Thomas Wernberg

University of Western Australia | UWA · Oceans Institute

Marine heatwaves (MHWs), prolonged periods of unusually high ocean temperatures, significantly impact global ecosystems. However, there is ongoing debate regarding the definition of these extreme events, which is crucial for effective research and communication among marine scientists, decision-makers, and the broader public. Fundamental to all MHW...

Climate change is driving an ongoing increase in tropical cyclone (TC) activity. While global economic losses are projected to double by 2100, there are no comparable predictions for TC impacts to coastal ecosystems that protect and sustain human lives and livelihoods. Here, rising North Atlantic TC (NATC) activity from 1970 to 2019, influenced by...

A critical component of ecosystem restoration projects involves using genetic data to select source material that will enhance success under current and future climates. However, the complexity and expense of applying genetic data is a barrier to its use outside of specialised scientific contexts. To help overcome this barrier, we developed Reef Ad...

Aim Ocean warming and marine heatwaves are rapidly reconfiguring the composition of seaweed forests—the world's largest coastal vegetated biome. Seaweed forest responses to climate change in remote locations, which constitute the majority of the forest biome, remain however poorly quantified. Here, we examine the temporal stability of the seaweed f...

Kelp forests are the world's most extensive vegetated marine ecosystems. They provide critical ecological functions as well as valuable ecosystem services for human societies. Yet, kelp forests have been largely overlooked in international environmental law. There are no specific treaties focused on kelp, and they have only benefited to a limited e...

Climate-driven species range expansions are underway with more tropically affiliated species, including Scleractinian corals, becoming increasingly abundant at higher latitudes. However, uncertainty remains on how these range shifts will affect reef-scale ecosystem processes, which will ultimately depend on the traits of the taxa that dominate thes...

With increasingly intense marine heatwaves affecting nearshore regions, foundation species are coming under increasing stress. To better understand their impacts, we examine responses of critical, habitat-forming foundation species (macroalgae, seagrass, corals) to marine heatwaves in 1322 shallow coastal areas located across 85 marine ecoregions....

The coastal ocean represents an important global carbon sink and is a focus for interventions to mitigate climate change and meet the Paris Agreement targets while supporting biodiversity and other ecosystem functions. However, the fate of the flux of carbon exported from seaweed forests—the world’s largest coastal vegetated ecosystem—is a key unkn...

The southern coast of Africa is one of the few places in the world where water temperatures are predicted to cool in the future. This endemism-rich coastline is home to two sister species of kelps of the genus Ecklonia maxima and Ecklonia radiata, each associated with specific thermal niches, and occuring primarily on opposite sides of the southern...

Introduction To counteract the rapid loss of marine forests globally and meet international commitments of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration and the Convention on Biological Diversity ‘30 by 30’ targets, there is an urgent need to enhance our capacity for macroalgal restoration. The Green Gravel Action Group (GGAG) is a global network of 67 me...

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List identifies threatened and endangered species and is a key instrument in global biodiversity conservation efforts. Our understanding of the structure and value of genetic biodiversity below the species level is rapidly increasing. Nonetheless, the IUCN assessment criteria overlook ge...

Kelp forests are among the most valuable ecosystems on Earth, but they are increasingly being degraded and lost due to a range of human‐related stressors, leading to recent calls for their improved management and conservation. One of the primary tools to conserve marine species and biodiversity is the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs)....

The range‐expansion of tropical herbivores due to ocean warming can profoundly alter temperate reef communities by overgrazing the seaweed forests that underpin them. Such ecological interactions may be mediated by changes to seaweed‐associated microbiota in response to warming, but empirical evidence demonstrating this is rare. We experimentally s...

Kelp forests may contribute substantially to ocean carbon sequestration, mainly through transporting kelp carbon away from the coast and into the deep sea. However, it is not clear if and how kelp detritus is transported across the continental shelf. Dense shelf water transport (DSWT) is associated with offshore flows along the seabed and provides...

Background and Aims Kelp forests are increasingly considered blue carbon habitats for ocean-based biological carbon dioxide removal, but knowledge gaps remain in our understanding of their carbon cycle. Of particular interest is the remineralisation of detritus, which can remain photosynthetically active. Here, we study a widespread, thermotolerant...

