Silvana Hidalgo

Silvana Hidalgo
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Silvana verified their affiliation via an institutional email.
Verified
Silvana verified their affiliation via an institutional email.
  • PhD
  • Professor at National Polytechnic School

About

182
Publications
47,846
Reads
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2,111
Citations
Current institution
National Polytechnic School
Current position
  • Professor
Additional affiliations
January 2007 - May 2016
National Polytechnic School
Position
  • Professor (Assistant)
Education
October 2003 - December 2006
University of Clermont Auvergne
Field of study
  • Sciences de la Terre
September 2001 - June 2002
University of Clermont Auvergne
Field of study
  • Sciences de la Terre
October 1995 - September 2001
National Polytechnic School
Field of study
  • Geology

Publications

Publications (182)
Article
Full-text available
Sangay volcano (Ecuador) shows a quasi-continuous activity at least since the seventeenth century and has produced several eruptions which affected towns and cities at considerable distance (up to > 170 km). For this reason, despite its remote location, recent efforts were aimed at reviewing its volcanic history, quantifying the occurrence probabil...
Article
Full-text available
The physiochemical properties of volcanic ash are determined by magma ascent and eruption dynamics and provide important insights into controls on the timing and style of volcanic eruptions. However, linking petrological observations to monitoring parameters remains challenging. Here we investigate the relationships between geophysical, geochemical...
Article
Full-text available
We assess the volcanic hazard posed by pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) at Tungurahua volcano, Ecuador, using a probabilistic approach based on the analysis of calibrated numerical simulations. We address the expected variability of explosive eruptions at Tungurahua volcano by adopting a scenario-based strategy, where we consider three cases: vi...
Article
The Ecuadorian arc is composed of an unusually high number of volcanoes, organized as along-arc alignments and across-arc clusters, in a relatively small area. Although several geochronological studies have been carried out in the last three decades, the eruptive history of the central zone of the arc remains poorly documented, preventing analysis...
Article
Pululahua is a potentially active andesite and dacite lava dome complex. This paper presents the results of a survey focused on carbon dioxide (CO2) diffuse degassing at Pululahua, which was conducted during the 2017 International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) Commission of the Chemistry of Volcanic Gases...
Preprint
Full-text available
We present a tephra fallout hazard assessment of Sangay volcano, Ecuador. This volcano is under semi-permanent activity at least since the 17th century, and has produced several eruptions whose products have affected towns and cities at considerable distance (up to > 170 km). For this reason, despite its remote location, recent efforts have been ai...
Article
Full-text available
Sangay volcano is considered as one of the most active volcanoes worldwide. Nevertheless, due to its remote location and low-impact eruptions, its eruptive history and hazard scenarios are poorly constrained. In this work, we address this issue by combining an analysis of monitoring data and historical chronicles with expert elicitation. During the...
Preprint
Full-text available
The Ecuadorian arc is composed of an unusually high number of volcanoes organized as along-arc alignments and across-arc clusters, over a relatively small area. Although several geochronological studies were carried out in the past three decades, the eruptive history of the central zone of the arc remained poorly documented, preventing the analyses...
Preprint
Full-text available
We assess the volcanic hazard derived from pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) at Tungurahua volcano, Ecuador, using a probabilistic approach based on the analysis of calibrated numerical simulations. We address the expected variability of explosive eruptions at Tungurahua volcano by adopting a scenario-based strategy, where we consider three cases...
Article
The Instituto Geofísico (IG-EPN) was created in 1983 by faculty of the Escuela Politécnica Nacional, a public university in Quito, Ecuador, with the objective of assessing volcanic hazard in the country. Since then, the IG-EPN has established and developed an instrumental monitoring network and from 1999 has faced the eruption of five continental-a...
Preprint
Full-text available
Sangay volcano is widely considered as one of the most active volcanoes worldwide. Nevertheless, due to its remote location and low-impact eruptions, its eruptive history and hazard scenarios are poorly constrained. In this manuscript, we addressed this issue by combining an analysis of monitoring data and historical chronicles with expert elicitat...
