
Stephen WestlandUniversity of Leeds · School of Design
Stephen Westland
Professor of Colour Science and Technology
About
397
Publications
213,017
Reads
How we measure 'reads'
A 'read' is counted each time someone views a publication summary (such as the title, abstract, and list of authors), clicks on a figure, or views or downloads the full-text. Learn more
4,415
Citations
Introduction
I am interested in almost all aspects of colour. I trained as a chemist and a physicist and after a brief spell in industry I was a postdoc in psychology before working as an Assistant Professor in Neuroscience, an Associate Professor in Engineering and, since 2003, a full Professor in Design (at the University of Leeds). The idea that holds these seemingly disparate activities together is .... colour. My first degree was colour chemistry, my PhD was colour physics, .... etc.
Additional affiliations
November 2003 - present
November 2003 - January 2016
Education
September 1983 - September 1986
September 1980 - September 1983
Publications
Publications (397)
Objectives: This multicenter study aimed to evaluate visual-instrumental agreement of six color measurement devices and optimize three color difference equations using a dataset of visual color differences (ΔV) from expert observers. Methods: A total of 154 expert observers from 16 sites across 5 countries participated, providing visual scaling on...
(1) Background. The aim of the present protocol is to assess whether self-perception of tooth colour and facial attractiveness correlates with gender and mood state. (2) Study protocol. The protocol foresees a cross-sectional clinical study, developed by Sapienza University of Rome, Italy, Department of Oral and MaxilloFacial Sciences, and 15 UNID...
Automatic analysis of images is increasingly being used to generate color insights and this has led to various methods for generating palettes. Several studies have recently been published that explore methods to predict the visual similarity between pairs of palettes and these methods are often used to evaluate different generative methods. This w...
A laboratory-based experiment with a colour-calibrated display was used to collect examples of colours that participants associate with each of 9 colour names. The gamut volumes for each of the clusters of colours in CIELAB space were calculated and a computational method was used to estimate how any distinct colours could be placed within each of...
Immersive virtual reality (VR) technology has gradually found its place within the fashion and creative design industries, aiming to stimulate creativity, imagination, and engagement. However, it's important to note that limited systematic research has delved into the intricate design of immersive VR environments to effectively evoke positive emoti...
There is growing interest in being able to automatically extract colours of garments from images. Automatic image analysis may allow the development of data-driven approaches to, for example, colour forecasting. A neural network (pix2pix) was trained on streetstyle fashion images to predict the semantic class of each pixel in the image. The trained...
Statement of problem:
Little is known about the effect of illuminant metamerism between natural teeth and zirconia restorations, despite their increasing clinical popularity.
Purpose:
The purpose of this in vitro study was to compare illuminant metamerism between pairs of natural teeth and layered zirconia restorations and pairs of natural teeth...
With seasonal affective disorder currently affecting 10% of the population in northern latitudes and temperate regions and this statistic continuing to grow, light therapy is becoming the first treatment choice for seasonal affective disorder because of its lesser side effects and faster efficacy compared with other treatments. However, the light t...
It is known that well-designed immersive Virtual Reality (VR) environments can positively impact on user experiences, with results evidencing that a considered approach to hue design can trigger positive cognitive performance and intellectual abilities. However, limited research has been conducted to study the design potential of chroma and brightn...
There are situations where designs involve bilingual content. In such cases, to convey clear and consistent messages, we need to select typefaces in two languages. Traditionally, designers relied on their intuition and experience when selecting typefaces. This study, however, uses analytical research to explore the possibility of using data to info...
The use of language to describe color is natural and intuitive and there seems to be some evidence that different languages refer to color in a consistent way. It is clear, nonetheless, that the reliance of language to communicate color is limited not least by the number of color names but also by the lack of precision that language affords. As an...
This study investigated the effects of nine colour environments on visual tracking accuracy and visual strain during normal sitting (SP), -12° head-down bed (HD) and 9.6° head-up tilt bed (HU). In a standard posture change laboratory study, fifty-four participants performed visual tracking tasks in nine colour environments while in the three postur...
The optimal additive primaries are red, green, and blue or RGB. Unfortunately, there is no single set of RGB primaries that has achieved universal acceptance. Rather, RGB primaries have evolved over time in response to consumer demand and technological advancement. Three important sets of primaries, however, are known as SMPTE-C, ITU-R BT.601, and...