Kelp forests are one of the most extensive coastal ecosystems in the world. They serve a myriad of ecological functions, support substantial biodiversity, and contribute to a multitude of services essential to our contemporary society. Unfortunately, they are in decline. International governance regimes and institutions play an important role in ad...

Ocean warming and short-term extreme events (e.g. marine heatwaves) are becoming more intense and frequent and have had major impacts on ecosystems. Seaweeds are foundational components of temperate reefs, providing nutrition for a diversity of species and underpinning temperate food webs. While the impacts of climate-driven environmental change on...

Essential for healthy oceans, coastal communities, fisheries, economies, and marine biodiversity from the subtropics to the polar regions, kelp forests are an integral and threatened ocean ecosystem. Their benefits are connected to over 740 million people who live beside a kelp forest, and their economic potential is valued at least 500 billion USD...

Marine kelp forests cover 1/3 of our world's coastlines, are heralded as a nature-based solution to address socio-environmental issues, connect hundreds of millions of people with the ocean, and support a rich web of biodiversity throughout our oceans. But they are increasingly threatened with some areas reporting over 90% declines in kelp forest c...

Marine heatwaves (MHWs) are becoming increasingly common, with devastating ecosystem impacts. However, MHW understanding has almost exclusively relied on sea surface temperature with limited knowledge about their subsurface characteristics. Here we estimate global MHWs from the surface to 2,000 m depth, covering the period 1993–2019, and explore bi...

Marine foundation species are the biotic basis for many of the world's coastal ecosystems, providing structural habitat, food, and protection for myriad plants and animals as well as many ecosystem services. However, climate change poses a significant threat to foundation species and the ecosystems they support. We review the impacts of climate cha...

The conservation, restoration, and improved management of terrestrial forests significantly contributes to mitigate climate change and its impacts, as well as providing numerous co-benefits. The pressing need to reduce emissions and increase carbon removal from the atmosphere is now also leading to the development of natural climate solutions in th...

Recently, Gallagher et al. (2022) suggested that seaweed ecosystems are net heterotrophic carbon sources due to CO2 released from the consumption of external subsidies. Here we outline several flaws in their argument, which we believe confuse research on the blue carbon potential of seaweed ecosystems, and unjustifiably generate doubt around initia...

A fundamental question in holobiont biology is the extent to which microbiomes are determined by host characteristics regulated by their genotype. Studies on the interactions of host genotype and microbiomes are emerging but disentangling the role that host genotype has in shaping microbiomes remains challenging in natural settings. Host genotypes...

Nearly a billion people depend on tropical seascapes. The need to ensure sustainable use of these vital areas is recognised, as one of 17 policy commitments made by world leaders, in Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 (‘Life below Water’) of the United Nations. SDG 14 seeks to secure marine sustainability by 2030. In a time of increasing social-...

The concept of dominance is frequently used to describe changes in rapidly reconfiguring ecosystems, but the definition of dominance can vary widely among studies. Using coral reefs as a model, we use extensive benthic composition data to explore how variability in applying dominance concepts can shape perceptions. We reveal that coral dominance is...

Climate change has driven contemporary decline and loss of kelp forests globally with an accompanying loss of their ecological and economic values. Kelp populations at equatorward-range edges are particularly vulnerable to climate change as these locations are undergoing warming at or beyond thermal tolerance thresholds. Concerningly, these range-e...

Climatic extremes are becoming increasingly common against a background trend of global warming. In the oceans, marine heatwaves (MHWs)—discrete periods of anomalously warm water—have intensified and become more frequent over the past century, impacting the integrity of marine ecosystems globally. We review and synthesize current understanding of M...

Understanding the extent to which species’ traits mediate patterns of community assembly is key to predict the effect of natural and anthropogenic disturbances on ecosystem functioning. Here, we apply a trait-based community assembly framework to understand how four different habitat configurations (kelp forests, Sargassum spp. beds, hard corals, a...

