Robert Houze

• University of Washington

A new methodology is developed to construct a global (60°S–60°N) long‐term (2000–2019) high‐resolution (∼10‐km h) mesoscale convective system (MCS) database by tracking MCS jointly using geostationary satellite infrared brightness temperature (Tb) and precipitation feature (PF) characteristics from the Integrated Multi‐satellitE Retrievals for GPM...

The Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) developed by the Department of Energy has a goal of addressing challenges in understanding the global water cycle. Success depends on correct simulation of cloud and precipitation elements. However, lack of appropriate evaluation metrics has hindered the accurate representation of these elements in gene...

Weather mapping began in the nineteenth century when telegraphs began sending simultaneous observations of conditions at the surface of Earth to weather stations around the world. Indicating the complexity of the clouds and weather seen at a site needed a common naming system and simple symbols that were independent of language, since telegraph sig...

The Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) core observatory satellite launched in 2014 features more extended latitudinal coverage (65°S-65°N) than its predecessor Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM, 35°S-35°N). The Ku-band radar onboard of the GPM is known to be capable of characterizing the 3D structure of deep convection globally. In this...

Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) are frequently observed over the U.S. Great Plains during boreal spring and summer. Here, four types of synoptically-favorable environments for spring MCSs and two types each of synoptically-favorable and unfavorable environments for summer MCSs are identified using self-organizing maps (SOM) with inputs from obs...

Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) are frequently observed over the U.S. Great Plains during boreal spring and summer. Here, four types of synoptically favorable environments for spring MCSs and two types each of synoptically favorable and unfavorable environments for summer MCSs are identified using self- organizing maps (SOMs) with inputs from o...

The spatiotemporal variability and 3-dimensional structures of mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) east of the U.S. Rocky Mountains and their large-scale environments are characterized across all seasons using 13 years of high-resolution radar and satellite observations. Long-lived and intense MCSs account for over 50% of warm season precipitation...

The Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) dominates the intraseasonal variability of cloud populations of the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. Suppressed MJO periods consist primarily of shallow and isolated deep convection. During the transition to an active MJO, the shallow and isolated deep clouds grow upscale into the overnight hours. During activ...

Deep convective storms play a key role in severe weather, the hydrological cycle, and the global atmospheric circulation. Historically, little attention has been paid to the intense convective storms in the high latitudes. These regions have been experiencing the largest increases of mean surface temperature over the last century. The Global Precip...

As midlatitude cyclones pass over a coastal mountain range, the processes producing their clouds and precipitation are modified, leading to considerable spatial variability in precipitation amount and composition. Statistical diagrams of airborne precipitation radar transects, surface precipitation measurements, and particle size distributions are...

Regional climate simulations over the continental U.S. were conducted for the 2011 warm season using the Weather Research and Forecasting model at convection-permitting resolution (4 km) with two commonly used microphysics parameterizations (Thompson and Morrison). Sensitivities of the simulated MCS properties and feedbacks to large-scale environme...

This study examines Kelvin-Helmholtz (KH) waves observed by dual-polarization radar in several precipitating midlatitude cyclones during the Olympic Mountains Experiment (OLYMPEX) field campaign along the windward side of the Olympic Mountains in Washington State and in a strong stationary frontal zone in Iowa during the Iowa Flood Studies (IFloodS...

When cumulonimbus clouds aggregate, developing into a single entity with precipitation covering a horizontal scale of hundreds of kilometers, they are called mesoscale convective systems (MCSs). They account for much of Earth’s precipitation, generate severe weather events and flooding, produce prodigious cirriform anvil clouds, and affect the evol...

A stochastic prognostic framework for modeling the population dynamics of convective clouds and representing them in climate models is proposed. The framework follows the nonequilibrium statistical mechanical approach to constructing a master equation for representing the evolution of the number of convective cells of a specific size and their asso...

