Sarah E Williams

Sarah E Williams
University of Birmingham · School of Sport and Exercise Sciences

PhD

About

65
Publications
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2,810
Citations

Publications

Publications (65)
Article
Mastery and affect imagery ability are associated with facilitative stress appraisals, but there is scant research in non-athlete populations. Study 1 examined relationships between mastery and affect imagery ability with stress appraisals and perceived stress in a non-athlete population. Study 2 investigated the feasibility and acceptability of tw...
Article
The present series of studies aimed to develop and provide initial validation of the Ease of Imagery Questionnaire (EIQ)—a measure assessing ease of imaging different positive and negative imagery content reflective of valence and engaging or disengaging in adverse situations. Five studies were conducted to collectively examine the questionnaire’s...
Article
Given the associations between mastery imagery ability, challenge and threat appraisal tendencies, perceived stress and proactive coping, and the implications for health, this research utilised a two-study approach to assess these associations and was the first study to examine whether appraisal states had a mediating role on the relationships of m...
Article
Imagery has been associated with cardiovascular and psychological responses to stress; however, the mechanisms underlying this association are not fully understood. The present study examined if the ability to image mastering challenging or difficult situations moderated the relationship between heart rate reactivity and perceptions of stress and p...
Article
Background: A stress-is-enhancing mindset is associated with lower perceived stress and better coping. However, work examining the prospective associations of stress mindset on perceived traumatic stress symptoms during a stressful real-world life event is limited. The present prospective study explored whether stress-is-enhancing mindset measured...
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Introduction In older adolescence, stress has been found to be prevalent. It has been seen that higher physical activity (PA) relates to lower stress levels, which, in turn, relates to fewer anxiety and depressive symptoms (internalizing symptoms). However, how these associations function is not fully understood. PA is strongly associated with grea...
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Cardiovascular reactions to acute psychological stress have been associated with cognitive function. However, previous work has assessed cardiovascular reactions and cognitive function in the laboratory at the same time. The present study examined the association between cardiovascular reactions to acute psychological stress in the laboratory and a...
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Arousal reappraisal has been shown to be an effective strategy during stress to improve anxiety. However, the exact psychological mechanism through which arousal reappraisal improves anxiety is unknown. In a large, cross‐sectional study (Study 1, N = 455) participants engaged in an acute psychological stress task and rated their levels of physiolog...
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Mastery imagery (i.e., images of being in control and coping in difficult situations) is used to regulate anxiety. The ability to image this content is associated with trait confidence and anxiety, but research examining mastery imagery ability's association with confidence and anxiety in response to a stressful event is scant. The present study ex...
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Background: The severity of the Coronavirus pandemic has led to lockdowns in different countries to reduce the spread of the infection. These lockdown restrictions are likely to be detrimental to mental health and well-being in adolescents. Physical activity can be beneficial for mental health and well-being; however, research has yet to examine as...
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Psychological stress is ubiquitous in sport. Unsurprisingly then, research that examines the antecedents, correlates, consequences, and interventions pertaining to psychological stress in sport is sizable and broad. With this Research Topic we aimed to capture the breadth and depth of work taking place around the theme of adaptation to psychologica...
Article
Objective: Increased autonomic arousal is a proposed risk factor for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Few studies have prospectively examined the association between physiological responses to acute psychological stress prior to a traumatic event with later PTSD symptoms. The present prospective study examined whether cardiovascular response...
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Background: Acute psychological stress elicits increases in heart rate (HR) and anxiety. Theories propose associations between HR, perceived HR, and anxiety during stress. However, anxiety is often measured as a unidimensional construct which limits a comprehensive understanding of these relationships. Objectives: This research explored whether HR...
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Emerging evidence relates attenuated physiological stress reactions to poor behavioral regulation. However, only a small number of behaviors such as impulsivity and risk taking have been explored. Nevertheless, one opportunistic study suggested that blunted reactivity might relate to poor perseverance. The present study examined the relationship be...
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Mastery imagery has been shown to be associated with more positive cognitive and emotional responses to stress, but research is yet to investigate the influence of mastery imagery ability on imagery’s effectiveness in regulating responses to acute stress, such as competition. Furthermore, little research has examined imagery’s effectiveness in resp...
Article
Objectives This study compared the effectiveness of an imagery intervention with an action observation intervention on the effectiveness of improving the ability to image different content and characteristics. These two intervention techniques were also compared to a control condition. Design Experimental study, random assignment to one of three g...
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Exaggerated cardiovascular reactivity to acute psychological stress is associated with an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease. The amygdala and hippocampus have been implicated in centrally mediating stressor‐evoked cardiovascular reactivity. However, little is known about the associations of amygdala and hippocampus morphology with...
Article
Stress-related sleep disturbances are common, and poor sleep quality can negatively affect health. Previous work indicates that early life adversity is associated with compromised sleep quality later in life, but it is unknown whether it predicts greater declines in sleep quality during stressful life transitions. We propose and test a conceptual m...
Article
