Sègla Wilfrid Padonou

Micronutrient deficiency still occurs in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) despite the availability of several food resources, particularly fermented foods and vegetables, with high nutritional potential. Fermentation enhances the quality of food in several aspects. Organoleptically, certain taste, aroma, and textures are developed. Health and safety are improved by inhibiting the growth of several foodborne pathogens and removing harmful toxic compounds. Furthermore, nutrition is enhanced by improving micronutrient contents and bioavailability from the food, especially vitamin B content. However, during processing and before final consumption, many fermented foods are heat treated (drying, pasteurization, cooking, etc.) to make the food digestible and safe for consumption. Heat treatment improves the bioavailability of B-vitamins in some foods. In other foods, heating decreases the nutritional value because some B-vitamins are degraded. In SSA, cooked starchy foods are often associated with vegetables in household meals. This paper reviews studies that have focused fermented starchy foods and vegetable foods in SSA with the potential to provide B-vitamins to consumers. The review also describes the process of the preparation of these foods for final consumption, and techniques that can prevent or lessen B-vitamin loss, or enrich B-vitamins prior to consumption.

Mutchayan is a traditionally fermented cooked cereal dough mixed with baobab pulp, consumed in Benin. The study evaluated the physico-chemical and microbiological changes of Mutchayan during 0 to 120 h of spontaneous fermentation. An analysis of the studied fermentation process revealed an increase in titratable acidity and antioxidant capacity (between 0 and 120 h) and a decrease in ascorbic acid content during the first 24 h of the fermentation. Dry matter content and Brix value decreased from 18.7 to 16.7 g/100 g and 7.6 to 5.0 °Brix, respectively, while pH did not change notably. Microbiological analysis revealed the presence of molds at the beginning of the fermentation, which was inhibited after 36 h, while the lactic acid bacteria and yeasts dominated the process.

Mutchayan is a traditional product consumed by northern local Beninese populations. It is obtained from the fermentation of cereal dough together with baobab pulp. Fermentation process lasts one to seven days and presence of moulds and Enterobacteriaceae was evidenced. The study aimed to improve Mutchayan quality by assessing the effect of successive back-slopping fermentation and its duration on Mutchayan quality. Three fermentation durations (12 h, 24 h and 36 h) were tested to assess their effect on the pH, the titratable acidity, the Brix degree, the dry matter, the total viable count, the yeast, the moulds, lactic acid bacteria counts, the ascorbic acid content, the antioxidant capacity, the final viscosity and the total aflatoxins; while the effect of five successive back-slopping fermentations on the total viable count, the yeast, the lactic acid bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae counts, the pH, the titratable acidity and the Brix degree was evaluated. Data analysis revealed that back-slopping fermentation did not allow Enterobacteriaceae growth (<1 log10 cfu/g). Moreover, the moulds growth was inhibited with a load fixed to about 7.0 log10 cfu/g while it reached up 7.3 log10 cfu/g in spontaneously fermented Mutchayan (traditional technology). Back-slopping fermentation favored the preservation of ascorbic acid (153 mg/100 g dw) while spontaneous fermentation led to its decrease (107 mg/100 g dw). A great variability was observed among productions, especially after 36 h of back-slopping fermentation, which explains the absence of difference for antioxidant capacity despite the observed increase from 769 mg VCEAC (Vitamin C Equivalent of Antioxidant Capacity)/100g dw (spontaneous fermentation) to 880 mg VCEAC/100g dw; no change of titratable acidity, pH was observed. Moreover, the study revealed that the fermentation methods decreased of 78% the total aflatoxin in Mutchayan, at the onset of fermentation to 1 μg/kg. Further studies will better investigate the microorganisms in back-slopping fermented Mutchayan, able to increase the antioxidant capacity and reduce aflatoxins.

Spontaneous cereal fermentations involve diverse lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts which may include multifunctional and safe or unsafe strains. This study assessed acidification ability, safety, antifungal activity and free amino acids release ability of LAB and yeasts previously isolated from spontaneously fermented cereal doughs in Benin. Fourteen LAB and thirteen yeast strains were studied in liquid media and/or in a model cereal dough prepared in laboratory conditions. Antifungal activity was assessed against Candida glabrata in liquid medium. Amino acids were determined by pre-column derivatization and separation with reversed-phase HPLC. Antimicrobial susceptibility was analysed by minimum inhibitory concentration determination. The acidification ability was higher for LAB compared to yeast strains. All LAB strains retarded the growth of C. glabrata Cg1 with the highest inhibition recorded for Weissella confusa Wc1 and Wc2. The highest free amino acid content was found in the doughs fermented with Pichia kudriavzevii Pk2 and Pk3. All the LAB strains were susceptible to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, but displayed phenotypic resistance to kanamycin, streptomycin and tetracycline. Positive PCR amplicon of resistance genes were detected in the following cases: 2 LAB strains were positive for kanamycin (aph(3)III), 5 strains were positive for streptomycin (aadA and/or strA and/or strB) and 3 strains were positive for tetracycline (tet (L) and/or tet (M)). For yeasts, most of the P. kudriavzevii strains were resistant to amphotericin B, fluconazole and itraconazole opposite to K. marxianus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains which were susceptible. The results obtained are valuable for selecting safe and multifunctional strains for cereal fermentation in West Africa.