Article
The unusually high number of volcanoes in the Ecuadorian Arc, located in the deformation zone of the continental North Andean Sliver, coincides with the projection of the major oceanic structures observed in the Nazca Plate, such as the Carnegie Ridge and the Grijalva fracture zone. Although the relationship between this tectonic setting and volcan...
Article
Full-text available
Identifying the sources of distal tephra in marine sediments or polar ice provides clues on the dynamic and large-scale impact of major volcanic eruptions. However, determination of the volcanic source of distal tephra is challenging due to size-dependent fractionation during atmospheric transport that modifies the mineral, chemical and even isotop...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Pese a los múltiples esfuerzos por comprender la evolución temporal del Arco Volcánico Ecuatoriano, la historia evolutiva de los edificios volcánicos más antiguos permaneció poco estudiada. La Universidad Paris-Saclay, el Instituto Geofísico de la Escuela Politécnica Nacional y el Instituto de Investigación para el Desarrollo de Francia llevaron a...
Article
Full-text available
Arc volcanism arises from the release of fluids from the descending slab, which enables melting in the mantle wedge by lowering the solidus temperature. Metasomatism—compositional alteration by fluids—of the mantle is known to have an important role in magma production in volcanic arcs over long spatial and temporal scales. However, the episodic er...
Article
Full-text available
On 2 December, 2021 we recorded a sequence of drumbeat seismic events at Sangay volcano. This sequence lasted several hours and resulted in two explosive emissions whose eruptive columns reached 9 km above crater. Unexpectedly, these explosions did not produce any ash fallout in the inhabited areas around the volcano. This drumbeat sequence was pro...
Article
Full-text available
Tephra layers preserved in marine sediments are strong tools to study the frequency, magnitude and source of past major explosive eruptions. Thirty‐seven volcanoes from the Ecuadorian and Colombian arc, in the northern Andes, experienced at least one eruption during the Holocene. The volcanic hazard is therefore particularly high for the populated...
Article
Full-text available
Volcanic ash is a hazard to human health and activities. Accurate and timely forecasts coupled with effective communication about the dispersion and fallout of volcanic ash during explosive events are essential to reduce impacts on local communities and limit economic losses. In this study, we present the first detailed description of an eruptive p...
Article
Since the VEI 4 eruption of November 2002, El Reventador volcano (Ecuador) has been the site of persistent open-vent activity characterized by frequent (hourly) Vulcanian—strombolian explosions and occasional (every few years) effusion of lava flows. The conduit processes that sustain this continuous eruptive activity are still poorly understood. H...
Article
Full-text available
The monitoring of the frequency, intensity/magnitude and dynamics of explosive events at volcanoes in a state of unrest is key to surveying and forecasting their activity. Thermal and visual video observations of eruptive phenomena, and their correlation with data from deformation and seismic networks, are often limited by technical constraints inc...
Article
Full-text available
In Ecuador, a country with several active volcanoes and with four eruptions in the last decade in the continental arc, it is very likely that high-voltage transmission lines cross volcanic hazard zones on their routes. Here, we quantify the impact of fresh volcanic ash from the hydromagmatic Cotopaxi-2015 and the magmatic Tungurahua-2016 eruptions...
Article
Full-text available
The volcanoes of Galápagos, Ecuador, are among the most active in the world, with an average of five eruptions per decade. Monitoring and communication of their activity are essential for timely management of events. In this context, the Instituto Geofísico de la Escuela Politécnica Nacional carries out constant surveillance of Galápagos volcanoes...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Pyroclastic currents (PCs) and tephra fallout are among the major volcanic hazards at explosive volcanoes and have been widely studied over the past decades in order to model the physical processes controlling them. The aim of such efforts is using numerical models for producing probabilistic hazard maps, and complementing such maps with a quantifi...
Article
We analyzed changes in the long-term vegetation cover and in fire activity over the past 5,000 years in the Ecuadorian páramo using a sediment core from Papallacta (Ecuador). The chronology is constrained by three tephra layers and 32 AMS 14C ages, and 168 samples yielded a high-resolution record of environmental changes. We estimated the upslope w...
Article
Sangay is one of the most active volcanoes in Ecuador, as it has been almost continuously erupting at least since the seventeenth century. However, because of its remote location and low associated risk to human population, little is known about its eruptions. Here we summarize Sangay’s volcanic activity from January 2001 to May 2020, based on grou...