Exercise imagery can be beneficial for insufficiently active people as a means to promote physical activity (PA) engagement and positive psychological states. The present study explored imagery use in physically active and insufficiently active older adults. The revised applied model of deliberate imagery use (RAMDIU) was used as a framework to exp...
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Background: The theory of challenge and threat states in athletes (TCTSA) proposes psychological antecedents will predict psychological and cardiovascular responses to stress. The present study investigated this theory in two contextually different stress tasks. Method: 78 males completed a computerised competition and a public speaking task. Ca...
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Limited research has investigated exercise imagery use in middle-aged and older adults and its relationship with affective and behavioural correlates. The study examined the association between self-regulatory imagery and physical activity (PA) through key social cognitive variables. Middle-aged and older adults (N = 299; Mage = 59.73 years, SD = 7...
Article
Objectives This study investigated whether positive and negative mastery imagery ability mediated the relationship between confidence and stress appraisals and responses. To determine whether these results were specific to mastery imagery ability, this study also investigated whether another type of imagery ability (affect) mediated these relations...
Article
The present study aimed to examine whether physical and environment elements of PETTLEP imagery relate to the ability to image five types of sport imagery (i.e. skill, strategy, goal, affect and mastery). Two hundred and ninety participants (152 males, 148 females; Mage = 20.24 years, SD = 4.36) from various sports completed the Sport Imagery Abili...
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This study investigated the influence of different types of mental imagery on heart rate and anxiety responses to a standard psychological stress task. Using a within-design, 25 females (Mage = 23.24; SD = 4.19) imaged three different scripts (challenge, threat, and neutral) to manipulate appraisal of a speech preparation task. Following each scrip...
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Background Given that physical activity (PA) has a positive impact on COPD symptoms and prognosis, this study examined the factors that both encourage and limit participation in PA for individuals with COPD in a primary care setting from the perspective of social cognitive theory. Methods A purposive sample of 26 individuals with a range of COPD s...
Article
The primary aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of combining layered stimulus response training (LSRT) with one week of imagery rehearsal on exercise imagery ability. Further aims were to investigate pre-to post-intervention changes in exercise related feeling states and interest/enjoyment, and determine if imagery ability at pos...
Article
This study examined the effect of imagery content and participant skill level on the interpretation (i.e. image meaning) of a negative image (i.e. a golf putt missing the hole), while also investigating the effect of imagery content and skill level on performance, anxiety, and confidence in a golf putting task. Seventy-nine participants (40 novices...
Article
This study explored the relationship between athletes’ emotion regulation and imagery ability. A total of 648 athletes (57% female; Mage = 20.79 years, SD = 4.36) completed the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ) and Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ). Structural equation modeling supported the hypothesized model in which reappraisal pos...
Article
The ability to generate and control images is an important factor in determining the effectiveness of imagery interventions. Despite evidence that imagery ability improves with practice, until recently, few established ways for its development existed. This article describes the application of layered stimulus response training (LSRT), a technique...
Article
The present study compared the effects of: (a) PETTLEP imagery (e.g. imaging in the environment), (b) prior-observation (i.e. observing prior to imaging), and (c) traditional imagery (e.g. imaging sat in a quiet room) on the ease and vividness of external visual imagery (EVI), internal visual imagery (IVI), and kinaesthetic imagery (KI) of movement...
Article
Recent evidence demonstrates that individuals with low heart rate (HR) reactions to acute psychological stress are more likely to be obese or smokers. Smoking and obesity are established risk factors for increased carotid intima-media thickness (IMT). The aim of this study was to examine the potential pathways linking intima-media thickness, smokin...
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Objective: Despite the benefits of physical activity (PA), only one-third of older adults meet the recommended levels. The present study focused on psychosocial determinants of PA following retirement. Social cognitive theory (SCT) was used to better understand pre- and post-retirement adults' thoughts about PA, the reasons why some individuals ar...
Article
Background: Higher cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with lower trait anxiety, but research has not examined whether fitness is associated with state anxiety levels and the interpretation of these symptoms. The aim of this paper was to (1) reexamine the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and general anxiety and (2) examine anxiety...
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This study investigated the effects of applying elements of the PETTLEP model on vividness and ease of imaging movement. Forty participants (M age = 23.47 years, SD = 4.11) completed the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire when using PETTLEP imagery or traditional imagery. Results revealed significantly higher ease and vividness ratings for...
Article
The present study investigated the relationship between two of the most common measures of motor imagery ability, self-report ratings, and chronometric assessment. This was done for three types of imagery modalities: external visual imagery (EVI), internal visual imagery (IVI), and kinesthetic imagery (KI). Measures of imagery ability (i.e. self-re...
Conference Paper
The revised applied model of deliberate imagery use proposes that the interpretation of imagery content depends on individual characteristics (Cumming & Williams, 2013). The aims of this study were to investigate: 1) whether the interpretation of negative outcome imagery was dependent on image content and participant skill level 2) the subsequent i...
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This study investigated whether athletes’ sport imagery ability predicted the intensity and direction of their trait anxiety, and whether trait confidence mediated this relationship. Three-hundred and fifteen male (n = 181) and female (n = 134) athletes (Mage = 19.23; SD = 1.16) completed the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire to measure skill, st...
Research
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This is a guide to using the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ) with athletes. It was developed by the Birmingham Research in Imagery and Observation (BRIO) group.