Food fermentations in West Africa are still conducted spontaneously because of the lack of knowledge, unavailability of adequate technologies and the lack of production facilities. This study aimed at using maize flour as carrier material to develop a multifunctional freeze-dried starter culture with a mixture of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeast strains. The maize flour carrier was tested for microorganisms’ freeze-drying, water activity (aw) as well as microbial viability. Two commercial carrier materials, i.e. soluble starch and skimmed milk, were used for comparison. After microbial freeze-drying, similar aw values (aw = 0.05–0.06) were obtained with the maize flour and the commercial carriers, i.e. skimmed milk and soluble starch. A slight increase of aw (0.07–0.08) was observed with the maize flour after 15 and 45 days storage at 4°C. For the three carrier materials, similar microbial log reduction (1.78–1.35 units with Lactobacillus fermentum Lf and 0.73–0.67 units with Saccharomyces cerevisiae Sc) was recorded just after freeze-drying and remained constant after 15 and 45 days storage at 4°C. Further, a defined freeze-dried starter culture was developed using the maize flour carrier as for a mixed culture of LAB and yeast strains. The defined freeze-dried culture showed stable fermentation activity during storage. The results indicated that the maize flour-based carrier could be suitable for microbial freeze-drying. Therefore, installing starter culture production facilities in West Africa to control cereal fermentation is possible. It will contribute to upgrading the sector of cereal food in this part of the world.

Indigenous fermented food and beverages represent a valuable cultural heritage in sub-Saharan Africa, having one of the richest selections of fermented food products in the world. In many of these indigenous spontaneously fermented food and beverages, yeasts are of significant importance. Several factors including raw materials, processing methods, hygienic conditions as well as the interactions between yeasts and other commensal microorganisms have been shown to influence yeast species diversity and successions. Both at species and strain levels, successions take place due to the continuous change in intrinsic and extrinsic growth factors. The selection pressure from the microbial stress factors leads to niche adaptation and both yeast species and strains with traits deviating from those generally acknowledged in current taxonomic keys, have been isolated from indigenous sub-Saharan African fermented food products. Yeasts are important for flavor development, impact shelf life, and nutritional value and do, in some cases, even provide host-beneficial effects. In order to sustain and upgrade these traditional fermented products, it is quite important to obtain detailed knowledge on the microorganisms involved in the fermentations, their growth requirements and interactions. While other publications have reported on the occurrence of prokaryotes in spontaneously fermented sub-Saharan food and beverages, the present review focuses on yeasts considering their current taxonomic position, relative occurrence and successions, interactions with other commensal microorganisms as well as beneficial effects and importance in human diet. Additionally, the risk of opportunistic yeasts is discussed.

Fermented cereal doughs constitute a predominant part of West African diets. The environment of fermented doughs can be hostile for microbial survival due to high levels of microbial metabolites such as weak carboxylic organic acids and ethanol. In order to get a better understanding of the intrinsic factors affecting the microbial successions of yeasts during dough fermentation, survival and physiological responses of the yeasts associated with West African fermented cereal doughs were investigated at exposure to relevant concentrations of microbial inhibitory compounds. Three strains each of the predominant species, i.e. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Pichia kudriavzevii as well as the opportunistic pathogen Candida glabrata were studied. The strains were exposed to individual stress factors of cereal doughs, i.e. (i) pH 3.4, (ii) 3% (v/v) ethanol (EtOHpH3.4), (iii) 285 mM lactic acid (LApH3.4) and (iv) 150 mM acetic acid (AApH3.4) as well as to combinations of these stress factors, i.e. (v) (LA + AA)pH 3.4 and (vi) (LA + AA+EtOH)pH 3.4. Growth and single cell viability were studied by flow cytometry using combined SYTO 13 and propidium iodide (PI) staining. Intracellular pH (pHi), plasma membrane integrity and micro-colony development of stressed cells were studied by fluorescence microscopy using PI and carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFDA-se). Viability of the yeast strains was not affected by pH 3.4 and 3% (v/v) ethanol (EtOHpH3.4). 285 mM lactic acid (LApH3.4) reduced the specific growth rate (μmax) from 0.27-0.41 h⁻¹ to 0.11–0.26 h⁻¹ and the viability from 100% to 2.6–41.7% at 72 h of exposure in most yeast strains, except for two strains of C. glabrata. 150 mM acetic acid (AApH3.4) as well as the combinations (LA + AA)pH 3.4 and (LA + AA+EtOH)pH 3.4 reduced μmax to 0.0 h⁻¹ and induced significant cell death for all the yeast strains. Exposed to (LA + AA+EtOH)pH 3.4, the most resistant yeast strains belonged to S. cerevisiae followed by P. kudriavzevii, whereas C. glabrata and K. marxianus were more sensitive. Strain variations were observed within all four species. When transferred to non-stress conditions, i.e. MYGP, pH 5.6, after exposure to (LA + AA+EtOH)pH 3.4 for 6 h, 45% of the single cells of the most resistant S. cerevisiae strain kept their plasma membrane integrity, recovered their pHi to near physiological range (pHi = 6.1–7.4) and resumed proliferation after 3–24 h of lag phase. The results obtained are valuable in order to change processing conditions of the dough to favor the survival of preferable yeast species, i.e. S. cerevisiae and K. marxianus and inhibit opportunistic pathogen yeast species as C. glabrata.

