Thomas Guskey

University of Kentucky | UKY · Department of Educational, School and Counseling Psychology

School leaders struggle in their efforts to implement standards-based grading reforms in large part because they fail to address the inconsistency in grading practices among individual teachers. This article describes three crucial steps necessary to gain greater consistency in teachers’ grading practices: (1) Reaching consensus on a purpose statem...

This analysis explores the essential criteria necessary to define standards-based grading (SBG) and to judge its effectiveness. Findings reveal that although many schools today are initiating SBG reforms, there’s little consensus on what “standards-based grading” actually means. As a result, SBG implementation is widely inconsistent due to an array...

This article describes accounts of grading reform initiatives that while well-intentioned, met with staunch opposition and eventually were abandoned. The implementation strategies employed by the leaders of these reform initiative are explored, along with reasons these strategies failed to result in meaningful and enduring change. Alternative gradi...

This study examined differences in the criteria used by college and university instructors in the United States to assign course grades. Two hundred and fifty course syllabi (159 from universities and 91 from four-year colleges) developed by randomly selected instructors from five academic disciplines (education, maths, science, psychology, and Eng...

School leaders today are making important decisions regarding education innovations based on published average effect sizes, even though few understand exactly how effect sizes are calculated or what they mean. This article explains how average effect sizes are determined in meta-analyses and the importance of including measures of variability with...

Opinions about whether comments, grades, or both are the most effective forms of feedback vary widely among teachers, school leaders, and even grading and assessment consultants. Thomas Guskey maintains that the truth is not as clear-cut as some suggest. He reviews the research, going back to the 1950s, to better understand when certain types of fe...

Collective efficacy, or capability beliefs to improve student outcomes shared by a group (Bandura, 1997), has been shown to be positively associated with improvements in student achievement (Hattie, 2015). Collective trust, or a belief in a group to act in the best interest towards shared goals (Hoy & Tschannen-Moran, 2003), has been similarly rela...

The purpose of this study was to investigate the specific factors teachers consider when assigning students’ report card grades. Data were gathered from 943 K-12 teachers from five school districts in a southeastern state in the United States who completed the Teachers’ Grading Practices Survey. Analyses focused on how teachers weigh different fact...

Grading refers to the symbols assigned to individual pieces of student work or to composite measures of student performance on report cards. This review of over 100 years of research on grading considers five types of studies: (a) early studies of the reliability of grades, (b) quantitative studies of the composition of K–12 report card grades, (c)...

Over the last four decades, few programs have been implemented as broadly or evaluated as thoroughly as those associated with mastery learning. This article describes how mastery learning originated and the essential elements involved in its implementation. It discusses the improvements in student learning that typically result from the use of mast...

Veterinary medical educators use a variety of methods for calculating student grades. Most educators assume grades will be valid as long as the mathematical calculations underpinning each grading method are correct. The purpose of this "teaching tip" is to demonstrate and discuss how mathematical precision does not necessarily equate to truthful sc...

CommentaryThe recent court ruling in favor of Case Western Reserve University that denied a medical degree to a student based on a lack of professionalism shows the clear need for differentiated grading in medical education. In the Ohio case [1], a three-judge panel concluded that evaluations regarding professionalism are academic judgments that fa...

Grading and reporting are foundational elements in nearly every educational system. Grading represents teachers’ evaluations, formative or summative, of students’ performance. Reporting is how the results of those evaluations are communicated to students, parents, or others. Because of their fundamental nature, educators must ensure that grading an...

This study was designed to investigate whether teachers who receive training and then implement more effective instructional practices change in terms of the reasons they offer for their effectiveness. Comparisons were made between 46 teachers who were trained in and implemented mastery learning techniques and 50 similar teachers who could not be i...

The purpose of this study was to determine parents’ and teachers’ perceptions of standards-based and traditional report cards. Participants included 115 parents/guardians of students from a single, midsize school district that had implemented a standards-based report card. During the first two marking periods, all parents/guardians received both a...

The process of determining class rank does not help students achieve more or reach higher levels of proficiency. Evidence indicates ranking students may diminish students' motivation. High school educators argue that they are compelled to rank-order graduating students because selective colleges and universities require information about students'...