This study explores the temporal changes in sentiment associated with eight color names over an 18‐month period at four observation points. We focus on the valence aspect of sentiment. We collected four datasets, each separated by 6 months, and each containing 18 000 mentions of each of the eight color names in English from Twitter users around the...
The cover image is based on the Research Article The multiple characteristics of specific associations from words to colors by Yun Chen et al., https://doi.org/10.1002/col.22827 The cover image is based on the Research Article The multiple characteristics of specific associations from words to colors by Yun Chen et al., https://doi.org/10.1002/col....
This study mainly focused on exploring the multiple characteristics of specific associations from words to colors. Color association is bidirectional, representing the relationship from color to concept or concept to color. The association between word and color has multiple correspondences in both directions. Colors are associated with ideas, conc...
Understanding the colour preference in microgravity environments will enable better design of future spacecraft
and extra-terrestrial environments. In this study, a space station’s crew cabin was simulated and evaluated in 33
different colours by 55 participants using a standard body position change methodology in controlled conditions.
Three bo...
Exploring an efficient research method for understanding color preference is important to researchers and designers. This work compares four experimental methods for individual color preference research (N-alternative forced choice, rank-order, rating and paired comparison). Three psychophysical experiments were carried out with 338 participants. P...
This study implemented a short-term virtual reality examination of the impacts of environmental colour and posture changes (to simulate microgravity and lunar gravity) on cognitive task performance and emotions. In a standard posture change laboratory study, sixty participants performed a simple cognitive task battery (finding A's test and number c...
The hygiene area is one of the most important facilities in a space station. If its environmental lighting is appropriately designed, it can significantly reduce the psychological pressure on astronauts. This study investigates the effect of correlated colour temperature (CCT) on heart rate, galvanic skin response, emotion and satisfaction in the h...
Optical filter aids are marketed which claim to improve colour discrimination in red-green colour vision defectives. An earlier model has been revised and used to assess 9 currently available aids. Spectral reflectances (400-700 nm) for 80 colours equally spaced in hue angle at four equally spaced saturations were synthesised from chromatically adj...
Optical filter aids are marketed which claim to improve colour discrimination in red-green colour vision defectives. An earlier model has been revised and used to assess 9 currently available aids. Spectral reflectances (400-700 nm) for 80 colours equally spaced in hue angle at four equally spaced saturations were synthesised from chromatically adj...
Designing a mood board is a creative tool designers often employ at the start of a new (interior) design project. The colors of a mood board represent important information about the envisioned interior designs. In this article, we focus on digital mood boards and we propose a novel method to determine the mood boards' key colors from a design pers...
This work explores the relationship between relative search frequencies for colour names using Google Trends and measures of investor sentiment and consumer/business confidence using data between 2004 and 2019. It was found that during periods of economic downturn or negative sentiment, relative search frequencies for black increased and those for...
In complex human-machine systems such as spacecraft, poor astronaut performance leads to dangerous accidents, and assessing the functional state of astronauts during a mission has positive impacts on risk reduction and efficiency. This paper aimed to assess the functional state of astronauts in performing target tracking tasks of different difficul...
We define "traditional colour theory" as a loose collection of propositions about colour that disregard the findings of modern colour science beginning with Young, Maxwell, Helmholtz, and Hering, very often oversimplified and misinterpreted, taken, among others, from the writings of LeBlanc, Field, Goethe, Chevreul and popularised in Itten's The Ar...
In an automated cockpit, the role changes from driver to passenger, with a greater focus on the in-cabin experience. The reasonable use of light sources will effectively improve the user cabin experience. In particular, we can effectively derive the preference for color temperature by the convergence of group selection for different groups of men a...
Elevation plays a considerable role in naturalness perception of 2.5D prints. The necessary level of elevation to make 2.5D prints look perceptually natural may vary from application to application. Therefore, one needs to know the right elevation for specific applications to make the prints look perceptually natural. In this work, we investigated...
In an automated cockpit, the role changes from driver to passenger, with a greater focus on the in-cabin experience. The reasonable use of light sources will effectively improve the user cabin experience. In particular, we can effectively derive the preference for color temperature by the convergence of group selection for different groups of men a...
Naturalness is a complex concept. It can involve a variety of attributes. In this work, we considered the effect of elevation and surface roughness on naturalness perception of 2.5D decor prints for four material categories. We found that elevation has an impact on the naturalness perception of 2.5D decor prints and that it is linked with content....