Mawè is a West African spontaneous fermented cereal-based dough. Different types of mawè exist varying in type of cereal and/or production condition, with fermentations lasting 24–48 h. With the aim of obtaining a comprehensive understanding of the microbial ecology of mawè processing, a microbiological characterisation was performed for four mawè types, produced at eight sites in Benin. At the onset of the fermentations lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeast counts were on average 7.5 ± 1.03 and 4.8 ± 0.79 Log10 cfu/g, which increased to 9.2 ± 0.38 and 7.4 ± 0.42 Log10 cfu/g, respectively, at the end of the fermentations. LAB (n = 321) and yeasts (n = 298), isolated during the fermentations, were identified. The predominant LAB and yeast species were Lactobacillus fermentum and Pichia kudriavzevii, respectively, followed by Kluyveromyces marxianus, all present throughout the mawè fermentations. Further, microbial successions took place with Weissella confusa occurring mostly at the onset, while Pediococcus acidilactici and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were mainly associated with the end of the fermentations. Species diversity was influenced both by type of cereal and production condition. The dominating strain clusters of L. fermentum and P. kudriavzevii were ubiquitous and strain diversities were influenced by type of cereal and production site.

Background and Objectives: A wide range of maize varieties is used in Benin but information on the nutritional characteristics of these varieties are not well known. This study aims to assess the nutritional composition of maize varieties in use in the southern region of Benin with the purpose of providing consumers accurate information for better choice. Materials and Methods: Moisture, ash, protein, fiber and fat contents were determined according to Association of Official Analytical Chemists and American Association of Cereal Chemists methods. Sugar and organic acids were assessed using High Performance Liquid Chromatography methods and amino acids profile was established according to Rosen method using glutamic acid. Results: The maize varieties were classified into 5 clusters according to their macro nutrients composition and 4 clusters based on their sugar and organic acids contents. Varieties of group 5 were very rich in protein (14.34 g/100 g), while the highest fat content (7.22 g/100 g) was observed for group 2 varieties. The highest carbohydrate contents obtained were 80.64 g/100 g, 80.11 g/100 g and 79.15 g/100 g for groups 1, 4 and 5 varieties respectively. Moreover the dendrogram gave four homogeneous clusters according to sugars and organic acids composition. Varieties of groups 2, 3 and 4 had almost the same fructose contents ranging between 0.04 and 0.06%; varieties of group 1 contained the highest contents of raffinose, sucrose and glucose; those of group 2 were very rich in propionate and fructose. Conclusion: It is concluded that some of maize varieties investigated contained high level of protein. Furthermore glutamic acid was the predominant amino acid while the least amino acid was methionine. Those varieties, owing to their protein and amino acids contents could have many benefits by providing vital constituents to the body.

Background and objective: A wide range of maize varieties is used in Benin but information on the nutritional characteristics of these varieties are not well known. This study aims to assess the nutritional composition of maize varieties in use in the southern region of Benin with the purpose of providing consumers accurate information for better choice. Materials and methods: Moisture, ash, protein, fiber and fat contents were determined according to Association of Official Analytical Chemists and American Association of Cereal Chemists methods. Sugar and organic acids were assessed using High Performance Liquid Chromatography methods and amino acids profile was established according to Rosen method using glutamic acid. Results: The maize varieties were classified into 5 clusters according to their macro nutrients composition and 4 clusters based on their sugar and organic acids contents. Varieties of group 5 were very rich in protein (14.34 g/100 g), while the highest fat content (7.22 g/100 g) was observed for group 2 varieties. The highest carbohydrate contents obtained were 80.64 g/100 g, 80.11 g/100 g and 79.15 g/100 g for groups 1, 4 and 5 varieties respectively. Moreover the dendrogram gave four homogeneous clusters according to sugars and organic acids composition. Varieties of groups 2, 3 and 4 had almost the same fructose contents ranging between 0.04 and 0.06%; varieties of group 1 contained the highest contents of raffinose, sucrose and glucose; those of group 2 were very rich in propionate and fructose. Conclusion: It is concluded that some of maize varieties investigated contained high level of protein. Furthermore glutamic acid was the predominant amino acid while the least amino acid was methionine. Those varieties, owing to their protein and amino acids contents could have many benefits by providing vital constituents to the body.