The Olympic Mountains Experiment (OLYMPEX) documented precipitation and drop size distributions (DSDs) in landfalling midlatitude cyclones with gauges and disdrometers located at various distances from the coast and at different elevations on the windward side of the mountain range. Statistics of the drop size and gauge data for the season and case...

Continental-scale convection-permitting simulations of the warm seasons of 2011 and 2012 using the WRF model reproduce realistic structure and frequency distribution of lifetime and event mean precipitation of mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) over the central United States. Analysis is performed to determine the environmental conditions conduciv...

Historical rainfall records reveal that the frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events, during the summer monsoon (June–September) season, have significantly risen over the Western Himalayas (WH) and adjoining upper Indus basin since 1950s. Using multiple datasets, the present study investigates the possible coincidences between an inc...

Airborne radar data collected within Hurricane Karl (2010) provide a high-resolution glimpse of variations in the vertical precipitation structure around complex terrain in eastern Mexico. Widespread precipitation north of Karl's track traced the strong gradient of terrain, suggesting orographic enhancement. Although the airborne radar did not samp...

The Olympic Mountains Experiment (OLYMPEX) took place during the 2015/16 fall–winter season in the vicinity of the mountainous Olympic Peninsula of Washington State. The goals of OLYMPEX were to provide physical and hydrologic ground validation for the U.S.–Japan Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) satellite mission and, more specifically, to st...

The changes in extreme rainfall associated with a warming climate have drawn significant attention in recent years. Mounting evidence shows that sub-daily convective rainfall extremes are increasing faster than the rate of change in the atmospheric precipitable water capacity with a warming climate. However, the response of extreme precipitation de...

Supplementary Figures 1-11

Seasonal and intraseasonal differences in mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) over South Asia are examined using A-Train satellites, a ground-based lightning network, and reanalysis fields. Premonsoon (April–May) MCSs occur primarily over Bangladesh and the eastern Bay of Bengal. During the monsoon (June–September), small MCSs occur over the Meghal...

To equitably compare the spatial pattern of ice microphysical processes produced by three microphysical parameterizations with each other, observations, and theory, simulations of tropical oceanic mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model were forced to develop the same mesoscale circulations as observa...

Satellite radar and radiometer data indicate that subtropical South America has some of the deepest and most extreme convective storms on Earth. This study uses the full 15-yrTRMMPrecipitation Radar dataset in conjunction with high-resolution simulations from the Weather Research and Forecasting Model to better understand the physical factors that...

Kelvin-Helmholtz billows with horizontal scales of 3–4 km have been observed in midlatitude cyclones moving over the Italian Alps and the Oregon Cascades when the atmosphere was mostly statically stable with high amounts of shear and Ri < 0.25. In one case, data from a mobile radar located within a windward facing valley documented a layer in which...

Yanai and coauthors utilized the meteorological data collected from a sounding network to present a pioneering work in 1973 on thermodynamic budgets, which are referred to as the apparent heat source (Q 1) and apparent moisture sink (Q 2). Latent heating (LH) is one of the most dominant terms in Q 1. Yanai's paper motivated the development of satel...

The contribution of extreme convective storms to rainfall in South America is investigated using 15 years of high-resolution data from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Precipitation Radar (PR). Precipitation from three specific types of storms with extreme horizontal and vertical dimensions have been calculated and compared to the cli...

During the DYNAMO/AMIE field experiment in the Indian Ocean, the NCAR S-PolKa radar observed three active Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) events. These events were separated by suppressed periods characterized by shallower, more isolated convection and relatively little rainfall. The sensitivity of S-PolKa allowed investigation of the initiation an...

Observations from A-Train satellites and other datasets show that mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) affect the water vapor and ice content of the tropical tropopause transition layer (TTL). The largest MCSs with radar reflectivity characteristics consistent with the presence of large stratiform and anvil regions have the greatest impact. Most MCS...

For over 16 years, the Precipitation Radar of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite detected the three-dimensional structure of significantly precipitating clouds in the tropics and subtropics. This paper reviews and synthesizes studies using the TRMM radar data to present a global picture of the variation of convection throughou...

