Terry McMorris

University of Chichester · Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences

There is evidence that complex relationships exist between motor functions, brain structure, and cognitive functions, particularly in the aging population. However, whether such relationships observed in older adults could extend to young adults remains to be elucidated. Thus, the current study addressed this gap in the literature by investigating...

Team-based physical activity (PA) can improve social cognition; however, few studies have investigated the neurobiological mechanism underlying this benefit. Accordingly, a hyper-scanning protocol aimed to determine whether the interbrain synchrony (IBS) is influenced by an acute bout of team-based PA (i.e., tandem rope skipping). Specifically, we...

While the dopaminergic system is important for cognitive processes, it is also sensitive to the influence of physical activity (PA). We summarize current evidence on whether PA-related changes in the human dopaminergic system are associated with alterations in cognitive performance, discuss recent advances, and highlight challenges and opportunitie...

Acute cardiovascular physical exercise improves cognitive performance, as evidenced by a reduction in reaction time (RT). However, the mechanistic understanding of how this occurs is elusive and has not been rigorously investigated in humans. Here, using positron emission tomography (PET) with [¹¹C]raclopride, in a multi‐experiment study we investi...

It is well established that acute moderate-intensity exercise improves cognitive performance. However, the effects of acute high-intensity aerobic exercise on cognitive performance have not been well characterized. In this review, we summarize the literature investigating the exercise-cognition interaction, especially focusing on high-intensity aer...

An interoception model for the acute exercise-cognition interaction is presented. During exercise following the norepinephrine threshold, interoceptive feedback induces increased tonic release of extracellular catecholamines, facilitating phasic release hence better cognitive performance of executive functions. When exercise intensity increases to...

The consensus of opinion, with regard to the effect of cognitive fatigue on subsequent physical performance, is that there is a small, negative effect, but there is no consensus regarding the mechanisms involved. When glucose levels are normal, undertaking cognitive tasks does not induce energy or neurotransmitter depletion. The adenosine hypothesi...

New findings: What is the central question of this study? What are the mechanisms responsible for the decline in cognitive performance following exposure to acute normobaric hypoxia? What are the main findings and their importance? We found that 1) performance of a complex central executive task (n-back) was reduced FiO2 0.12; 2) there was a stron...

Objective To summarise the current evidence on the effects of physical activity (PA) interventions on cognitive and academic performance in children, and formulate research priorities and recommendations. Design Systematic review (following PRISMA guidelines) with a methodological quality assessment and an international expert panel. We based the...

Background It has been suggested that pacing is a thermoregulatory behaviour. We investigated the effect of competition on pacing, performance and thermophysiological strain during exercise in the heat and the psychological factors mediating competition effects. Method Eighteen males (maximum oxygen uptake [VO2max] 3.69 [0.44] L min−1) undertook a...

Introduction: Drowning is a leading cause of accidental death. In cold-water, sudden skin cooling triggers the life-threatening cold shock response (CSR). The CSR comprises tachycardia, peripheral vasoconstriction, hypertension, inspiratory gasp, and hyperventilation with the hyperventilatory component inducing hypocapnia and increasing risk of asp...

We propose a model of exercise-induced central fatigue based on interoception and motivation. Predictions of the expected sensory feedback are fed forward by the dorsolateral (DL) prefrontal cortex (PFC) to the anterior insula cortex (AIC). During exercise, the AIC receives feedback from lamina Ⅰ lateral spinothalamic and nucleus tractus solitarii...

Recent research has examined the effect that undertaking a cognitively fatiguing task for ≤90 min has on subsequent physical performance. Cognitive fatigue is claimed to affect subsequent physical performance by inducing energy depletion in the brain, depletion of brain catecholamine neurotransmitters or changes in motivation. Observation of the ps...

A systematic meta-regression analysis of the effects of acute hypoxia on the performance of central executive and non-executive tasks, and the effects of the moderating variables, arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2) and hypobaric versus normobaric hypoxia, was undertaken. Studies were included if they were performed on healthy humans; within...