A better approach to assess plant genetic diversity is the agro-morphological characterization. The main objective of this study was to investigate the morphological variability of 87 maize (Zea mays L.) accessions collected in different agro-ecological zones of southern Benin. Thus, 16 agro-morphological characters (seven quantitative and nine qualitative) were selected from the maize descriptors. The experimental design used is an incomplete randomized block with three replications. The mixed model analysis of two factors variance revealed a very highly significant difference for all accessions for each quantitative agro-morphological characteristic evaluated. The numerical classification of all corn accessions revealed five groups of accessions. The results of the stepwise discriminant analysis revealed five agro-morphological characteristics (germination days, female flowering, plant height, ear height and sensitivity to streak) most discriminating. The results of numerical classification supervised based on the most discriminating variables enable identification of the best accessions. Comparison of the two types of accessions (local and improved) revealed a significant difference among of them for agro-morphological characteristics with some exception. The groups obtained can constitute a database for breeders in a maize breeding program.

Objective: The study aims to investigate some physical and technological parameters of varieties of maize collected from the most representative areas of maize production in the southern part of Benin, and mainly used by the populations of those areas. Method: The chemical composition, physical and technological characteristics of the grains were determined using standard methods. Results: The results showed that the weight of 1000 grains ranges from 158.01 to 305.12 g, the length from 0.79 to 1.81 cm, the average width from 0.74 to 1.51 cm, thickness from 0.36 to 0.85 cm and density from 1.07 to 1.25. Regarding the technological parameters, the hardness of the grains before and after cooking was between 16.78 and 47.20 kgf, and 0.23 and 0.71 kgf respectively, while the cooking time varies from 71.00 and 158.33 mn. There was a positive and significant correlation (r = 0.405; p < 0.026) between the hardness after cooking and the weight of 1000 grains, between the hardness after cooking and grain width (r = 0.460; p < 0.011). A positive and highly significant correlation (r = 0.527, p < 0.003) was also observed between the hardness after cooking and the grain length, between the hardness after cooking and the thickness of grain (r = 0.476, p < 0.008), and between the grain density and the weight of 1000 grains (r = 0.481, p < 0.007). A positive and highly significant correlation (r = 0.923, p < 0.000) was also observed How to cite this paper: Semassa, J.A., Open Access J. A. Semassa et al. 1387 between maize grain length and width, and between grain length and grain thickness (r = 0.764, p < 0.000) and between the width and thickness (r = 0.764, p < 0.000). On the other hand, a significant negative correlation (r = −0.394, p < 0.031) was found between the hardness before cooking and the thickness and between the hardness before cooking and sphericity index (r = −0465*, p < 0.010). Conclusion: Through its chemical and technological characteristics the maize constitutes an important raw material for many culinary recipes in West African region.

This study aims to establish the mineral potential of 30 varieties of corn mainly used in the traditional and industrial processing sectors. The samples were collected from all agro-ecological zones of corn production in southern Benin. The nutritional profile of samples was evaluated through their mineral composition using AOAC methods. The results of cluster analysis revealed that the samples analysed were ranked in three groups consisting of fairly homogeneous varieties. The results also showed that the 30 varieties contained variable amounts of phosphorus, potassium, sodium, zinc, magnesium, calcium and iron. Varieties of cluster 1 were very rich in iron (710 ± 0.01 mg/kg), those of cluster 3 contained the highest potassium contents (7958 ± 0.1 mg/kg) while samples of cluster 2 contained the lowest contents in potassium (1883±0.02 mg/kg), sodium (213.40 ± 0.00 mg/kg), magnesium (352.10± 0.01 mg/kg) and calcium (93 ± 0.00 mg/kg). Moreover, Ca/P and Na/K ratios were 0.38 and 0.13 for cluster 1 corn varieties, 0.21 and 0.11 for cluster 2 samples, and 0.07 and 0.03 for cluster 3 varieties respectively. With the exception of cluster 3 samples that meet the nutritional requirement in iron and dietary intake of magnesium for children, the remaining maize varieties samples did not showed a satisfactory mineral composition.

Maize (Zea mays) is a cereal cultivated through all the region of the world. Its constitutes one of the cereals the most used for human consumption. The current review focused on the diversity, the nutritional quality and the forms of use of maize in West Africa region. The review allowed to notice that more than twenty varieties of maize were cultivated in Bénin and in the sub-region. With regard to nutritional aspect, those different varieties of maize contained variable amounts of starch (64-78%), fat (4-6%), protein (7-12%), crude fibers (2-2.5%), ash (1-1.5%) and sugar (1-3%). Potassium (324.8-344 mg /100g), magnesium (107.9-115 mg/100g) and

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the major cereal cultivated in Benin and it is important to know its genetic diversity to improve the yield. The genetic markers of important traits are evaluated in order to improve the maize inbred lines. The aim of this study was to evaluate the genetic diversity of Benin’s maize accessions by SSR marker. Thus, one hundred eighty seven maize accessions from three areas (South, Center and North) were analyzed using three SSR markers. A total of 227 polymorphic bands were produced and showed high genetic diversity (Shannon index = 0.51). The polymorphic information content (PIC) values for the SSR loci ranged from 0.58 to 0.81, with an average of 0.71. Genetic distance-based UPGMA dendrogram showed a genetic differentiation between accessions and they were grouped into four clusters in each area. This work provides necessary information that can be used not only to improve the maize production and conservation but also to better manage genetic species resources in Benin.