A common practice in medical education is to create a prescribed distribution of grades or ratings so that only a certain percentage of students receive the highest marks. This approach typically is employed to curb grade inflation and as a means to help faculty distinguish outstanding performers. Despite the well-intentioned reasoning for using pr...

How can you ensure that you are grading your exceptional students fairly? Teachers receive very little guidance for grading students with disabilities, English learners, and those receiving services through a response-to-intervention (RTI) process. This practitioner-friendly book provides an effective framework for assigning grades that are accurat...

Education leaders must recognize obstacles to grading reform that are rooted in tradition—and then meet them head on. Education improvement efforts over the past two decades have focused primarily on articulating standards for student learning, refining the way we assess students' proficiency on those standards, and tying results to accountability....

In this article we draw parallels between defined critical features of response-to-intervention (RTI) and the mastery learning approach described in the general education literature by Benjamin S. Bloom. We posit that these two processes include many common elements but that each incorporates unique elements that could potentially complement and st...

Nearly all states have standards for student learning and they have assessment programs to measure students' proficiency on those standards. But schools within each state nonetheless are left to develop their own standards-based student report cards as the primary means of communicating information about students' performance. To address the challe...

These accounts of the implementation of best practices, including mentoring, social and emotional learning, teacher leadership, and community involvement, illustrate instances where the knowing-doing gap has been bridged to create positive outcomes for students. Thoughtful practitioners will be inspired by this compendium of innovative ideas that h...

Teachers at all levels of education today struggle in their efforts to assign fair, accurate, and meaningful grades to students with disabilities, especially those placed in general education classrooms. Lacking specific policies or recommendations, most teachers apply informal, individual grading adaptations for such students. Although these idios...

Achievement gaps concern educators at all levels today. Educators recognize the threats these gaps pose to education quality and equity, and they are working hard to close them--but an equally threatening gap in education with consequences just as serious is largely ignored. It influences every educational-improvement effort and seriously jeopardiz...

The problem of achievement gaps among different subgroups of students has been evident in education for many years. This manuscript revisits the work of renowned educator Benjamin S. Bloom, who saw reducing gaps in the achievement of various groups of students as a simple problem of reducing variation in student learning outcomes. Bloom observed th...

This study compared different stakeholders' perceived validity of various indicators of student learning used to judge the quality of students' academic performance. Data were gathered from the questionnaire responses of 314 educators in three states that have implemented comprehensive state-wide assessment programs with high-stakes consequences bo...

Many school leaders today, not to mention many teachers, view "accountability" as a loathsome political monster. Looming over educators, insensitive to the many problems they face, it wields the carrot of rewards in one hand and the club of sanctions in the other. Some educators even blame accountability for perverting their noble purposes, twistin...

This article describes the 1st-year evaluation of a community-wide parent and family involvement program initiated in a midsized Southeast community and school district. The program consists of three major components: community-wide efforts, school—home communication, and home involvement. Formative and summative evaluation data were gathered throu...

How do state educational authorities use statewide test data to rank schools? Can refinements in the procedures change the rankings of schools? Will interpretations based on such rankings be fair, accurate, and valid? Does ranking school districts reveal anything meaningful about the schools? Can ranking schools be counterproductive?

Although much has been written recently about gaps in the achievement of different groups of students, the problem has been with us for many years. This manuscript presents a historical perspective of the problem, viewing it as one of reducing variation in students' achievement. Specifically, it reviews the work of renowned educator Benjamin S. Blo...

Thoughtfully constructed standards provide valuable direction for curriculum and instruction. But to bring about significant improvement in education, standards must be linked to students' learning experiences and to classroom assessments. The author describes the table of specifications, a planning tool for analyze standards for instruction and as...

When the standards movement began more than 15 years ago, most educators welcomed the prospect of having clearly articulated student learning goals. The publication of the first set of standards by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics in 1989 was greeted with unprecedented optimism. Standards offered educators a direction for reform init...

This study investigated the stability of students' grades in high school courses during the academic year. Records of over 8000 high school students from five large Midwest high schools were analyzed to determine the relationship between the first achievement grade students were assigned during an academic term and their final course grades. Result...

In recent years, different researchers and research agencies, teacher associa tions, national education organizations, and the U.S. Department of Education have published lists of the characteristics of effective professional development to guide school leaders in their improvement efforts. This study analyzed 13 of the better known of these lists...