Article
The International Symposium on Andean Geodynamics (ISAG) is an international conference that was held, on average, every 3–4 years in different European cities between 1990 (Grenoble) and 2008 (Nice). These symposia usually offer an opportunity for researchers from Latin American countries and Europe as well as other countries to review the state o...
Article
Full-text available
Plain Language Summary Magmatic gas released by intraplate, hot‐spot related volcanism can offer insight into the abundance and distribution of volatiles in the Earth's upper mantle. Unfortunately however, the available data set for hot spot magmatic gases is sparse and incomplete, due to relatively infrequent eruptions and the remote location of m...
Article
Full-text available
Tephra fallout hazard assessment is undertaken with probabilistic maps that rely on numerical models. Regarding maps production, the input parameters of the model (including atmospheric conditions), the physical approximations of the numerical simulations, and the probabilities of occurrence of different eruption types in specific time frames are a...
Article
The youngest volcanism of the Ecuadorian Volcanic Front (Western Cordillera) is mainly dominated by highly explosive events, including the growth and violent destruction of lava domes, and the formation of thick pyroclastic sequences. Deposits associated with such eruptive dynamics have been identified at Iliniza, a compound volcano located in the...
Article
Full-text available
Noventa y ocho volcanes cuaternarios han sido identificados en los Andes ecuatorianos y Galápagos de los cualesnueve han experimentado erupciones al menos una vez en los últimos veinte años. Adicionalmente, alrededor del35 % de la población ecuatoriana vive en zonas que podrían ser afectadas durante futuras erupciones. El InstitutoGeofísico de la E...
Article
Full-text available
Ninety-eight Quaternary volcanoes have been identified in the Ecuadorian Andes and the Galápagos Islands, from them, nine experienced at least one eruption in the last twenty years. Additionally, about 35 % of the Ecuadorian population live in areas that could be affected by future volcanic eruptions. The Instituto Geofísico of the Escuela Politécn...
Article
Full-text available
The Billecocha plateau (4000 m a.s.l.) lies in the high elevation Ecuadorian Andes volcanic arc. It overhangs by 2000 m above the interandean valley. Both the plateau and surrounding volcanoes are heavily affected by active faulting characterized by straight, sharp and discontinuous scarps within a 6 km wide and 24 km long corridor. Contrasting int...
Article
Future occurrence of explosive eruptive activity at Cotopaxi and Guagua Pichincha volcanoes, Ecuador, is assessed probabilistically, utilizing expert elicitation. Eight eruption types were considered for each volcano. Type event probabilities were evaluated for the next eruption at each volcano and for at least one of each type within the next 100...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
During the last two decades, Sangay has been one of the most active Ecuadorian volcanoes. However, because of its remote location and logistically difficult access, monitoring Sangay is a challenging task. The IG-EPN tackled this problem by expanding its terrestrial monitoring network and complementing it with the available satellite data. On 7th M...
Article
The Northern Andes of Ecuador contain some of the most active volcanic systems in the Andes and extend over a broad region from the Western Cordillera to the Subandean Zone. While it is known that the arc straddles a range of basement compositions, from accreted mafic oceanic terranes in the west to silicic continental terranes in the east, the det...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The use of numerical models aimed at producing probabilistic maps is becoming more and more a common practice for tephra fallout hazard assessment. However, it is important to complement such maps with a quantification of the major sources of aleatoric/epistemic uncertainties, to help stakeholders and decisionmakers in taking informed decisions. In...
Article
Full-text available
Based on manually analyzed waveforms recorded by the permanent Ecuadorian network and our large aftershock deployment installed after the Pedernales earthquake, we derive three‐dimensional Vp and Vp/Vs structures and earthquake locations for central coastal Ecuador using local earthquake tomography. Images highlight the features in the subducting a...
Article
Full-text available
Volcanic plumes are common and far-reaching manifestations of volcanic activity during and between eruptions. Observations of the rate of emission and composition of volcanic plumes are essential to recognize and, in some cases, predict the state of volcanic activity. Measurements of the size and location of the plumes are important to assess the i...