Objectif: La présente étude vise à améliorer la technique d’extraction du jus de la pomme cajou au Bénin. Cette technique peu efficiente consiste à presser les pommes de cajou fraiches à l’aide d’une presse à vis simple mais une quantité non négligeable de liquide reste emprisonnée dans la matrice.Méthodologie et résultats: Quatre techniques de pressage ont été expérimentées avec les équipements suivants : presse manuelle à vis simple (témoin), extracteur de type Expeller, presse hydraulique, mixeur “Moulinex” couplé à la presse hydraulique. La teneur en eau des pommes et celle des résidus après l’extraction du jus ont été déterminées puis comparées afin d’évaluer l’efficience du pressage. L’utilisation de la presse à vis simple permettait de réduire la teneur en eau de la pomme cajou de 86,3% à 84,6%. L’utilisation de l’extracteur du type Expeller a été infructueuse car le jus devant être extrait se mélangeait avec une pulpe épaisse qui bouchait les orifices de sortie du liquide. La presse hydraulique a permis d’avoir une teneur en eau résiduelle de 78,04% tandis que l’utilisation du mixeur “Moulinex” couplé à la presse hydraulique a permis de réduire la teneur en eau de la pomme jusqu’à 60,6% et d’améliorer la qualité nutritionnelle du jus prêt-àconsommer, ce dernier étant significativement plus riche en glucose (51,05 mg/mL) et fructose (30,83 mg/mL), en vitamines A et C (125,85 UI/mL et 7,1 mg/mL respectivement), et en potassium (1376,69 mg/kg) et magnésium (129,37 mg/kg).Conclusion et application des résultats: La presse manuelle à vis simple utilisée pour l’extraction du jus de pommes d’anacarde par les unités de transformation du Bénin devra être remplacée par un dispositif qui combine le broyage préalable des pommes avant le pressage par une presse de type hydraulique pour améliorer à la fois le rendement de la transformation et la qualité nutritionnelle du jus final obtenu.Mots clés: Jus de table, vitamines, minéraux, presse hydrauliqueEnglish Title: Comparing juice extraction techniques that improve yield and quality of cashew apple juiceEnglish AbstractObjective: The aims of this study is to improve cashew apple juice extraction technique commonly used in Benin. Current techniques use simple screw press to squeeze fresh cashew apples. This method is inefficient because a significant amount of juice remains trapped in the residual matrix.Methodology and results: Four processing equipments were tested: a screw press (control), an Expeller type extractor, a hydraulic press and a “Moulinex” mixer coupled with a hydraulic press. To assess the effectiveness of each technique we measured and compared water contents in cashew apples before and after juice extraction. Using the screw press reduced cashew apples water content from 86.3% to 84.6%. The use of Expeller type extractor failed because the juice that was produced was thick and that prevented the equipment from functioning properly. Using the hydraulic press reduced water content after juice extraction to 78.04%. In contrast, the couple mixer “Moulinex”–hydraulic press reduced water content down to 60.6% and produced ready-to-drink cashew apple juice with better nutritional quality: significantly higher glucose (51.05 mg/mL) and fructose (30.83 mg/mL) contents, with good vitamins A and C (125.85 IU/mL and 7.1 mg/mL, respectively), potassium (1376.69 mg/kg) and magnesium (129.37 mg/kg) concentration.Conclusions and application of results: The screw press commonly used in Benin to extract cashew apple juice should be replaced by a method that combines grinding the apples first before pressing the product by a hydraulic press to improve both the yield and nutritional quality of the final product. Considering the financial capacity and production capacity of each juice-processing unit, we recommend a manual or motorized version of such equipment in various sizes.

The better knowledge of a plant genetic biodiversity is based on a prior study of its agro-morpho- logical characteristics. The objective of this study was to investigate the morphological diversity of maize accessions and its structure on the basis of 14 variables. For the experimentation, 43 and 98 maize accessions were planted in three replicates respectively in central and northern Benin fol- lowing an incomplete randomized block. The mixed model analysis of two factors variance re- vealed a significant difference for all accessions considering each agro-morphological characteris- tic evaluated except the germination day of two areas seed accessions. The numerical classifica- tion grouped the accessions into four groups in each zone. The stepwise discriminant analysis showed that early characters related to plant height and ear insertion were the variables that dis- criminated accessions in both zones. Maturity and recovery ears, sensitivity to streak and the germination days are the variables that discriminate accessions of the two areas. These results provide a database for the creation of improved maize varieties that meet the needs of producers.