Poster
The objective of this study was to assess if a single session of imagery training preceding the mirror training could change cortical organisation compared with mirror training alone.
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Abstract Background Research is required to better understand the psychosocial factors that influence the recovery of individuals with schizophrenia . Objective To conduct a systematic review and thematic synthesis and identify the factors which influence recovery. Methods Major electronic databases were searched from inception until February...
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This study investigated whether imaging a brisk walk once a day over a week could increase barrier self-efficacy among women who wanted to increase their exercise behavior. Participants (N = 32, mean age = 31.90 years, SD = 10.17) were randomly allocated to either an imagery rehearsal group or control group. The 4 min 10 s guided imagery script was...
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The effects of performance pressure on the putting kinematics of 13 expert golfers was investigated. Golfers varied substantially in their response to the pressure with three having significantly increased putting errors (i.e., choking), three having significantly decreased putting errors (i.e., clutch performance) and the remainder showing no sign...
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This article reviews literature on cognitive and motivational imagery use in the sport, exercise, dance, and rehabilitation domains and outlines a revised applied model of imagery use. The original model by Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999 guides practitioners and researchers in determining what cognitive and/or motivational imagery to use in a particu...
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This article provides guidelines for coaches and applied practitioners to create effective imagery scripts for use with their athletes. Supported by the imagery literature, we describe the planning, writing, delivering, and evaluating stages of script development. We explain the importance of considering the five Ws (Who, Where and When, Why, and W...
Article
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Imagery studies have varied widely in the methods used to deliver guided imagery interventions. This variation has led to difficulties comparing studies and uncertainty as to what methods should be followed. A review is needed to evaluate the interventions to date to inform applied recommendations. The aim of this systematic review was to (1) asses...
Article
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This study aimed to test Lang’s bioinformational theory by comparing the effects of layered stimulus and response training (LSRT) with imagery practice on improvements in imagery ability and performance of a motor skill (golf putting) in 24 novices (age, M = 20.13 years; SD = 1.65; 12 female) low in imagery ability. Participants were randomly assig...
Chapter
The Oxford Handbook of Sport and Performance Psychology includes the latest research and applied perspectives from leaders in the field of performance psychology, presenting sport and performance psychology from myriad perspectives. It looks at individual psychological processes in performance such as attention, imagery, superior performance intell...
Article
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This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the cont...
Article
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This research validated and extended the Movement Imagery Questionnaire- Revised (MIQ-R; Hall & Martin, 1997). Study 1 (N = 400) examined the MIQ-R's factor structure via multitrait-multimethod confirmatory factor analysis. The questionnaire was then modified in Study 2 (N = 370) to separately assess the ease of imaging external visual imagery and...
Article
Full-text available
The Oxford Handbook of Sport and Performance Psychology includes the latest research and applied perspectives from leaders in the field of performance psychology, presenting sport and performance psychology from myriad perspectives. It looks at individual psychological processes in performance such as attention, imagery, superior performance intell...
Article
Objectives: Following the development of the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ; Williams & Cumming, 2011), the aim of the present two studies was to more comprehensively examine the relationship between sport-related imagery ability and the functions of imagery and observational learning (OL) athletes report. A second aim was to establish t...
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The study aimed to investigate the use of imagery to prompt a challenge or threat appraisal of a dart throwing task, and examine the resulting effect on psychological responses and performance. Seventy participants (30 females, 40 males; Mage=19.33 years, SD=.53) were randomly assigned to either a challenge or threat group. Measures of stress appra...
Chapter
Full-text available
Imagery is a cognitive process fundamental to motor learning and performance. When we con-sciously internally represent an action through imagery, the same brain areas involved in the unconscious planning and execution of movements are activated (Lotze & Halsband, 2006; Munzert, Lorey, & Zentgraf, 2009). Importantly, imagery shares neural and behav...
Article
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Based on literature identifying movement imagery, observation, and execution to elicit similar areas of neural activity, research has demonstrated that movement imagery and observation successfully prime movement execution. To investigate whether movement and observation could prime ease of imaging from an external visual-imagery perspective, an in...
Article
Full-text available
This research aimed to develop and provide initial validation of the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ). The SIAQ assesses athletes' ease of imaging different types of imagery content. Following an extensive pilot study, 375 athletes completed a 20-item SIAQ in Study 1. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a 4-factor model assessing skill,...
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The present study investigated whether imagery could manipulate athletes' appraisal of stress-evoking situations (i.e., challenge or threat) and whether psychological and cardiovascular responses and interpretations varied according to cognitive appraisal of three imagery scripts: challenge, neutral, and threat. Twenty athletes (M(age) = 20.85; SD...
Article
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The current study investigated the Emotion element of the PETTLEP model of motor imagery using penalty kicks in soccer. Two six-week PETTLEP-based imagery interventions were compared to a stretching group (control). Both imagery interventions (skill-based and emotion-based) were facilitative and differed only in their emotional content. Thirty-thre...

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