these about 15 years using our model (the ND model), confirmed our 2 approach and obtained further evidences characteristics of the nuclear reactions in the CFP.

The cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) has been a wonderful and inexplicable phenomenon where occur nuclear reactions in materials composed of host elements and hydrogen isotopes at near-room temperature environment without any acceleration mechanism. The variety of the experimental data has been also mysterious to understand it in the traditional solid-state physics and the nuclear physics. To understand the complex experimental data obtained in the CFP consistently, we have to depend on the phenomenological approach with a model and then on the quantum mechanics to investigate the premises assumed in the model. We have presented a successful model (the TNCF model) for the CFP in 1994 and the analysis of the experimental data by the model revealed clearly participation of neutrons in the nuclear reactions in the materials (CF materials) where the CFP has been observed. Looking back to the methodology used in the explanation of the CFP by the TNCF model, we notice that there are resemblance of the logic in the explanation of the CFP by the TNCF model to the meta-analysis and more widely to the inductive logic prevalent in the natural history before the science revolution occurred in the 17 th century. It is valuable to point out the use of the meta-analysis in astronomy in the 18 th century and in such complex situations as medical fields where they call the analysis "EBM" (evidence based medicines) or "Systematic Review" in the modern medicine. The analysis of the data sets in the CFP performed in our works could be classified into a kind of the meta-analysis. It is also noticed that the logic used in our phenomenological explanation of the CFP by the TNCF model is classified into the inductive logic rather than the deductive logic extensively used in the modern science developed after the 17 th century when the Newtonian mechanics was established. In a complex system where the nonlinear dynamics governs the behavior of components of the system, we are not able to prepare exactly the same state of a sample in the microscopic sense by using the identical macroscopic experimental conditions; therefore we are not able to predict the effect after a macroscopic initial condition. Furthermore, we have to notice that the CF material changes its structure drastically by the large liberated energy in the process of the CFP; the nuclear energy liberated in the nuclear reactions is, in general, about 8 orders of magnitude larger than the thermal energy of particles of the CF material 2 where occurs the CFP. The liberated nuclear energy is distributed among particles around the reaction sites and the temperature of that region becomes very high up sometimes to melt the CF material there. The change of the structure by the nuclear reaction in the CFP also makes it impossible to obtain the same result again for the sample under the same macroscopic experimental initial condition. Therefore, the ordinary concept and the deductive logic in the analysis of experimental data fail to give a definite image and a definite history of the system. The cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) is just the case we have to depend on the meta-analysis and on the inductive logic to describe the development of the system. We show the important roles of the inductive logic and the meta-anlysis in the researches of the cold fusion phenomenon.

The cold fusion phenomenon is characterized by nuclear reactions in CF materials, i.e. materials including hydrogen isotopes (H or/and D) with high concentration, with no mechanisms to accelerate particles in them. The CF materials are not confined to deuterium but also protium systems and classified into three groups; (1) metallic materials include transition-metal hydrides (e.g. NiHx, AuHx) and deuterides (e.g. PdDx, TiDx), (2) carbonic materials include hydrogen graphite (HCx) and XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene) and (3) biological materials include microorganisms, microbial cultures and biological tissues or organs. Looking for the common cause of nuclear reactions in these CF materials, we have to notice the characteristics of the nuclear reactions in the CFP very different from the nuclear reactions in free space investigated extensively in nuclear physics. In free space, the liberated energy of a nuclear reaction, the energy difference between the initial and the final states, is carried out by a particle or two; the energy difference is in general of a few MeV. On the other hand, the nuclear reactions in the CFP where the liberated energy is more than eight orders of magnitude larger than the thermal energy of the particles in the system, show, in general, no emission of high energy particles, especially photons which are probable to be observed if emitted in CF materials. It should be noticed also that there is generation of new elements with large shifts of proton numbers from those of the preexisting elements in the system and emission of neutrons with energies up to more than 10 MeV. These characteristics of nuclear reactions in the CFP have been consistently explained by our phenomenological approach with using the TNCF and the ND models. In this paper, we investigated experimental data sets on the nuclear transmutations obtained recently in these about 15 years using our model (the ND model), confirmed our 2 approach and obtained further evidences characteristics of the nuclear reactions in the CFP.