During space missions, astronauts live in a confined technological environment, completely isolated and deprived of the variety and variation found in the environment on Earth. This circumstance has a strong impact on the psycho-physiological states of the crew. Particularly in light of the plans for long-duration missions, new research needs to be...
The immersive qualities of Virtual Reality (VR) technologies offer an enhanced environment for design research. In this study the potential of colour to influence cognitive performance in VR is explored. A series of psychometric experiments were conducted where selected colours were presented to the participants whist in a dark neutral VR room sett...
Objectives: This in-vivo clinical study provides subjective and objective documentation on colour stability of enamel after resin infiltration at a mean observation time of six years after treatment.
Methods: 76 teeth previously treated with ICON® due to hypomineralized lesions of enamel were recalled for a follow-up at ………(………..). Colour stability...
This research explores the influence of colour on cognitive performance and intellectual abilities (i.e., logical and lateral thinking abilities and people’s attention to detail) in a conventional laboratory setting and an approximately identical virtual reality (VR) environment. Comparative experiments using psychological methods were carried out...
Many experiments have proved that vision and hearing effect each other in many ways, and this phenomenon is of great significance to design (Zhang,2019)(Anderson,2014). Among the design of car cockpit, color is one of the most important elements of cockpit visual design, and different color directly affect people's experience in the cockpit (Satake...
Infographics are becoming a common tool in the communication of public-health information. However, research-based resources in how to create effective infographics are rare. The application of design principles in the creation of infographics has been shown to more effectively communicate information. Here, the research explores the adherence of 8...
It is widely believed that people have preferences in relation to the colour of their interior environment. With the development of the global small apartment industry, it is important to understand well people's colour preference for apartments. This study investigated the apartment colour preference (N = 958) and the arousal level measured as hea...
The immersive qualities of Virtual Reality (VR) technologies offer an enhanced environment for design research. In this study the potential of colour to influence cognitive performance in VR is explored. A series of psychometric experiments were conducted where selected colours were presented to the participants whist in a dark neutral VR room sett...
Successful colour forecasting enables companies to provide suitable products to the right customers. Generation Y are significant customers in vehicle markets. Understanding relevant factors on young customers are essential for companies and can help them fine-tune their products' colour for specific demographic groups. However, consumer preference...
This study aims at finding out the sentiment associated with eight colour terms in the context of an overall negative marketplace sentiment during 2020/2021 and how the sentiment varies over time. We focus on the valence aspect of sentiment. We collected two datasets, separated by six months, each containing 18000 mentions of each of the eight colo...
Objective: Psychological research has established that the presence of dental anomalies negatively impact social judgements. This study sought to determine the effects of tooth colour on the subjective ratings of social judgements in a group of Caucasian adults.
Methods: A cross sectional experimental analogue design comprised fifty Caucasian adult...
The lighting system is one of the key subsystems in the spacecraft. A good lighting environment is needed not only for operations, but also for the astronauts’ leisure. In particular, it can reduce visual fatigue, improve work efficiency and safety, and be calibrated to optimise energy consumption.
For large-scale manned spacecraft bound for the Moon and Mars, lighting should be explored that can reduce safety risks while increasing visual capability. The use of appropriate lighting in large-scale manned spacecraft can provide astronauts with a comfortable and safe living and working environment while reducing the energy consumption of the li...
For large-scale manned spacecraft bound for the Moon and Mars, lighting should be explored that can reduce safety risks while increasing visual capability. The use of appropriate lighting in large-scale manned spacecraft can provide astronauts with a comfortable and safe living and working environment while reducing the energy consumption of the li...
Objective
To identify the hue angles that provide the optimal perception of tooth whitening.
Methods
Thirty-three male/female adult observers with normal color vision were recruited to assess teeth images on a color calibrated display. Images of teeth were generated which simulated color changes in each of eight hue directions in the CIE a*b* plan...
Many studies have shown that colour can affect emotional and physiological responses in real environments but do the same effects occur in virtual environments? This study investigated human subjective and objective responses to different coloured lighting environments, first in a physical laboratory (PE) and then in an approximately identical virt...
Volume 6 A Cultural History of Color in the Modern Age covers the period 1920 to the present, a time of extraordinary developments in colour science, philosophy, art, design and technologies. The expansion of products produced with synthetic dyes was accelerated by mass consumerism as artists, designers, architects, writers, theater and filmmakers...