Research shows that moderate duration, moderate intensity, acute exercise generates increases in plasma catecholamines concentrations, which stimulate the vagal/nucleus tractus solitarii pathway. This induces the synthesis and release of catecholamines in the brain. Moderate increases in catecholamines concentrations facilitate performance of most...

The few experiments that have examined the interaction between chronic or acute exercise and cognition in trained athletes provide evidence of positive effects when compared to sedentary persons. Research examining the brain morphologies of athletes compared to sedentary individuals show some positive effects of athletic training, which might accou...

Arousal–performance theories suggest an inverted-U effect of acute exercise on cognition. Research shows little support for this. Moderate intensity appears to have a positive effect on speed of undertaking all cognitive tasks but especially working memory tasks. This would be as predicted by cognitive–energetic, arousal–performance theories. Resul...

Moderate intensity acute exercise, of moderate duration, facilitates speed of cognition. Heavy exercise facilitates autonomous tasks but has little effect on perpetual tasks. Accuracy does not appear to be affected but this may be due to design issues. Activation of the vagal/NTS pathway, by adrenaline and noradrenaline, stimulates the synthesis an...

There is strong support for chronic exercise having a positive effect on cognition. The purpose of this review was to investigate the possible roles of neurochemicals in this process. Human studies provide a prima facie case for brain-derived neurotrophic factor being a mediator but animal studies point to roles for other growth factors. Animal stu...

The human brain adapts to changing demands by altering its functional and structural properties (neuroplasticity) which results in learning and acquiring skills. Convergent evidence from both human and animal studies suggests that enhanced physical exercise facilitates neuroplasticity of certain brain structures and as a result cognitive functions...

The catecholamines hypothesis for the acute exercise-cognition interaction in humans fails to adequately explain the interaction between peripherally circulating catecholamines and brain concentrations; how different exercise intensities×durations affect different cognitive tasks; and how brain catecholamines, glucocorticoids, BDNF and 5-hydroxytry...

to the editor: Leischik et al. (see Ref. [1][1]) provide an overview of the problems facing those researching the effects of exercise, both acute and chronic, on cognitive function. I agree with their comments, but the viewpoint ([2][2]) was only concerned with a specific anomaly in the ability of

the hypothesis that circulating catecholamines induce improved cognitive functioning during moderate intensity exercise was first posited by Cooper ([3][1]) and subsequently developed first by Chmura et al. ([2][2]) and later by McMorris and colleagues (9-11). Based on the work of Samorajaski and

The primary purpose of this study was to examine, using meta-analytical measures, whether research into the performance of whole-body, psychomotor tasks following moderate and heavy exercise demonstrates an inverted-U effect. A secondary purpose was to compare the effects of acute exercise on tasks requiring static maintenance of posture versus dyn...

Exercise-Cognition Interaction: Neuroscience Perspectives is the only book on the market that examines the neuroscientific correlation between exercise and cognitive functioning. The upsurge in research in recent years has confirmed that cognitive-psychology theory cannot account for the effects of exercise on cognition, and both acute and chronic...

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine, using meta-analytic measures, the evidence regarding the optimal exercise intensity at which improvements in speed of cognitive function are triggered. Specifically, it was hypothesized that the catecholamine, lactate, and ventilatory thresholds is the point at which significant improvements in spe...

The aim of the present study was to develop a measure that determines the reasons for losing possession in professional soccer. Fifty five national soccer teams that took part in 2006 and 2010 World Cup games were selected for this study. The Losing Possession Observational Checklist for Soccer was developed and applied to games in these tournament...

The primary purpose of this study was to examine, using meta-analytical techniques, the differential effects of differing intensities of acute exercise on speed and accuracy of cognition. Overall, exercise demonstrated a small, significant mean effect size (g=0.14, p<0.01) on cognition. Examination of the comparison between speed and accuracy depen...

The aim of the present study was to develop a measure that determines the reasons for losing possession in professional soccer. Fifty five national soccer teams that took part in 2006 and 2010 World Cup games were selected for this study. The Losing Possession Observational Checklist for Soccer was developed and applied to games in these tournament...