Present status of the cold fusion research is surveyed after four years since the former reports appeared in this journal in 1994. A model (TNCF model) proposed by the author based on the experimental facts have been used to analyze typical experimental data and have shown it ability to understand whole the cold fusion phenomenon consistently.

Preliminary results of experiments on the electrochemically induced nuclear fusion are reported. An electrolysis of D2O + LiOH/H2O solution was used in the experiment with Pd plate cathode and Pt wire anode. To detect neutrons liberated in a reaction d + d → 3He + n, A Neutron Dose Rate Meter 2202D was used. Observed amount of neutrons ( ~ 6 x 10–3 cm–3 s–1 ) is comparable to the data (~ 6 x 10–3 cm–3 s–1 for titanium) reported by Jones et al.

The cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) has been a wonderful and inexplicable phenomenon where occur nuclear reactions in materials composed of host elements and hydrogen isotopes at near-room temperature environment without any acceleration mechanism. The variety of the experimental data has been also mysterious to understand it in the traditional solid-state physics and the nuclear physics. To understand the complex experimental data obtained in the CFP consistently, we have to depend on the phenomenological approach with a model and then on the quantum mechanics to investigate the premises assumed in the model. We have presented a successful model (the TNCF model) for the CFP in 1994 and the analysis of the experimental data by the model revealed clearly participation of neutrons in the nuclear reactions in the materials (CF materials) where the CFP has been observed. Looking back to the methodology used in the explanation of the CFP by the TNCF model, we notice that there are resemblance of the logic in the explanation of the CFP by the TNCF model to the meta-analysis and more widely to the inductive logic prevalent in the natural history before the science revolution occurred in the 17 th century. It is valuable to point out the use of the meta-analysis in astronomy in the 18 th century and in such complex situations as medical fields where they call the analysis "EBM" (evidence based medicines) or "Systematic Review" in the modern medicine. The analysis of the data sets in the CFP performed in our works could be classified into a kind of the meta-analysis. It is also noticed that the logic used in our phenomenological explanation of the CFP by the TNCF model is classified into the inductive logic rather than the deductive logic extensively used in the modern science developed after the 17 th 2 century when the Newtonian mechanics was established. In a complex system where the nonlinear dynamics governs the behavior of components of the system, we are not able to prepare exactly the same state of a sample in the microscopic sense by using the identical macroscopic experimental conditions; therefore we are not able to predict the effect after a macroscopic initial condition. Furthermore, we have to notice that the CF material changes its structure drastically by the large liberated energy in the process of the CFP; the nuclear energy liberated in the nuclear reactions is, in general, about 8 orders of magnitude larger than the thermal energy of particles of the CF material where occurs the CFP. The liberated nuclear energy is distributed among particles around the reaction sites and the temperature of that region becomes very high up sometimes to melt the CF material there. The change of the structure by the nuclear reaction in the CFP also makes it impossible to obtain the same result again for the sample under the same macroscopic experimental initial condition. Therefore, the ordinary concept and the deductive logic in the analysis of experimental data fail to give a definite image and a definite history of the system. The cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) is just the case we have to depend on the meta-analysis and on the inductive logic to describe the development of the system. We show the important roles of the inductive logic and the meta-anlysis in the researches of the cold fusion phenomenon.