In recent years, different researchers and research agencies, teacher associations, national education organizations, and the U.S. Department of Education have published lists of the characteristics of "effective professional development." This study analyzed 13 of the better known of these lists to determine if they were derived through similar pr...

The No Child Left Behind Act's requirements for scientifically based research and new accountability standards will affect how professional development leaders do their work. Meeting the new requirements means leaders must more carefully evaluate new programs of professional learning and assess the results. Evaluation must become a given, not an af...

This article describes a model of teacher change originally presented nearly two decades ago (Guskey, 1986) that began my long and warm friendship with Michael Huberman. The model portrays the temporal sequence of events from professional develop- ment experiences to enduring change in teachers' attitudes and perceptions. Research evidence supporti...

Computerized grading programs and electronic gradebooks can be useful tools. But in the end, Mr. Guskey reminds us, teachers must still decide what grade offers the most accurate and fairest description of each student's achievement and level of performance.

Describes five levels of evaluation to improve professional development: Participants' reactions, participants' learning, organization support and change, participants' use of new knowledge and skills, and student learning outcomes. (Contains 14 references.) (PKP)

This study investigated possible differences in the perceptions of three stakeholder groups (teachers, students, and parents) regarding grading and grade reporting. Data were gathered through questionnaires completed by 215 teachers in 2 states, 4,265 elementary school, middle school, and high school students, and 944 parents. Different forms were...

When reporting on student work, educators need a clear, comprehensive grading system that shows how students are measuring up to standards.

Mr. Guskey reminds us that, even when complex statistical formulas are used in setting cutoff scores, their mathematical precision is not a substitute for sound professional judgment.

An important element of a sucessful standards-based reform initiative includes grading and reporting that refers to specific learning criteria rather than nor-mative criteria, Four grading policies that impose barriers to reform are described, Specific stategies to correct thse policies are offered. Most educators welcome the current reform efforts...

Basic questions about the evaluation of professional development efforts are explored, including the nature and purposes of evaluation, the critical levels of professional development evaluation, and the difference between evidence and proof in evaluation. Evaluation, which is defined as the systematic investigation of merit or worth, can be charac...

It is important to dispel myths that pervade current professional-development planning and establish and follow specific guidelines for effectively using additional professional-development time. The paper dispels three major myths that diminish the effectiveness of professional-development planning and offers four guidelines for ensuring wise use...

Research on the concept of teacher efficacy spans over 20 years, but much remains to be learned. Although precise definitions of the concept have always been problematic, in general, teacher efficacy is defined as teacher's belief or conviction that they can influence how well students learn (T. Guskey and P. Passaro, 1994). Efforts to clarify the...

In this age of accountability, evaluation must become an integral part of staff development. This paper describes what evaluation is; the three types of evaluation (planning, formative, and summative); and the five critical stages of staff development evaluation. It presents 12 guidelines for improving the quality of professional-development evalua...

Comprehensive education reforms are crafted by legislators and policy makers to address multiple aspects of the public education system. Although individual components of such initiatives may appear promising, little thought typically is given to inconsistencies that may result from implementing multiple reform components simultaneously. This artic...

The relationship between selected contextual and socioeconomic variables and school-level results from a statewide performance-based student assessment system was studied using the Kentucky Instructional Results Information System (KIRIS). KIRIS uses portfolios of student work, scores from on-demand assessments, and student performance on performan...

Discusses the importance of conducting research on the impact of professional development on student learning, explaining why research has not provided any answers and describing an alternative approach that involves beginning from the end then working backward. The paper presents four staff-development principles common to the diverse mix of pract...

PART ONE: THE MASTERY LEARNING PROCESS. 1. The History and Development of Mastery Learning. 2. Outlining Learning Goals and Objectives. 3. Formative Assessment. 4. Feedback, Correctives, and Enrichment. 5. Summative Examinations and Assessments. 6. Applying Mastery Learning. 7. Evaluating Mastery Learning. 8. Onward and Upward. PART TWO: EXAMPLES O...

Specific problems (involving power, implementation, mission, time management, expertise, cultural constraints, avoidance, and motivation) are keeping school-based decision making from improving teaching and learning. Educators must begin with a clear mission, set explicit goals for the decision-making process, alter governance structures to provide...