Article
Trace volatile elements like He are key for understanding the mantle source signature of magmas and to better constrain the relative roles of subduction and crustal processes to the variability of along-arc chemical and isotopic signatures of magmatic fluids. Here we report on noble gas abundances and isotopic data of Fluid Inclusions (FIs) in erup...
Article
Cuicocha Caldera is the youngest eruptive center of Cotacachi-Cuicocha Volcanic Complex, located at the north of Ecuador. The caldera contains a lake of 3.95 km2 surface, and a maximum depth of 148 m. Cuicocha Lake is characterized by the presence of CO2 gaseous diffuse emissions, perceptible as bubbling zones. Since 2011, CO2 diffuse flux measurem...
Preprint
Full-text available
Volcanic plumes are common and far-reaching manifestations of volcanic activity during and between eruptions. Observations of the rate of emission and composition of volcanic plumes are essential to recognize, and in some cases predict, the state of volcanic activity. Measurements of the size and location of the plumes are important to assess the i...
Article
New K-Ar ages obtained on juvenile pumice glass shards indicate that the Chalupas ignimbrite, one of the main Pleistocene tephra markers of the Ecuadorian arc, was emplaced at 216 ± 5 ka. Morphology and major and trace element contents of the glass shards are similar to those of ash layers from deep-sea cores and allow correlation between continent...
Article
Full-text available
Numerical modeling of tephra dispersal and deposition is essential for evaluation of volcanic hazards. Many models consider reasonable physical approximations in order to reduce computational times, but this may introduce a certain degree of uncertainty in the simulation outputs. The important step of uncertainty quantification is dealt in this pap...
Article
In the northern Andes, the Ecuadorian arc presents a large number of Quaternary volcanoes, spread over a rather restricted area. The origin of this volcanic clustering is not well understood, and only a few chronological data older than the Holocene are available in northern Ecuador to document the arc development stages. In this study, we present...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Previous studies demonstrated the existence of a marked temporal geochemical variation of several long-lived volcanoes of the Ecuadorian arc (e.g. Cayambe, Mojanda-Fuya Fuya, Pichincha, Atacazo-Ninahuilca), that includes an evolution from typical calk-alcaline arc magmas present at the older edifices to adakite-like compositions in the younger edif...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Hazard maps constitute a guiding tool for land use planning and emergency response. Quito, the capital of Ecuador, is surrounded by several active and potential active volcanoes, such as AtacazoNinahuilca Volcanic Complex (ANVC). The geological record indicates that Plinian eruptions at ANVC have an average Frequency of one event every 2513±193 yea...
Article
Full-text available
Recent long-term observations of the bromine monoxide (BrO) to sulphur dioxide (SO2) molar ratio in volcanic plumes have suggested a link between changes in the BrO/SO2 ratio and the volcanic activity. Nevertheless, understanding of the mechanisms determining this link is still limited due to the lack of studies on volcanic bromine release from the...
Article
Continental arc lavas display geochemical signatures that reflect both mantle metasomatism by slab fluids or melts and extensive differentiation of magmas within crustal reservoirs. The relative effect of source and crustal processes are difficult to disentangle based on whole-rock compositions. This issue is critical in Ecuador where volcanism occ...
Article
Eruption style and dynamics are controlled by various parameters including magma supply rate, magma viscosity, volatile content, and the permeability of the conduit. Rapid changes of these parameters can significantly modify the hazards associated to the eruption processes and understanding their relationship with multiparametric geophysical monito...
Article
The 1982 and 2015 eruptions were the first at Wolf volcano, Galápagos Archipelago, with eyewitness accounts and satellite imagery. Both eruptions were characterized by a rapid and intense initial phase, with multiple eruptive vents, leading to the formation of large ‘a‘ā lava fields and scarce pāhoehoe mostly associated with the waning phases. The...
Article
This study focuses on the construction and evolution through time of volcanic edifices located in the southern part of the Ecuadorian arc, with the objective to contribute to a better understanding of the interactions between magmatism, slab geometry and the activity of tectonic faults. Our new groundmass K-Ar ages obtained for a dozen volcanoes fr...
Preprint
The 1982 and 2015 eruptions are the first at Wolf volcano, Galápagos Archipelago, with eyewitness accounts and satellite imagery. Both eruptions are characterized by a rapid, intense initial phase and multiple eruptive vents leading to the formation of large ‘a‘ā lava fields with scarce pāhoehoe deposits, mostly associated with the waning phases. T...