We summarize the nuclear transmutations observed in the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) putting a weight on the biotransmutation, i.e. nuclear transmutations in biological systems. The CF materials, i.e. materials where occurs the CFP, are classified into three groups: (1) the metallic material includes transition-metal hydrides (e.g. NiHx, AuHx) and deuterides (e.g. PdDx, TiDx), (2) the carbonic material includes hydrogen graphite (HCx) and cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) and (3) the biological material includes microorganisms, microbial cultures and biological tissues or organs. We explain these characteristics briefly in this paper. The stabilization of unstable nuclei, including the decay-time shortening of radioactive nuclei, in the nuclear transmutation is especially interesting from the applicatory point of view in relation to the treatment of the hazardous nuclear waste accompanied to the nuclear power plant. A characteristic of biological systems where occurs selective adsorption of specific ions seems especially useful for the application. If we have a microorganism or microbial culture absorbing an ion of a radioactive element selectively, we can remediate the radioactivity by the biotransmutation.

We summarize the nuclear transmutations observed in the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) putting a weight on the biotransmutation, i.e. nuclear transmutations in biological systems. The CF materials, i.e. materials where occurs the CFP, are classified into three groups: (1) the metallic material includes transition-metal hydrides (e.g. NiHx, AuHx) and deuterides (e.g. PdDx, TiDx), (2) the carbonic material includes hydrogen graphite (HCx) and cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) and (3) the biological material includes microorganisms, microbial cultures and biological tissues or organs. We explain these characteristics briefly in this paper. The stabilization of unstable nuclei, including the decay-time shortening of radioactive nuclei, in the nuclear transmutation is especially interesting from the applicatory point of view in relation to the treatment of the hazardous nuclear waste accompanied to the nuclear power plant. A characteristic of biological systems where occurs selective adsorption of specific ions seems especially useful for the application. If we have a microorganism or microbial culture absorbing an ion of a radioactive element selectively, we can remediate the radioactivity by the biotransmutation.

Experimental data of excess heat generation and nuclear transmutation obtained in Ni wire multiplly nano-coated with Pd and a compound of B, Sr, Ba and Th at up to 900 degC have been analyzed using the TNCF model. The Ni wire is 50 μm in diameter and 82 cm long. The coating is made of Pd and the compound about 50 times resulting in a surface layer of about one μm thick. The maximum excess energy Qmax is 1800 W/g of the Ni wire. There have occurred various nuclear transmutations. The most notable results are enumerated as follows: (1) Elements Ti, Cr, Co, As, Ir, and Tl have increased. (2) B, Sr, Pd and Ba have decreased. (3) Fe and Ni have not showed remarkable change. (4) In the case of B, Sr and Ba, the rates of the decrease are larger for lighter isotopes. (5) 105B/115B ratio decreased over 14%. (6) 10546Pd decreased about 5% and 10246Pd increased about 9%. These data have been analyzed using the TNCF model successfully applied for explanation of various experimental data sets over the past 15 years. We can estimate the parameter of the model nn using the data for 105B and 10546Pd as follows; nn = 1.3x109 cm'3 (by the decrease of 105B) and nn = 2.5x1011 cm'3 (by the decrease of 10546Pd). These values show the situation in the experiment belong to a range of fairly large value of the parameter where we can expect the nuclear reactions by a single neutron and also a n-p cluster. The excess heat generation of 1800 W/g at its maximum has been investigated using the value of nn estimated above and a formula for the excess energy is induced. Assuming the surface layer of 1μm thick is made of Pd only, for illustrative purposes, we have obtained Qav about 1% of the observed maximum one. If the average value of the excess energy is about 10% of the maximum, the discrepancy is about one order of magnitude. If we know the correct composition of the surface layer, the calculated value of Qav will increase a little. The nuclear transmutation of several elements confirmed by the experiment is qualitatively explained assuming the single neutron absorption by elements in the surface layer. The decrease of Ru might be explained by a single n-p cluster absorption.