Zea mays L. is a widespread cultivated cereal. In Benin, this crop is an important food source and highly contributes to food security. Thought it is importance in Beninese food habits, there are lack of scientific information about the traditional knowledge and uses of corn in Benin. Thus, the aim of our study was to investigate on local corn varieties knowledge and producers endogenous practices. To achieve this objective, a total of 233 producers from four ethnic groups were randomly selected and surveyed in 92 villages in Benin. During this investigation, information on maize varieties were collected from selected producers using a participatory research approach through a semi-structured questionnaire kind. Also, the maize samples were collected from the investigated producers. Our results show that 19 different local names were given to both local cultivars and improved varieties of corn cultivated in Benin. Though the white color is the major color, three other colors (yellow, red and multicolor) were recorded during our field investigations. The corns are mainly produced for local consumption, trade and a small proportion for traditional medicine. Farmer reveals that old farming techniques, conservation of harvest, parasites and drought-related problems are essentially the major constraints to maize production. The traditional preservation methods of corn are conservation as cobs and/or as grains (with or without chemical preservatives) followed by regular daylight drying. The producers developed some selection methods to maintain their local cultivars. This information will help to better promote maize genetic resources management and utilization in Benin.

Pachyrhizus erosus is a legume plant that produces tubers rich in nutrients (protein, iron, zinc, etc.) that are used in various kinds of food processing. The objective of this study was to analyse producers’ and processors’ perception regarding processing P. erosus tubers into gari in on-farm conditions and its financial profitability. Kendall’s concordance test was used to classify perceptions, and cost analysis was used to analyse the profitability of the product. The results showed that the mixed gari with 50% P. erosus was highly appreciated because of its greater fermentation ability than cassava gari. The price at which processors broke even was FCFA 340 (~ $ 0.57) per kilogram and the sensitivity analysis revealed that when the yield of P. erosus-based gari increased by 30%, processors made a profit of 25% of the investment cost. So, processing of P. erosus is beneficial for the processors and consumers appreciate it more than cassava gari. The Benin Government needs to promote this crop in order to feed its population.© 2015 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved.

Sweet potato processing and consumption patterns are very limited in Benin. The present study aimed to suggest a new utilization of the crop as food. Roots from a white flesh variety were processed into flour and later into couscous. This couscous was steam-cooked following the same procedure as a wheat-based couscous purchased in market. The foods obtained were submitted to panellists’ appreciation. Although significant differences were observed between wheat-based couscous and sweet potato-based couscous regarding the colour and the flavour, the mean score obtained by the later couscous showed that the product was acceptable to good sensory quality.

Yam bean (Pachyrhyzus erosus) tubers were processed singly and mixed with cassava into different types of gari (100% yam bean gari, 75% yam bean gari, 50% yam bean gari and 25% yam bean gari) following the traditional gari processing method. Conventional gari from cassava was processed following the same approach and used as control. Physical characteristics, proximate composition and sensory quality of the garis obtained were assessed. Results showed that low and medium (25% and 50%) yam bean fortified gari processing yielded better than 75% and 100% yam bean gari processing. Low and medium yam bean gari were the closest to conventional gari regarding the brown index (18.0 and 18.3 respectively), had good swelling capacity (≥ 3) and had higher relative bulk density (0.57 and 0.53 respectively). The proteins content of the processed yam bean garis increased with increasing incorporation rate of yam bean but, similarly, the crude fibres content increased going beyond the recommended level of 2% maximum. The processed garis were used to cook èba which were submitted to panellists’ appreciation. Panellists scored better low and medium yam bean fortified garis and the resulting èba. Combining the results, the highest suggested incorporation rate was 50% yam bean tubers.

The maize based ogi and mawè and the sorghum based gowé and tchoukoutou are traditional, spontaneously fermented products widely consumed by the population of Benin (West Africa). Yeast occurrence in the products, as sold on local markets at different locations, was studied using a combination of culture-dependent and independent methods. Number of yeasts is varied from 3.75log10 colony forming units (cfu)/g for ogi to 5.60log10cfu/g for tchoukoutou. Isolated yeasts (236) were identified based on different migration profiles on denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and 26S rRNA gene sequencing. Candida krusei was the yeast most frequently isolated with strongest predominance in the maize based products. Other predominant yeast present at equal or lower incidence were Clavispora lusitaniae and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in ogi and mawè, Cl. lusitaniae, Candida tropicalis and Kluyveromyces marxianus in gowè and Cl. lusitaniae, S. cerevisiae and Candida rugosa in tchoukoutou. Grouping of C. krusei isolates (164) by rep-PCR analysis indicated that several biotypes were involved in fermentation of the four products. The DGGE analysis on the DNA directly extracted from the food matrices demonstrated the presence of Dekkera bruxellensis and Debaryomyces hansenii, not detected by the culture-based approach. This is the first study combining culture-dependent and independent methods to reveal predominant yeast species and biotypes in traditional foods from Benin.