Article
Full-text available
After eight years of quiescence, Fernandina volcano experienced two short-lived eruptions, on 4 September 2017 and 16 June 2018. The eruptions were characterized by very short periods of unrest that started a few hours before the initiation of the eruptive activity. On the other hand, Sierra Negra volcano (Isabela Island) began a new eruptive perio...
Article
Full-text available
Constraining arc magma sources at continental arc settings is a delicate task, because chemical signatures from crustal processes obscure the slab and mantle signatures. Here, we present major, trace, and volatile element compositions of olivine-hosted melt inclusions (Fo82–89) selected from the most primitive lavas (Mg# > 60) from two Ecuadorian v...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Ecuador’s last severe volcanic disaster occurred 141 years ago when lahars from Cotopaxi destroyed several villages and part of Latacunga causing thousands of victims. 24 volcanoes in Continental Ecuador and 13 volcanoes in Galápagos are considered as potentially active. Since 1983, the IG-EPN works to create a monitoring network able to detect vol...
Preprint
Full-text available
After eight years of quiescence, Fernandina volcano experienced two short-lived eruptions, on 4 September 2017 and 16 June 2018. The eruptions were characterized by very short periods of unrest that started a few hours before the initiation of the eruptive activity. On the other hand, Sierra Negra volcano (Isabela Island) began a new eruptive perio...
Article
Full-text available
Through integration of multiple data streams to monitor volcanic unrest scientists are able to make more robust eruption forecast and to obtain a more holistic interpretation of volcanic systems. We examined gas emission and gas geochemistry and seismic and petrologic data recorded during the 2015 unrest of Cotopaxi (Ecuador) in order to decipher t...
Article
Full-text available
Recent geophysical evidence for large-scale regional crustal inflation and localized crustal magma intrusion has made Lastarria volcano (northern Chile) the target of numerous geological, geophysical, and geochemical studies. The chemical composition of volcanic gases sampled during discrete campaigns from Lastarria volcano indicated a well-develop...
Article
Satellite remote sensing is a valuable method for detecting and quantifying sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions at volcanoes. The use of ultra‐violet satellite instruments for monitoring purposes has been assessed in numerous studies, but there are advantages to using infrared measurements, including that they can operate at night and during high latitu...
Article
Full-text available
This study investigated a new direction for improving the decision making of populations at risk in the context of uncertain environmental events, such as volcanic hazards. According to the risk as feelings theory and dual process models, situations with certain outcomes do not necessarily require the use of affect heuristics (e.g., experienced fee...
Article
Full-text available
We evaluated NOVAC (Network for Observation of Volcanic and Atmospheric Change) gas emission data from the 2015 eruption of the Cotopaxi volcano (Ecuador) for BrO/SO2 molar ratios. The BrO/SO2 molar ratios were very small prior to the phreatomagmatic explosions in August 2015, significantly higher after the explosions, and continuously increasing u...
Article
Volcanic eruptions of intermediary and silica-rich magmas (andesites, dacites and rhyolites) in convergent arc settings generate voluminous and explosive eruptions that can strongly affect human activity and have significant environmental impacts. It is therefore crucial to understand how these magmas are generated in order to anticipate their pote...
Article
Full-text available
We evaluated NOVAC (Network for Observation of Volcanic and Atmospheric Change) gas emission data from the 2015 eruption of Cotopaxi volcano (Ecuador) for BrO/SO2 molar ratios. Statistical analysis of the data revealed a conspicuous periodic pattern with a periodicity of about two weeks in a three month time series. While the time series is too sho...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Submission 1256 The Cotopaxi 2015 eruptive phase: insights from gas and glass Cotopaxi volcano (5,897 m) is located 50 km south of Quito, the capital of Ecuador. In April 2015, a progressive increase in the amplitude of transient seismic events initiated volcanic unrest. Starting on May 20, an increase in SO2 emissions from ~500 t/d to ~3000 t/day...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Submission 617 Subduction dynamics, mantle and crustal processes at arc volcanoes, investigated by relative CO2/ST abundances and 3He/4He isotope signatures. The investigation of the relative abundance of volatiles allows for a better constrain of the origin and recycling efficiency of these elements via subduction. Here, we attempt to correlate al...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Cotopaxi’s 2015 unrest culminated in low-level eruptions from August to November, producing ~0.8M m3 of ashfall before return to calm. This uptick was preceded in 1976 and 2001/02 by non-eruptive unrest. The dense monitoring network operating in 2015 recorded LPs, VTs, hydrothermal tremor, then followed by deep and energetic VLP´s, and synchronous...