Much discussion in educational circles centers on such issues as assessment, student performance, parent conferences, and related topics. The 1996 Yearbook provides information about and examples of outstanding assessment reporting systems in use in the United States and Canada. The following contributions are included: (1) "Introduction" (Thomas R...

Incl. app., bibliographical references, biographical notes on the authors

This paper describes an interim evaluation of the Block Schedule Restructuring Program at Governor Thomas Johnson High School in Frederick, Maryland. The program began in the 1992-93 school year, when the school changed from seven 48-minute class periods per day to a block schedule format of four 90-minute class periods. Classes are conducted on a...

This study examined the structure of a construct generally labeled teacher efficacy. A sample of 342 prospective and experienced teachers was administered an efficacy questionnaire adapted from the research of Gibson and Dembo (1984). Factor analytic procedures with varimax rotation were used to generate a two-factor solution that accounted for 32...

Often students with intense education needs or students with low incidents disabilities living in rural areas are served in more restrictive environments such as: out of district residential placement; home-bound instruction; or in isolated, one-on-one tutoring (Zeph,1991). Mastery learning is now being used in many rural schools throughout the mid...

Questions frequently arise about the origins of outcome-based education and mastery learning, their similarities and differences, their theoretical and practical links, and evidence about their effects on student learning. Historical and theoretical perspectives show a clear distinction between outcome-based education and mastery learning. Outcome-...

All proposals for education reform include professional development as a significant element in promoting change. Questions have been raised about the effectiveness of professional development and its role in educational reform. Consequently, evaluation of professional development programs is increasing and expanding to include student achievement....

Some educators believe that authentic, performance-based assessments can drive instructional improvement. The Kentucky Education Reform Act uses a measure-driven instructional approach (the Kentucky Instructional Results Information Program) that evaluates student portfolios in writing and mathematics, achievement on performance events, and scores...

Traces the development of outcome-based education and mastery learning, highlighting the work of Ralph W. Tyler and Benjamin S. Bloom. OBE is principally a goal-driven curriculum reform model with definite implications for assessing student learning. Mastery learning is primarily an instructional process to help teachers enhance their teaching proc...

This article presents a series of guidelines for enhancing the effectiveness of professional development programs. These guidelines are derived from factors that research studies on professional development have shown to be directly related to program success. Although addressing all of these factors will not necessarily guarantee a successful prog...

Because of increased emphasis on accountability, program evaluations today must go beyond measures of change in program participants to consider the effects, either direct or indirect, of staff development on students and their learning. A model is presented illustrating the relationship between staff development for teachers and student learning o...

When assessing a staff development program, several factors must be considered, including improvement in student outcomes, content and quality of the staff development program, and organizational climate and culture. Specific suggestions for evaluating program influences on participants, students, and the organization are offered. A multifaceted ev...

This article describes the basic elements of cooperative learning and mastery learning and shows how these 2 strategies are natural complements to one another. 4 common premises shared by cooperative learning and mastery learning are outlined: (1) criterion-referenced assessment of student learning, (2) emphasis on the teacher's role as an instruct...

This chapter describes the evolution of one researcher's work on the process of attitude and perceptual change among teachers. Extensive work with staff development projects led to the development of a theoretical model of teacher change, with implications for educational improvement efforts. Finally, several questions related to the process of tea...

This paper presents a synthesis of findings from 46 studies on group-based applications of mastery learning strategies. Meta-analytic procedures were used to combine the results of the studies and to calculate estimates of the effects of group-based applications. Results show that such applications yield consistently positive effects on both cognit...

This paper describes an exploratory study designed to investigate the relation between selected teacher perceptions past research has shown to be shared by highly effective teachers, and teacher attitudes toward the implementation of new instructional practices. Data were gathered through a questionnaire administered to 120 elementary and secondary...

Explains the distinct features of both mastery learning and mastery teaching systems, highlighting their major foci, strengths, and weaknesses. Despite their differences, the systems can complement each other by providing teachers with powerful tools to enhance their instructional effectiveness. Includes 21 references. (MLH)

Describes the essential elements of a mastery learning program—feedback and correctness, and congruence among instructional components. Ways in which teachers can easily and efficiently implement these elements in their teaching practices are outlined, along with procedures for evaluating their effectiveness in improving student learning. (PsycINFO...