Yam bean (Pachyrhyzus erosus) tubers were processed singly and mixed with cassava into different types of gari (100% yam bean gari, 75% yam bean gari, 50% yam bean gari and 25% yam bean gari) following the traditional gari processing method. Conventional gari from cassava was processed following the same approach and used as control. Physical characteristics, proximate composition and sensory quality of the garis obtained were assessed. Results showed that low and medium (25% and 50%) yam bean fortified gari processing yielded better than 75% and 100% yam bean gari processing. Low and medium yam bean gari were the closest to conventional gari regarding the brown index (18.0 and 18.3 respectively), had good swelling capacity (≥ 3) and had higher relative bulk density (0.57 and 0.53 respectively). The proteins content of the processed yam bean garis increased with increasing incorporation rate of yam bean but, similarly, the crude fibres content increased going beyond the recommended level of 2% maximum. The processed garis were used to cook èba which were submitted to panellists’ appreciation. Panellists scored better low and medium yam bean fortified garis and the resulting èba. Combining the results, the highest suggested incorporation rate was 50% yam bean tubers.

Résumé La pulpe du karité au Bénin est sujette à une importante perte post-récolte due à la faible valorisation de cette partie du fruit. Une meilleure valorisation requiert la connaissance des caractéristiques physiques du fruit et des valeurs nutritionnelles de la pulpe. Les fruits collectés dans trois parcs suite à une enquête de perception auprès des transformatrices, sont caractérisés à travers leurs observations visuelles, la détermination de leurs dimensions et teneurs en pulpe. La valeur nutritionnelle de la pulpe est déterminée à travers sa caractérisation chimique. Les résultats de cette étude ont révélé que quatre formes identifient l’aspect physique des fruits de karité dans les parcs à karité. Il s’agit des formes : ovoïde, arrondie, ellipsoïde et fusiforme. Les moyennes de longueur, de diamètre à l’équateur, de masse et de proportion de pulpe des fruits sont respectivement de 45,30 ± 9,90 mm, 36,30 ± 5,90 mm, 40,4 g et de 60%. La caractérisation physico-chimique de la pulpe montre qu’elle a une teneur de 5,23% de protéines, 6,32% de fibres, 3,59% de cendres, 14,08% de sucres totaux, 79,48% en eau et contient des minéraux (Ca, K, Mg, P). Excepté la teneur en cendres, aucune variation significative n’est observée (p ≥ 5%) entre les localités au sein des parcs par rapport aux paramètres physico-chimiques étudiés qui cependant, varient suivant la forme des fruits. Avec une proportion de pulpe supérieure à 55% et une composition globale intéressante, l’étude a montré que toutes les formes de fruits de karité présentes au Bénin peuvent être valorisées et consommées en tant que fruit. Mots clés : Vitellaria paradoxa, pulpe, forme du fruit, caractéristiques physico-chimiques, valorisation, perte post-récolte Physical characterization of the fruit and nutritional value of the Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) fruit pulp collected from various parks in Benin Abstract In Benin, the Shea fruit pulp undergoes significant post-harvest loss due to its low valorization. A better valorization requires the knowledge of the physical properties of the fruit and the nutritional values of its pulp. The collected fruits in three parklands from a survey of transformer's perception were characterized through their visual observations, the determination of their dimensions and pulp proportions. The nutritional value of pulp was evaluated through its chemical characterization. The results of this study revealed that four forms (forms: ovoid, round, ellipsoid and fusiform) identify the physical aspect of Shea fruits in the Shea parklands. The average length, diameter at the equator, mass and pulp proportion of fruits were 45,30 ± 9,90 mm, 36,30 ± 5,90 mm, 40,4 g and 60% respectively. The physicochemical characterization showed that the Shea fruit pulp contained 5,23% protein, 6,32% fiber, 3,59% ash, 14,08% total sugars, 79,48% moisture and minerals (Ca, K, Mg, P). Except the ash content, no significant variation was observed (p ≥ 5%) between the localities within the parks relatively to the studied physicochemical parameters which however, vary according to the form of the fruits. With a pulp proportion higher than 55% and an interesting proximate composition, the study showed that all forms of Shea fruits found in Benin can be valorized and consumed as a fruit. Key words: Vitellaria paradoxa, pulp, fruit form, physicochemical characteristics, valorization, post-harvest loss.

To select appropriate micro-organisms to be used as starter culture for reliable and reproducible fermentation of Lafun. A total of 22 cultures consisting of yeast, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and Bacillus cereus strains predominant in traditionally fermented cassava during Lafun processing were tested as potential starter cultures. In an initial screening, Saccharomyces cerevisiae 2Y48P22, Lactobacillus fermentum 2L48P21, Lactobacillus plantarum 1L48P35 and B. cereus 2B24P31 were found to be the most promising of the cultures and were subsequently tested in different combinations as mixed starter cultures to ferment submerged cassava roots. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, inoculated singly or combined with B. cereus, gave the softest cassava root after 48 h of fermentation according to determination of compression profile and stress at fracture. Overall, sensory quality testing showed that Lafun obtained from S. cerevisiae-fermented cassava gave the most preferred stiff porridge. Saccharomyces cerevisiae 2Y48P22 showed pectinase production in a model system. The results suggest that S. cerevisiae 2Y48P22 is the most efficient organism for cassava softening during the fermentation. Therefore, it could be combined with LAB and used as starter for Lafun processing. Starter cultures are made available for controlled fermentation of Lafun.