Radar data in some frontal systems passing over the Sierra Nevada of California show large variance on scales of ~10 km. The most prominent features are a few kilometers in scale and are similar to small-scale precipitation cells embedded in fronts seen over other mountain ranges. Other frontal systems crossing the Sierras are characterized by more...

Radar data from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) show the evolution of echo tops of convective elements over the Indian Ocean and Maritime Continent during the Dynamics of the Madden-Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) field campaign of 2011-2012. Echo top heights exhibited a bimodal distribution wherein cumulonimbus of moderate height consti...

Anomalies of eastward propagating large-scale vertical motion with ~30 day variability at Addu City, Maldives, move into the Indian Ocean from the west and are implicated in Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) convective onset. Using ground-based radar and large-scale forcing data derived from a sounding array, typical profiles of environmental heating...

The Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission's Spectral Latent Heating algorithm shows the contributions of different forms of convection to the latent heating profiles of the Madden-Julian Oscillation over the central Indian and West Pacific Oceans. In both oceanic regions, storms containing broad stratiform regions produce increased upper-level heat...

Characteristics of mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) in regions affected by the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) are investigated using a database of MCSs observed by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for Earth Observing System (AMSR-E). Lightning occurrence detected by the Wor...

Deep cumulonimbus clouds are the special category of convective clouds that produce severe weather in the forms of tornadoes, downbursts, microbursts, gust fronts, derechos, and lightning. This chapter examines how vorticity dynamics leads to mesocyclones, funnel clouds, tornadoes, and waterspouts; how gravity current dynamics produces gust fronts...

This chapter examines clouds confined to relatively shallow layers of air in which the rate of cooling resulting in cloud formation is rather slight. These clouds include: fog, stratus, stratocumulus, altostratus, altocumulus, cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus, and subvisible cirrus. These clouds have water contents generally <1gkg-1 and in shallo...

Tropical cyclones draw energy from warm ocean surfaces and use this energy to strengthen a cyclonic disturbance into an intense vortex, which is called a hurricane, typhoon, or cyclone, depending on where in the world it occurs. The tropical cyclone initiates from a collection of cumulonimbus clouds before the intense vortex dominates the dynamics....

This chapter reviews the basic microphysics governing the formation and growth of the liquid drops and ice crystals that occur in clouds. The various physical processes are examined separately, including nucleation, condensation, evaporation, sublimation, deposition, stochastic collection, continuous collection, coalescence, riming, aggregation, br...

Certain types of clouds are produced when air flows over hills or mountains. Mountain wave and lee wave clouds occur when stable air is set into oscillation by passing over a terrain feature such as a hill or mountain. Föhn wall and rotor clouds occur when the air flowing over a ridge becomes supercritical, with strong downslope winds and a hydraul...

Nimbostratus clouds occur in connection with organized storms, mostly fronts, tropical cyclones, and mesoscale convective systems. They are produced by nearly stable air motions and are deep enough to allow precipitation particles to grow to the sizes of raindrops and snowflakes. Their depth and robust precipitation production distinguish them from...

This chapter reviews the basic dynamic, thermodynamic, and water-continuity relationships required to read the literature on cloud dynamics. The force balances and instabilities that affect clouds are reviewed. The primitive equations are presented and their Boussinesq and anelastic forms are presented. Horizontal and vertical vorticity equations a...

This chapter reviews the basic dynamics of convective clouds, which include cumulus, cumulonimbus, and mesoscale convective systems. The factors underlying convective cloud dynamics are buoyancy, pressure perturbations due to buoyancy and in-cloud rotation, entrainment, and three-dimensional vorticity dynamics. This chapter reviews the fundamental...

This chapter identifies and describes the different types of clouds that occur in Earth's atmosphere. Traditional observation of clouds by a ground observer includes clouds known by the nomenclature: cumulus, cumulonimbus, fog, stratus, stratocumulus, altostratus, altocumulus, cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus, noctilucent, orographic, lenticular,...