Article
Full-text available
Varios periodos eruptivos han ocurrido durante el Holoceno en los Andes Septentrionales. En busca de sus evidencias, se realizó una perforación manual en el flanco sureste del volcán Cerro Negro, en la zona de Potrerillos, frontera Ecuador - Colombia. En el testigo de perforación se identificaron 12 capas de cenizas volcánicas con tamaño de grano m...
Chapter
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Cotopaxi volcano, Ecuador, experienced notable restlessness in 2015 that was a major deviation from its normal background activity. Starting in April and continuing through November 2015 strong seismic activity, infrasound registry, hikes in SO2 degassing and flank deformation with small displacements were some of the geophysical anomalies that wer...
Chapter
Full-text available
The heat and gas released by a degassing magma affects the overlying predominantly meteoric aquifers to form magmatic-hydrothermal systems inside the solid body of a volcano. This chapter reviews how fluid geochemical signals help to track the evolution throughout the various stages of volcanic unrest. A direct view into a degassing magma is possib...
Article
Full-text available
Several eruptive periods have occurred in the Northern Andes during the Holocene. In order to look for these eruptive periods, a manual drilling was carried out on the southeast flank of the Cerro Negro volcano, in the Potrerillos area, Ecuador - Colombia border. In the drill core, 12 layers of medium to extremely fine grain volcanic ashes were ide...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The information comprised in the “Ecuadorian Volcanic Events and Geochonological” database allow us to make an overview of the eruptive frequency in the Ecuadorian arc. The recurrence rate of explosive eruptions was calculated by the mathematical methods of (1) linear regression of the cumulative number of events and (2) statistical analysis of eru...
Poster
Full-text available
The information comprised in the “Ecuadorian Volcanic Events and Geochonological” database allow us to make an overview of the eruptive frequency in the Ecuadorian arc. The recurrence rate of explosive eruptions was calculated by the mathematical methods of (1) linear regression of the cumulative number of events and (2) statistical analysis of eru...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
EVOLUTIVE MODEL OF CHILES VOLCANO. The recent seismic activity registered in the Chiles-Cerro Negro area, motivated a new investigation in order to have a better knowledge of the development of this volcano. The present work describes the evolutionary model for the Chiles volcano, which is based on the analysis, study and interpretation of the petr...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Delimitation of lahar hazard zones in the western drainages of Cayambe volcano: Cayambe is an active volcano located in the Cordillera Real. The city of Cayambe, which has ~39.000 inhabitants, extends along the western's flank. Since mid-2016 signs of volcanic unrest have been recorded by the Instituto Geofísico (IG). Additionally, " andinistas " h...
Article
Full-text available
Previous studies of the Ecuadorian arc (1°N - 2°S) have revealed across-arc geochemical trends that are consistent with a decrease in mantle melting and slab dehydration away from the trench. The aim of this work is to evaluate how these processes vary along the arc in response to small-scale changes in the age of the subducted plate, subduction an...
Research
Full-text available
Breve descripción sobre la historia volcánica, actividad actual, monitoreo y amenazas volcánicas del Nevado Cayambe (Ecuador)
Article
La côte ouest du continent Sud-américain fait partie de la célèbre ceinture de Feu du Pacifique, connue pour son activité volcanique et sismique très intense. La subduction de la plaque océanique sous la marge continentale Sud-américaine provoque, en surface, des éruptions volcaniques qui peuvent potentiellement affecter gravement les populations v...
Poster
Full-text available
The length of the insulators strings determines the insulation level of electric transmission towers. The electrical insulators behave differently depending on environmental conditions. Particle pollution is one of the most important to consider for the degradation of electrical insulation but it is difficult to estimate. Recently, Cotopaxi and Tun...

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