The effect of different sources of external attentional focus on learning a motor skill was assessed in the present study. 30 students (12 men, 18 women) participated voluntarily and were divided, according to type of external focus, into target, club swing, and target-club swing groups. The task was a golf putting skill. The target focus group att...

The purpose of this study was to compare, using meta-analytic techniques, the effect of acute, intermediate intensity exercise on the speed and accuracy of performance of working memory tasks. It was hypothesized that acute, intermediate intensity exercise would have a significant beneficial effect on response time and that effect sizes for respons...

The purpose of this review was to examine the evidence for an acute exercise-neuroendocrines-cognition interaction. Theoretically, exercise at the catecholamines thresholds initiates increased brain concentrations of catecholamines via activation of the vagus nerve. This should facilitate cognition. Exercise at the thresholds for > 30 mins and heav...

It was recently observed that dehydration causes shrinkage of brain tissue and an associated increase in ventricular volume. Negative effects of dehydration on cognitive performance have been shown in some but not all studies, and it has also been reported that an increased perceived effort may be required following dehydration. However, the effect...

Objective The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of acute, short-duration exercise on the performance of simple and choice visual reaction and movement times.Method Following an incremental test to exhaustion to determine exercise intensities, 12 male participants completed simple and choice reaction tests on a cycle ergometer w...

Expert performers in sports that include a high proportion of closed skills have often been found to score relatively high in field independence tests; a field-independent cognitive style may be advantageous for learning and performance of closed skills. The relationship between field dependence-independence (measured on a Portable Rod and Frame Te...

This research aimed to investigate the time course effect of a moderate steady-state exercise session on response execution and response inhibition using a stop-task paradigm. Ten participants performed a stop-signal task whilst cycling at a carefully controlled workload intensity (40% of maximal aerobic power), immediately following exercise and 3...

This study aimed to determine how cognitive control, engaged in a task requiring selective inhibition, is affected by acute steady-state exercise. An adapted version of the Eriksen flanker task, involving three types of trials that varied according to their level of congruency (congruent trials, stimulus-incongruent trials, and response-incongruent...

The purposes of this study were to examine the effect of acute incremental exercise on the performance of a central executive task; the responses of the sympathoadrenal system (SAS) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA) during exercise, while simultaneously carrying out the central executive task; and the ability of Delta plasma concentrat...

Designing a decision-making testResearch resultsEcological validity and future researchImplications for team games players and coaches

Catecholamines and 5-hydroxytryptamine as brain neurotransmittersHow exercise induces increases in brain concentrations of noradrenaline, dopamine, cortisol and 5-hydroxytryptamineExercise, catecholamines, cortisol and cognition: researchTask typeDiscussionDeveloping a neuroendocrinological model for an interaction between exercise and cognition

emerging theoretical approachesSummary of research resultsFuture theoretically driven researchFuture applied researchGeneral summary

The main issue of this study was to determine whether cognitive control is affected by acute moderate exercise. Twelve participants [4 females (VO(2 max)=42 ml/kg/min) and 8 males (VO(2 max) = 48 ml/kg/min)] performed a Simon task while cycling at a carefully controlled workload intensity corresponding to their individual ventilatory threshold. The...

Transit in high-speed marine craft subjects occupants to a rough ride as the boat impacts the waves. This induces high levels of physical stress, which may inhibit cognitive performance during military operations and life-saving activities. Land-based research suggests that suspension seats reduce vibration and, therefore, stress. We hypothesized t...

Dehydration can affect brain structure which has important implications for human health. In this study, we measured regional changes in brain structure following acute dehydration. Healthy volunteers received a structural MRI scan before and after an intensive 90-min thermal-exercise dehydration protocol. We used two techniques to determine change...

To examine how different safety rope protocols impact on subjective anxiety and self-confidence levels and plasma cortisol concentrations and the relationship between subjective states and cortisol during rock climbing. Participants (n = 12) were tested in three climbing conditions that were designed to invoke low, moderate and high physical and me...