Most observations of clouds and precipitation are accomplished by remote sensing, including radar, lidar, and passive microwave sensing. The student of cloud dynamics needs to know the rudiments of the theory of these techniques, and this chapter provides that background. Topics covered include passive microwave rain retrieval, Doppler radar basics...

Composite analysis of mature near-equatorial oceanic mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) during the active stage of the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) show where different hydrometeor types occur relative to convective updraft and stratiform midlevel inflow layers. The National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) S-PolKa radar observed these MC...

Satellite radar and radiometer data show that subtropical South America has the world's deepest convective storms, robust mesoscale convective systems, and very frequent large hail. We determine severe weather characteristics for the most intense precipitation features seen by satellite in this region. In summer, hail and lightning concentrate over...

A multiscale investigation into three years of anomalous floods in Pakistan provides insight into their formation, unifying meteorological characteristics, mesoscale storm structures, and predictability. Striking similarities between all three floods existed from planetary and large-scale synoptic conditions down to the mesoscale storm structures,...

Airborne Doppler radar data collected in tropical cyclones by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-ministration WP-3D aircraft over an 8-yr period (2003–10) are used to statistically analyze the vertical structure of tropical cyclone eyewalls with reference to the deep-layer shear. Convective evolution within the inner core conforms to patterns show...

[1] The microphysical characteristics of precipitating convection occurring in various stages of the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) over the Indian Ocean are determined from data obtained from the National Center for Atmospheric Research dual-polarimetric Doppler S-band radar, S-PolKa, deployed as part of the Dynamics of the MJO (DYNAMO) field exp...

A flash flood and landslide in the Leh region of the Indus Valley in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir on 5-6 August 2010 resulted in hundreds of deaths and great property damage. Observations have led to the hypothesis that the storm, which formed over the Tibetan Plateau, was steered over the steep edge of the plateau by 500-hPa winds and the...

The largest convective clouds are mesoscale convective systems, which account for a large portion of Earth's cloud cover and precipitation, and the patterns of wind and weather associated with mesoscale convective systems are important local phenomena that often must be forecast on short timescales. They often produce floods. Mesoscale convective s...

Variability of the cloud population in the central equatorial Indian Ocean was observed in the context of the Madden‐Julian Oscillation (MJO) during the Dynamics of the Madden‐Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) and Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Madden‐Julian Investigation Experiment (AMIE) field campaigns. Radar observations from the polarimetric S‐ba...

[1] The variability of the precipitating cloud population of the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) is represented by statistics of echo features seen by the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission's Precipitation Radar over the central Indian and west Pacific Oceans. Echo features include isolated shallow echoes, deep convective cores, wide convective co...

Airborne Doppler radar documented the stratiform sector of a rainband within the stationary rainband complex of Hurricane Rita. The stratiform rainband sector is a mesoscale feature consisting of nearly uniform precipitation and weak vertical velocities from collapsing convective cells. Upward transport and associated latent heating occur within th...

Upstream orographic enhancement of the rainfall from an extratropical cyclone approaching the Andes from the Pacific is investigated using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model and the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Precipitation Radar. The main precipitation from the cyclone over central and coastal Chile fell when a narrow...

In the Indo-Pacific region, mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) occur in a pattern consistent with the eastward propagation of the large-scale convective envelope of the Madden-Julian oscillation (MJO). MCSs are major contributors to the total precipitation. Over the open ocean they tend to be merged or connected systems, while over the Maritime Co...

Two field campaigns, the African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis (AMMA) and the Tropical Warm Pool–International Cloud Experiment (TWP-ICE), took place in 2006 near Niamey, Niger, and Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia, providing extensive observations of mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) near a desert and a tropical coast, respectively. Un...

Airborne Doppler radar documented a variety of convective-scale structures within the inner-core rainbands of Hurricane Rita (2005). As predicted by past studies, wind shear determined azimuthal variations in the convection. All convective-scale circulations had radial inflow at low levels, upward motion, and outflow in the midtroposphere. Convecti...