This article describes a developed conceptual framework for understanding consumer product-colour purchase decision in different time-length conditions. The research and method were developed on the basis of research from authors' previous study. An influence element, decision conditions (especially, decision-time-length), has been introduced. The...
This article describes a conceptual framework for understanding consumer product‐colour purchase decisions. Building on previous work, a new primary factor, colour association, is introduced. The purpose of this study is to test whether consumers' colour‐associations connect with their product‐colour association, and whether colour‐association affe...
Although many design process studies and design theories have been developed and presented, in reality designers have rarely followed standard rules. A design process is often more a form of personal self‐expression. The type of approach that designers use in their design work depends on their preference, experience, and education background. There...
The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of environmental colour on people's lateral and logical abilities. This was done by evaluating study participants' response time and error rate when completing six types of psychometric tests that were performed in various hue backgrounds on a computer. To maximise the colour stimulation provid...
William Albert Hugh Rushton was a British neurophysiologist who made important contributions to our understanding of color vision and perception. He is perhaps best known now for his development of the principle of univariance.
John Dalton was an English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist who is best known for his work in the development of modern atomic theory and his research into color blindness.
Johannes Itten was a Swiss expressionist painter, designer, and teacher, and one of the main pedagogical forces behind the Bauhaus in its earliest phase. Itten was born in Südern-Linden (Switzerland) on November 11, 1888. His 1961 book The Art of Color presented color theory in a simplified form that largely excluded scientific developments from th...
We present a simple primary colour editing method for consumer product images. We show that by using colour correction and colour blending, we can automate the pain-staking colour editing task and save time for consumer colour preference researchers. To improve the colour harmony between the primary colour and its complementary colours, our algorit...
The goal of this research is to generate high quality chromatic Contrast Sensitivity Function (CSF) over a wide range of spatial frequencies from 0.06 to 3.84 cycles per degree (cpd) surrounding 5 CIE proposed colour centres (white, red, yellow, green and blue) to study colour difference. At each centre, 6 colour directions at each of 7 frequencies...
Various color difference metrics were developed for characterizing the perceived color difference between individual color patches. Color difference between palettes containing multiple color patches, however, is critically important in product design and computer graphics. This study aimed to investigate how the perceived color difference between...
Recently, there has been interest in the development of colour palettes from images. Colour palettes have long been used by designers to communicate colours and their relationships but increasingly palettes are being derived automatically from digital images, concepts, or from a plethora of digital design tools online. Methods to predict difference...
Finding an efficient way to understand individual colour preference is important to researchers and designers. This article compares three research strategies to test individual colour preference including two research experimental environments (online and laboratory) and two research methods (multiple choice for N‐alternative‐forced‐choice and mul...
Various color difference metrics were developed for characterizing the perceived color difference between individual color patches. Color difference between palettes containing multiple color patches, however, is critically important in product design and computer graphics. This study aimed to investigate how the perceived color difference between...
In this paper, skin tone heterogeneity in five facial areas (forehead, right cheekbone, left cheekbone, nose tip and chin) was investigated under six light sources with correlated color temperature (CCT) of 2850 K, 3500 K, 5000 K, 5500 K, 6500 K and 9000 K. Firstly, a facial image capturing protocol was developed and applied to five female particip...
It is known that colours evoke memories and emotions and that these associations are valuable in design. However, it is difficult to ascertain universal associations because often the word-colour associations are culture-and context-specific. Nevertheless, some important universal colour associations have been shown to exist, at least if the variab...
The aim of this study was to assess gloss of tooth by digital photography. A gonio-imaging system (gonio-being Greek for angle) was developed to measure the gloss of human teeth in a laboratorial stage. Polarised and non-polarised images were acquired around the specular angle. The gloss component was extracted and normalised to a theoretical stand...
The Color of the Year was first introduced by Pantone in 2000, and recently (the last decade) we saw the trend of introducing a Color of the Year being picked up by more and more companies. Paints and coatings companies typically select their colors of the year by extensive research by designers and trend experts, resulting in a plurality of colors...
Objective
The subject of this case report is the application of a newly developed workflow for objective shade communication sans visual shade assessment or the use of shade guides.
Clinical Considerations
Clinical complications stemming from issues relating to esthetic integration can present a burden on the restorative team, often resulting in s...
Objective: The subject of this case report is the application of a newly developed workflow for objective shade communication sans visual shade assessment or the use of shade guides.
Clinical Considerations: Clinical complications stemming from issues relating to aesthetic integration can present a burden on the restorative team, often resulting in...