Genetic diversity can influence resilience and adaptative capacity of organisms to environmental change. Genetic diversity within populations is largely structured by reproduction, with the prevalence of asexual versus sexual reproduction often underpinning important diversity metrics that determine selection efficacy. Asexual or clonal reproductio...

The magnitude and distribution of net primary production (NPP) in the coastal ocean remains poorly constrained, particularly for shallow marine vegetation. Here, using a compilation of in situ annual NPP measurements across >400 sites in 72 geographic ecoregions, we provide global predictions of the productivity of seaweed habitats, which form the...

Kelp forests are experiencing substantial declines due to climate change, particularly ocean warming and marine heatwaves, and active interventions are necessary to halt this decline. A new restoration approach termed “green gravel” has shown promise as a tool to combat kelp forest loss. In this approach, substrata (i.e. small gravel) are seeded wi...

Net primary productivity (NPP) plays a pivotal role in the global carbon balance but estimating the NPP of underwater habitats remains a challenging task. Seaweeds (marine macroalgae) form the largest and most productive underwater vegetated habitat on Earth. Yet, little is known about the distribution of their NPP at large spatial scales, despite...

Cycling of organic carbon in the ocean has the potential to mitigate or exacerbate global climate change, but major questions remain about the environmental controls on organic carbon flux in the coastal zone. Here, we used a field experiment distributed across 28° of latitude, and the entire range of 2 dominant kelp species in the northern hemisph...

Communities inhabiting biogeographic transition zones are shifting in composition as a result of progressive warming and heatwaves. In the marine environment, corals are expanding onto higher latitude reefs historically dominated by temperate kelp forests, initiating a shift towards warm affinity coral‐dominated states. Although these coral expansi...

Algal turfs are the most abundant benthic covering on reefs in many shallow-water marine ecosystems. The particulates and sediments bound within algal turfs can influence a multitude of functions within these ecosystems. Despite the global abundance and importance of algal turfs, comparison of algal turf-bound sediments is problematic due to a lack...

The paper — Seaweed ecosystems may not mitigate CO2 emissions (Gallagher et al., 2022) — claims that seaweed ecosystems are carbon sources rather than carbon sinks because ‘respiration subsidies’ (from inputs of allochthonous organic carbon) create negative net ecosystem production. That is, that seaweed ecosystems produce more CO2 than they draw d...

Aim Macroalgal habitats are believed to be the most extensive and productive of all coastal vegetated ecosystems. In stark contrast to the growing attention on their contribution to carbon export and sequestration, understanding of their global extent and production is limited and these have remained poorly assessed for decades. Here we report a fi...

This chapter introduces kelp forests, their ecology, and the core themes of kelp forest restoration knowledge and practice. It also provides an overview of how this guidebook is laid out, how it may be used, and introduces the Kelp Forest Alliance, which is an online platform and network for researchers and practitioners to collaborate and share th...

Habitat heterogeneity is considered a primary causal driver underpinning patterns of diversity, yet the universal role of heterogeneity in structuring biodiversity is unclear due to a lack of coordinated experiments testing its effects across geographic scales and habitat types. Furthermore, key species interactions that can enhance heterogeneity,...

The UN Decade of Ecosystem Restoration is a response to the urgent need to substantially accelerate and upscale ecological restoration to secure Earth’s sustainable future. Globally, restoration commitments have focused overwhelmingly on terrestrial forests. In contrast, despite a strong value proposition, efforts to restore seaweed forests lag far...

Abstract Temperate reefs are increasingly affected by the direct and indirect effects of climate change. At many of their warm range edges, cool‐water kelps are decreasing, while seaweeds with warm‐water affinities are increasing. These habitat‐forming species provide different ecological functions, and shifts to warm‐affinity seaweeds are expected...

Algal turfs are expected to increasingly dominate the benthos of coral reefs in the Anthropocene, becoming important sources of reef productivity. The sediments trapped within algal turfs are known to determine turf condition and influence a range of key ecological processes, particularly the feeding behavior of fishes. Yet, our understanding of th...

The structure of ecological communities is rapidly changing across the globe due to climate‐mediated shifts in species distributions, with novel ecosystem states emerging as new species become dominant. While it is clear that such changes restructure habitat properties and their associated assemblages, how new nutritional resources and consumers ma...