Ten years of Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission precipitation radar data are used to study the physical properties of the precipitating cloud systems that account for the summer rainfall of tropical and subtropical South America. Radar echoes in the continental subtropics tend to be of an intensely convective nature, especially at the eastern foot...

Flash floods on the edge of high terrain, such as the Himalayas or Rocky Mountains, are especially dangerous and hard to predict. The Leh flood of 2010 at the edge of the Himalayan Plateau in India is an example of the tragic consequences of such storms. The flood occurred over a high mountain river valley when, on three successive days, diurnally...

Vertically pointing millimeter-wavelength radar observations of anvil clouds extending from mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) that pass over an Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program (ARM) field site in Niamey, Niger, are compared to anvil structures generated by the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) mesoscale model using six different mi...

Ten years of data from the Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission satellite's Precipitation Radar are analyzed to determine the typical vertical structure of the concentric eyewalls of tropical cyclones undergoing eyewall replacement. The vertical structure of the secondary (outer) eyewall is different from the primary (inner) eyewall and also diffe...

Precipitation over and near mountains is not caused by topography but, rather, occurs when storms of a type that can occur anywhere (deep convection, fronts, tropical cyclones) form near or move over complex terrain. Deep convective systems occurring near mountains are affected by channeling of airflow near mountains, capping of moist boundary laye...

Ten years of three-dimensional Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) Precipitation Radar (PR) echoes reveal the typical vertical structure of precipitation features seen in tropical cyclones. Statistical analyses based on annular regions spaced evenly from the center of the cyclone indicate different vertical precipitation structures for the...

We have used the TRMM satellite's Precipitation Radar (PR) to develop a climatology of extreme convection in the regions of the Andes and Himalayas. This work shows that intense convection often occurs in arid regions but does not usually produce large amounts of rain. Large quantities of rain falling in mountainous regions is associated with the c...

The anvil clouds of tropical squall-line systems over West Africa have been examined using cloud radar data and divided into those that appear ahead of the leading convective line and those on the trailing side of the system. The leading anvils are generally higher in altitude than the trailing anvil, likely because the hydrometeors in the leading...

Ten years of data from the Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission satellite’s Precipitation Radar (TRMM PR) show the vertical structure of tropical cyclone rainbands. Radar-echo statistics show that rainbands have a two-layered structure, with distinct modes separated by the melting layer. The ice layer is a combination of particles imported from th...

Deep convection in the tropics plays an important role in driving global circulations and the transport of energy from the tropics to the mid-latitudes. Understanding the mechanisms that control tropical convection is a key to improving climate modeling simulations of the global energy balance. One of the dominant sources of tropical convective var...

Clouds within the inner regions of tropical cyclones are unlike those anywhere else in the atmosphere. Convective clouds contributing to cyclogenesis have rotational and deep intense updrafts but tend to have relatively weak downdrafts. Within the eyes of mature tropical cyclones. stratus clouds top a boundary layer capped by subsidence. An outward...

Temporal and spatial variations of convection in South Asia are analyzed using eight years of Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Precipitation Radar (PR) data and NCEP reanalysis fields. To identify the most extreme convective features, three types of radar echo structures are defined: deep convective cores (contiguous 3D convective echo ≥4...

Airborne Doppler radar data collected during the Hurricane Rainband and Intensity Change Experiment (RAINEX) document downdrafts in the principal rainband of Hurricane Katrina (2005). Inner-edge down-drafts (IEDs) originating at 6–8-km altitude created a sharp reflectivity gradient along the inner boundary of the rainband. Low-level downdrafts (LLD...

The vertical structure of radar echoes in extratropical cyclones moving over the Oregon Cascade Moun- tains from the Pacific Ocean indicates characteristic precipitation processes in three basic storm sectors. In the early sector of a cyclone, a leading edge echo (LEE) appears aloft and descends toward the surface. Updraft cells inferred from the v...