The purpose of the study was to examine the usage of norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA) in the brain when exercising while simultaneously undertaking cognitive tests. Plasma concentrations of the NE metabolite 3-methoxy 4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG) and the DA metabolite homovanillic acid (HVA) showed a linear increase from rest to exercising at...

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of one bout and three intermittent bouts of short-duration, high-intensity running on the performance of a sports-specific psychomotor skill. Participants (N=13) were male soccer players (M age 20.5 yr., SD=2.0) who had been playing semi-professionally for M=2.1 years, SD=1.11 and trained twice a...

Little is known about the influence of perceived motivational climate in physical education lessons from the Asian perspective. This study of 1122 secondary school pupils from Singapore examined the psychometric properties of an existing classroom climate measure. Additionally, the relationships between perceived motivational climate, achievement g...

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of creatine supplementation on the cognitive performance of elderly people. Participants were divided into two groups, which were tested on random number generation, forward and backward number and spatial recall, and long-term memory tasks to establish a baseline level. Group 1 (n = 15) were give...

Many numerical tools are available in the yacht design domain to predict yacht performances. These are based on experimental data and well-established numerical techniques. However, being competitive sailing an uncertainty-rich discipline, there is also a need to assess the performances of a yacht’s crew. This is indeed the main area for performanc...

The effect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with intermittent moderate-intensity exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, effort and salivary concentrations of cortisol and melatonin were examined. Subjects were divided into a creatine supplementation group and a placebo group. They took 5 g of creatine mono...

The primary aims of this paper were to examine the effect of heat stress on working memory, choice reaction time and mood state, and to investigate the relationship between heat induced changes in plasma concentrations of selected neurotransmitters and hormones, and cognition. Heat stress resulted in a deterioration of performance on a central exec...

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of differing types of warm-up on the performance of a psychomotor skill that required quick reaction and movement times (MTs), and whole-body co-ordination. Subjects (n=12) carried out a psychomotor task which involved reacting to 1 of 3 lights, then running through a slalom course before kicking...

Sleep deprivation has a negative effect on cognitive and psychomotor performance and mood state, partially due to decreases in creatine levels in the brain. Therefore, creatine supplementation should lessen the negative effects of sleep deprivation. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivat...

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the effect of cognitive development, as measured by age and cognitive style combined, of 11‐, 13‐ and 15‐year‐old children on the performance of a soccer‐specific test of decision making. The children (N = 284) undertook the Group Embedded Figures Test (Witkin et al., 1971b) to determine their cognit...

Rationale: Sleep deprivation has a negative effect on cognitive and psychomotor performance and mood state, partially due to decreases in creatine levels in the brain. Therefore, creatine supplementation should lessen the negative effects of sleep deprivation. Objectives: The objective of this study was to examine the effect of creatine supplementa...

To examine how exercise at moderate and maximal intensities affects performance on a choice response time, whole body psychomotor task. Subjects (n = 12) were tested on a three-choice response time task, after rest and after exercise at 70% and 100% maximum power output (W*max). The dependent variables were time to begin forward momentum (initiatio...

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the effect of attempting to exercise supra-maximally on reaction time and movement time in a non-compatible response time task. Subjects (n=9) undertook a 4-choice non-compatible response time test at rest, while cycling at 70 rpm with a resistance of 35 W (low intensity exercise), cycling at 70% of...

Study 1: Fifteen male field hockey players (mean ±SD: age 19.5±2.5yr; ht 1.79±0.1 m; wt 80±2.5 kg) at the elite level (Scottish National League Division 1) were filmed during competitive match-play (C) and in 'competitive phase' (in-season) training (T) whilst playing on an artificial hockey surface. Heart rate was recorded (Polar PE 4000) during b...

This article compared the time motion analysis and heart rate of elite male field hockey in competition and training.