Extreme climatic events can reshape the functional structure of ecological communities, potentially altering ecological interactions and ecosystem functioning. While these shifts have been widely documented, evidence of their persistence and potential flow-on effects on ecosystem structure following relaxation of extreme events remains limited. Her...

Temperate reefs are being tropicalized worldwide. In temperate Western Australia, a marine heatwave led to a regime shift from kelp (Ecklonia radiata) dominated to canopy-free reefs, together with an increase in tropical herbivorous fishes that contribute to keeping low kelp abundances and even prevent kelp reestablishment in northern regions. Howe...

Ecklonia radiata is a dominant kelp across much of the southern hemisphere supporting vast economic, social and ecological values. It is also of emerging interest for aquaculture industries and in blue carbon sequestration. Despite its importance, genomic resources of this key species are scant, yet could provide important knowledge to better manag...

Kelp forests are ecologically diverse habitats that provide vast ecosystem goods and services but are threatened by climate and anthropogenic stressors. Laminarian kelps have an alternating biphasic life cycle, and while there is a growing understanding of climate impacts on the macroscopic diploid sporophyte, impacts on the microscopic haploid gam...

Marine heatwaves (MHWs), discrete periods of extreme warm water temperatures superimposed onto persistent ocean warming, have increased in frequency and significantly disrupted marine ecosystems. While field observations on the ecological consequences of MHWs are growing, a mechanistic understanding of their direct effects is rare. We conducted an...

Extreme climatic events, including marine heatwaves (MHWs), are altering ecosystems globally, often with profound socioeconomic impacts. We examine how MHWs have affected the provision of ecosystem services and evaluate the socioeconomic consequences for human society. Ecological impacts range from harmful algal blooms and mass mortality events to...

Anthropogenic climate change is a significant driver of change in marine ecosystems globally. To improve mechanistic understanding of the impact of climate-related stressors, experimental work on marine organisms has intensified in recent decades. A previous synthesis paper published nearly a decade ago established that Marine Climate Change Experi...

Aim The influence of niche and neutral mechanisms on the assembly of ecological communities have long been debated. However, we still have a limited knowledge on their relative importance to explain patterns of diversity across latitudinal gradients (LDG). Here, we investigate the extent to which these ecological mechanisms contribute to the LDG of...

Marine fisheries in coastal ecosystems in many areas of the world have historically removed large‐bodied individuals, potentially impairing ecosystem functioning and the long‐term sustainability of fish populations. Reporting on size‐based indicators that link to food‐web structure can contribute to ecosystem‐based management, but the application o...

Net primary productivity (NPP) plays a pivotal role in the global carbon balance, but estimating the NPP of underwater habitats remains a challenging task. Seaweeds (marine macroalgae) form the largest and most productive underwater vegetated habitat on Earth. Yet, little is known about the distribution of their NPP at large spatial scales, despite...

Humans are rapidly transforming the structural configuration of the planet's ecosystems, but these changes and their ecological consequences remain poorly quantified in underwater habitats. Here, we show that the loss of forest‐forming seaweeds and the rise of ground‐covering ‘turfs’ across four continents consistently resulted in the miniaturizati...

Marine heatwaves (MHWs) are discrete, unusually warm-water events which can have devastating ecological impacts. In 2011, Western Australia experienced an extreme MHW, affecting >2000 km of coastline for >10 weeks. During the MHW temperatures exceeded the physiological threshold for net growth (~23 °C) for kelp (Ecklonia radiata) along large tracts...

As the environment is getting warmer and species are redistributed, consumers can be forced to adjust their interactions with available prey, and this could have cascading effects within food webs. To better understand the capacity for foraging flexibility, our study aimed to determine the diet variability of an ectotherm omnivore inhabiting kelp f...

Climate change is increasingly impacting ecosystems globally. Understanding adaptive genetic diversity and whether it will keep pace with projected climatic change is necessary to assess species' vulnerability and design efficient mitigation strategies such as assisted adaptation. Kelp forests are the foundations of temperate reefs globally but are...