Four Gram-positive, catalase-negative, short rod-shaped or coccoid, heterofermentative lactic acid bacterial strains (2L24P13(T), 1L48P15, 1L24P31 and 1L24P34) with unusual phenotypic and genotypic properties were isolated from submerged fermenting cassava on MRS agar. All strains were motile, grew at 15 degrees C, produced dl-lactic acid from glucose with gas formation and produced ammonia from arginine. Acid was produced from d-fructose, d-galactose, d-glucose, lactose, maltose, d-mannose, melibiose, d-raffinose, sucrose, N-acetylglucosamine and d-mannitol, but not from d-arabinose or xylose. 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis revealed that the strains belonged to the genus Weissella and were most closely related to Weissella ghanensis LMG 24286(T). Low DNA-DNA reassociation values were obtained between the isolates and W. ghanensis DSM 19935(T). Based on the genetic and phenotypic results, the strains are considered to represent a novel species, for which the name Weissella beninensis sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is 2L24P13(T) (=DSM 22752(T)=LMG 25373(T)).

Lafun is an African traditional fermented food product prepared from cassava. Whereas Nigerian lafun has been studied, characteristics of Beninese lafun are still unknown. This research was carried out to identify the characteristics of two types of lafun, Chigan lafun and ordinary lafun produced in Benin. The distinctive characteristics of Chigan lafun (the preferred type) were its lower solubility and fibre content and its higher hot paste viscosities compared to ordinary lafun. Whatever the type, lafun was found to be a dried and white product with a highly variable pH (4.5-8.8). Both types were rich in carbohydrates (76.0% of starch and 3.3% of crude fibres), poor in proteins (1.0%) and containing fat (0.4%) and ash (1.2%). The swelling power of the lafun flour (expressed by the quantity of water absorbed by 1 g of flour) was 28.9 g water/g for the both types. Lafun has a variable microbial load which levels ranged from 104 to 108 cfu/g and made up of Bacillus spp. (104-108 cfu/g), lactic acid bacteria (103-107 cfu/g), Enterobacteriaceae (103-107 cfu/g) and yeasts (10 2-107 cfu/g).

Lafun is a fermented cassava food product consumed in parts of West Africa. In the present work the microorganisms (aerobic bacteria (AB), lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts) associated with the fermentation of Lafun under traditional conditions have for the first time been studied using a combination of pheno- and genotypic methods. During Lafun fermentation the AB count ranged from 6-7 log(10) CFU/g at the beginning to 9 log(10) CFU/g at the end. Similarly, the number of LAB increased from 5 log(10) CFU/g to 9 log(10) CFU/g during the process while the yeast load increased from 3 log(10) CFU/g at the onset of the fermentation to 5-6 log(10) CFU/g at the end of the fermentation. A total of 168 isolates (31 AB, 88 LAB, and 49 yeasts) were isolated and identified by means of phenotypic tests, PCR-based methods and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The aerobic bacteria were mostly identified as belonging to the Bacillus cereus group (71%). The B. cereus isolates lacked the genetic determinant specific for cereulide producers but harboured several genes encoding the heat-labile toxins hemolysin BL and nonhemolytic enterotoxin as detected by PCR. The other aerobic bacteria isolated were Gram negative and identified as Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pantoea agglomerans. The dominant LAB were identified as Lactobacillus fermentum (42% of LAB isolates) followed by Lactobacillus plantarum (30%) and Weissella confusa (18%). Seven isolates remained unidentified and constitute probably a novel LAB species. The predominant yeast species associated with Lafun fermentation were Saccharomyces cerevisiae (22% of yeast isolates), Pichia scutulata (20%), Kluyveromyces marxianus (18%), Hanseniaspora guilliermondii (12%), Pichia rhodanensis (8%) and Candida glabrata (8%) as well as Pichia kudriavzevii, Candida tropicalis and Trichosporon asahii at lower incidence (<5% each).

On Mar 12, 2009 this sequence version replaced gi:168481959.

The physicochemical properties of twenty promising new improved cassava cultivars (13 sweet and 7 bitter), harvested at maturity in Benin, were assessed. In parallel, instrumental measurements and sensorial tests were performed to assess boiled cassava quality. These properties and physicochemical properties were tentatively correlated. The colour score of boiled cassava tuber was closely correlated with ΔE measured on fresh pulp, while mealiness (or friability) could be assessed by resistance to penetration, measured on cooked tuber slices. Mealiness could also be predicted from starch functional properties (such as apparent viscosity after pasting), cyanide potential and the water content of fresh tubers. The cassava tubers had a narrow amylose content range (18.2%–22.6% starch basis). In addition, bitter cultivars appeared to be quite homogeneous with, in particular, high sugar and protein contents but low fibre contents. They also had original starch functional properties, with high solubility and low paste viscosity.