Although moisture-laden airflow towards a mountain is a necessary ingredient, the results from the Mesoscale Alpine Programme (MAP) demonstrate that detailed knowledge of the orographically modified flow is crucial for predicting the intensity, location and duration of orographic precipitation. Understanding the orographically modified flow as it o...

Observations made during the historic 2005 hurricane season document a case of "eyewall replacement." Clouds outside the hurricane eyewall coalesce to form a new eyewall at a greater radius from the storm center, and the old eyewall dies. The winds in the new eyewall are initially weaker than those in the original eyewall, but as the new eyewall co...

The Hurricane Rainband and Intensity Change Experiment (RAINEX) used three P3 aircraft aided by high- resolution numerical modeling and satellite communications to investigate the 2005 Hurricanes Katrina, Ophelia, and Rita. The aim was to increase the understanding of tropical cyclone intensity change by interactions between a tropical cyclone's in...

Radar observations have been analyzed to determine characteristics of convection over the oceanic region around Kwajalein in the tropical western Pacific. Generally, the echo areas, heights, and durations exhibited lognormal distributions. Heights were greater under conditions of higher midtropospheric humidity and correlated with echo area, with a...

This study compiles and interprets three-dimensional Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) data during a 2.5-yr period and examines the typical orographic effects on precipitation mainly associated with winter storms passing over coastal northern California. The three-dimensional mean reflectivity patterns show echo structure that was g...

Although moisture-laden airflow towards a mountain is a necessary ingredient, the results from MAP taught us that detailed knowledge of the orographically modified flow is crucial for predicting the intensity, location and duration of orographic precipitation. Understanding the orographically modified flow as it occurs in the Alps was difficult sin...

[1] Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) have regions of both convective and stratiform precipitation, and they develop mesoscale circulations as they mature. The upward motion takes the form of a deep-layer ascent drawn into the MCS in response to the latent heating and cooling in the convective region. The ascending layer overturns as it rises but...

This study compares the surface rainfall retrieved from the Goddard profiling (GPROF; version 5) algorithm with Kwajalein ground-based radar (KR) observations at 0.1°, 0.25°, and 1° resolutions. Comparisons of the GPROF-retrieved rainfall with KR observations for 178 overpasses show that GPROF overestimated surface rainfall with respect to the KR b...

1] Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) have regions of both convective and stratiform precipitation, and they develop mesoscale circulations as they mature. The upward motion takes the form of a deep-layer ascent drawn into the MCS in response to the latent heating and cooling in the convective region. The ascending layer overturns as it rises but...

Despite continual increases in numerical model resolution and significant improvements in the forecasting of many meteorological parameters, progress in quantitative precipitation forecasting (QPF) has been slow. This is attributable in part to deficiencies in the bulk microphysical parameterization (BMP) schemes used in mesoscale models to simulat...

Dr. Joanne Simpson’s nine specific research contributions to the field of meteorology during her 50-year career—1) the hot tower hypothesis, 2) hurricanes, 3) airflow and clouds over heated islands, 4) cloud models, 5) trade winds and their role in cumulus development, 6) air-sea interaction, 7) cloud-cloud interactions and mergers, 8) waterspouts,...

Joanne Simpson began contributing to advances in tropical convection about half a century ago. The hot tower hypothesis jointly put forth by Joanne Simpson and Herbert Riehl postulated that deep convective clouds populating the “equatorial trough zone” were responsible for transporting heat from the boundary layer to the upper troposphere. This hyp...

The validation of NASA Global Precipitation Mission (GPM) satellite precipitation products is important for their credibility and utility within the larger community. This document defines GPM ground validation scientific objectives and several programmatic components for meeting those objectives. Multi-year, multi-sensor ground-based observation p...

The primary goal of IMPROVE-2 (Improvement of MicrophysicalPaRameterization through Observational Verification Experiment, Phase II), which was conducted over the central Oregon Cascades from 26 November through 22 December 2001, was to simultaneously and comprehensively measure both basic-state and cloud and precipitation microphysical fields in a...