The history of the researches on the cold fusion phenomenon in the modern industrial society is investigated using the framework of the sociology of the science developed in the 20 th century. The motivation to find out the cold fusion of deuterons in solids and the effort to establish the science of the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) are deeply interrelated with the flows of economy and science in the history of the latter half of the last century. The foreseen deadlocks of the social development, especially the exhaustion of energy resources, have been a fear for the future of human beings. The controlled thermonuclear fusion (plasma fusion) of deuterons and tritons was taken up as a final solution for this difficulty and had grown up as a big science (or rather a huge science) since the middle of the 20 th century. The CFP was taken up as an alternative to the plasma fusion which had been in a stagnant situation after 40 years since its substantial start in the beginning of 1950s. The CFP thus motivated has been destined to be an alternative to the plasma fusion in the sentiment of many researchers in this field and also in the thought of scientists in the established fields of modern science. The situation has given a biased trend in the majority of researchers engaged in the CFP to take up solely the deuterium systems and to disregard the protium systems from CF materials. This trend has given the research of the CFP a biased character and an unsound development. It need scarcely be said that it is necessary to take up whole materials obtained by experiments not only in deuterium but also in protium systems to establish the science of the cold fusion phenomenon. Overviewing the history of the CFP, we point out necessary conditions for the sound development of the science of the CFP. Possible application of the CFP will follow the realization of the science.

Nuclear transmutations observed in the surface region of cathodes made of C (graphite), Pd and 5d elements (W, Re and Au) used in normal, critical and supra-critical electrolysis with light water in addition to some data observed with heavy water are analyzed using the trapped neutron catalyzed fusion (TNCF) model. The occurrence of the cold fusion phenomenon in 5d transition-metal electrodes is consistently explained in accordance with the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) observed in 3d and 4d transition-metal hydrides and deuterides, such as NiHx and PdDx, at the normal electrolysis. The necessary conditions for the realization of the CFP, formation of super-lattice of host nuclei and protons/deuterons in these hydrogen non-occluding materials (at near room temperature) are realized by the higher temperatures of the material induced by a long electrolysis at normal electrolysis (up to three weeks) or by the critical and supra-critical electrolysis with high current densities. Using the data analyzed in this paper in addition to the data obtained in 3d and 4d transition-metals analyzed hitherto, we could contemplate some characteristics of the CF-matter responsible to the nuclear transmutations in the CFP.

A detailed investigation of the effects of supplemental electron injection into a multidipole argon plasma is presented. It is shown that an increase in the density of nonionizing electrons produced by a space-charge-limited filament leads to the creation of negative plasma potentials that confine ions and result in ion heating. A model is given which shows that the requirement of charge neutrality predicts many of the experimental results.

Uranium foils were attached to the cathode of a glow discharge apparatus. A plasma of either hydrogen or deuterium ions was used to bombard the uranium. The rates of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation emissions were significantly greater for the bombarded uranium than for the original material.

A proposal of a mechanism of the trapped neutron catalyzed fusion of deuterons and protons in inhomogeneous solids had been made to explain the Cold Fusion phenomena in materials occluding the deuterium (hydrogen). In this paper, some detailed analyses of the theoretical problems in the cold fusion are given in terms of the physics of thermal and cold neutrons in the inhomogeneous solids and the cascade shower induced by 6.25 MeV γ-ray in matrix solid. The Cold Fusion phenomena were explained semi-quantitatively and consistently by the trapped neutron catalyzed fusion model.

A phenomenological approach, the trapped neutron catalyzed fusion model (TNCF model) where existence of thermal neutrons in CF materials is assumed, to the science of the cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) is reviewed with attention to the behavior of neutrons in solids, especially in CF materials composed of the superlattice of a host sublattice and a hydrogen sublattice. The success of the TNCF model to give a unified explanation of widely dispersed experimental data obtained in the CFP suggests reality of the fundamental premise of the model, existence of the trapped neutrons in CF materials. Taking this clue as a hint showing a possible existence of neutrons in such specific solids as CF materials, in which there is a superlattice composed of host and hydrogen isotope sublattices, we have tried to find out a new state of neutrons in them not noticed in solid state physics and in nuclear physics by now. A possible quantum mechanical formation of neutron energy bands in CF materials is investigated using techniques developed in the electron energy bands in solids.