The primary purpose was to examine the effect of incremental exercise on a noncompatible response time task. Participants (N=9) undertook a 4-choice noncompatible response time task under 3 conditions, following rest and during exercise at 70% and 100% of their maximum power output. Reaction and movement times were the dependent variables. Maximum...

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of Field Dependence/Independence on the recognition, observation, and decision-making skills of trainee physical education teachers in an activity in which they had little experience. The participants (N = 54) completed the Group Embedded Figures Test (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, & Karp, 1971) in orde...

There are issues concerning the effectiveness of different types of lnital Teacher Training in Physical Education in England, thus there is a need to study the relative effectiveness of 4‐year undergraduate and Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) programmes. The purpose of this study was to compare student physical education teachers durin...

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of exercising at the epinephrine threshold and at Maximum Power Output on the performance of a skill that requires both decision-making and motor performance. Participants (N=12) undertook an incremental test to exhaustion from which their epinephrine threshold and Maximum Power Output were calcul...

Plasma lactate and catecholamine thresholds were calculated using three different variations of linear regression, an algorithmic linear regression method, a log-log transformation method and a semi-log method. A group of 18 male sports science students undertook an incremental test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. A 5-ml blood sample was drawn...

Research examining the effect of incremental exercise on cognitive performance has claimed that increases in exercise intensity result in increases in arousal. An inverted-U effect of incremental exercise on cognitive Junction has been hypothesized. The majority of researchers have drawn upon unidimensional theories of arousal as the underlying rat...

The main aim of this study was to compare the decision-making performance of college soccer players on a soccer-specific, tachistoscopically presented test, at rest and while exercising at their adrenaline threshold and at their maximum power output. These were determined following an incremental test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. After the i...

This paper sets out to examine what theory and research into cognitive development can tell us about what types of decision-making skills we should teach at any given age. Piagetian, Information Processing, and ecological psychology theories of cognitive development are discussed and empirical data is examined. It is concluded that, because of indi...

The Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU) approach has received, considerable support in the pedagogical literature and has been warmly accepted by physical educators. Observation of the motor learning literature, however, shows that it has made little impact on motor learning theorists and researchers. This paper examines the research literature...

Two experiments were carried out to examine the effect of moderate and maximal exercise on the cognitive performance of experienced soccer players. Experiment 1 examined the speed and visual search in familiar (game) and unfamiliar (non-game) contexts. Participants had to detect, as quickly as possible, the presence or absence of a ball in tachisto...

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of the performance of male amateur soccer players on tests of field dependence/independence and soccer-specific decision-making tests. The relationships between the participants' (N = 14) accuracy, and speed of decision, on simple and complex soccer decision-making tests; scores on Parts B o...

The purpose of this paper is to examine what the research literature can tell us about decision making in team games. The problems of developing decision-making tests are discussed and questions about the validity and reliability of the tests are raised. Nevertheless, it is concluded that valid, reliable and objective tests of decision making in te...

Experienced (N = 10) and inexperienced (N = 10) soccer players were examined on soccer specific tests of decision making, recall of players' positions and speed of visual search in structured (game) and unstructured (non-game) displays. The experienced players were significantly better than the inexperienced at making decisions. The recall results...

The purpose of this study was to examine the anticipation of professional soccer goalkeepers when facing right- and left-footed penalty kicks. Subjects were shown a videotape of 10 right-footed and 10 left-footed penalty kicks. A standard temporal, occlusion paradigm was used, with each penalty being presented at 3 occlusion points, 2 frames before...

Two experiments were carried out to examine the effect of moderate and maximal exercise on decision-making performance of college soccer players. In the first experiment decision-making performance on a simple test was compared with that on a complex task. Subjects (N = 10) were tested at rest and while cycling on a cycle ergometer at 70% and 100%...

To examine the effect of moderate and fatiguing exercise on the simple reaction times of recreational athletes, 12 subjects took a simple reaction-time test while at rest and while cycling on a Monark cycle ergometer at 70% and 100% of maximum workload. To estimate 70% and 100% of maximum workload the subjects underwent a standard incremental test...