Rick E. Ingram

• University of Kansas

The natural process of mimicking the facial expressions of others is well established, as are the deficits in this reflexive behavior for individuals with clinical disorders such as depression. This study examines the extent of this deficit in non-clinical individuals with high transient negative mood, and whether it extends to both automatic and e...

Memory for others’ sad affective facial expressions may be relevant to depression risk, given that biases have been linked to major depression and transient sad mood states. However, no study has addressed whether stable, subclinical dysphoria is associated with similar biases, or whether depression history might moderate a relationship between dys...

Now in its fourth edition, the acclaimed Oxford Textbook of Psychopathology aims for both depth and breadth, with a focus on adult disorders and special attention given to personality disorders. It provides an unparalleled guide for professionals and students alike. Esteemed editors Robert F. Krueger and Paul H. Blaney selected the most eminent res...

Purpose: One must process others’ facial affect proficiently to facilitate social functioning, and both social functioning and processing of facial affect can be impaired in sleep deficient states. Based on mood-salience, decreased positive affect and increased negative affect experienced from sleep deficits or from depression might differentially...

Introduction: Although parental bonding that is characterized by overprotection and low care is associated with adult depression and anxiety, less is known about its association with other mood states. Additionally, few studies differentiate between maternal and paternal bonding or evaluate sex differences in offspring's emotional responding as a f...

Background: Although cognitive inhibition deficits and attentional biases have been associated with suicidality, these findings have not been consistently reported across samples. The aim of the current study was to further investigate these variables among participants with differing suicidal risk. Methods: We compared affective go/no-go perfor...

Research suggests attachment style may contribute to individual differences in resilience, but little is known about the mechanisms of this relationship. Self-care and self-efficacy may be promising pathways by which attachment influences resilience. The current study evaluated the contributions of attachment security, self-efficacy, and self-care...

Numerous studies have demonstrated that people high on attachment insecurity are more likely to report depressive symptoms as compared to those low on insecurity (secures). These findings suggest that enhancing one's sense of attachment security could help relieve depressive symptoms. One promising technique for increasing attachment security that...

Depression has been recognized as long as human records have existed, and research shows that it continues to be a widespread major threat to public health. Depression has an average age of onset in early adulthood, although some individuals experience depression at a later age. Both men and women experience depression, but sex differences are subs...

The third author's name is spelled incorrectly. The correct name is: Evangelia G. Chrysikou. The correct citation is: Lepping RJ, Atchley RA, Chrysikou EG, Martin LE, Clair AA, Ingram RE, et al. (2016) Neural Processing of Emotional Musical and Nonmusical Stimuli in Depression. PLoS ONE 11(6): e0156859. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0156859. © 2016 Lepp...

Background: Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and striatum are part of the emotional neural circuitry implicated in major depressive disorder (MDD). Music is often used for emotion regulation, and pleasurable music listening activates the dopaminergic system in the brain, including the ACC. The present study uses functional MRI (fMRI) and an emotion...

Demographics, summary questionnaire scores, and emotion ratings by participant. Key: study_id = unique subject identifier; male (1 = male, 0 = female); age (years), ed = education in years; mus_train (1 = None, 2 = 1–3 years, 3 = 4–6 years, 4 = 7–10 years, 5 = more than 10 years); MDD = Major Depressive Disorder classification (1 = MDD group, 0 = N...

We examined how different dimensions of rumination may mediate the impact of parental bonding (lack of care and overprotectiveness) on negative emotional symptomatology (anxiety and depression). Survey data from participants were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Results indicated that brooding rumination fully mediated the relationship...

Examining pupillary motility as a psychophysiological measure of cognitive-affective processing, the current study aimed to elucidate psychophysiological correlates of early resilience to parental depression risk. Forty-one never-depressed female college students were categorized based on presence or absence of parental depression history. Particip...

In studies of explicit memory, researchers have reliably demonstrated that mood-congruent, depressive information is especially likely to be recalled by individuals exhibiting depressed mood. Results from studies of implicit mood-congruent memory in depressed mood, however, have been largely discrepant. The current research reviews 20 studies of im...

Depression has been associated with task-relevant increased attention toward negative information, reduced attention toward positive information, or reduced inhibition of task-irrelevant negative information. This study employed behavioural and psychophysiological measures (event-related potentials; ERP) to examine whether groups with risk factors...

Depression is classified as an affective or mood disorder that is frequently comorbid with anxiety. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association lists nine possible symptoms of depression. A diagnosis of depression is made when the person experiences at least five of these symptoms over a 2-week period, and one of t...

This handbook addresses psychotherapy, psychotherapeutic approaches, and psychotherapeutic change into the 21st century. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

In this chapter, the authors briefly trace the origins of the EST (empirically supported treatment) movement, examine issues of accountability in the practice of psychotherapy, ethical issues, and issues concerning the public trust; and review the economic, political, and social considerations of the EST movement. The authors then turn to an examin...

Facial affect processing is essential to social development and functioning and is particularly relevant to models of depression. Although cognitive and interpersonal theories have long described different pathways to depression, cognitive-interpersonal and evolutionary social risk models of depression focus on the interrelation of interpersonal ex...

Prior research has found an association between parental bonding and depression and anxiety. Specifically, low levels of care and high levels of overprotection have been associated with increased risk for developing depression and anxiety. However little research has explored the relationship between factors of parental bonding and specific aspects...

Using pupil dilation as a physiological gauge of cognitive and emotional load, currently depressed individuals have previously shown sustained processing of negative emotional information. In this study, pupil dilation data from 24 recovered-depressed individuals were compared to those of 25 never-depressed individuals during a task in which they l...

Within psychology, the term depression is typically used to refer to a Major Depressive Episode. A depressive episode is most frequently part of a Major Depressive Disorder, but it may also be a part of bipolar or cyclothymic disorders in which there is fluctuation between periods of excessively elevated moods and depression.

In a broad sense, a case can be made that efforts to understand vulnerability to psychopathology underlie virtually all efforts to understand psychopathology itself. Theory and research related to a number of different psychopathological conditions are examined in the various chapters in this book. Each of these examinations focuses on the specific...

Information processing literature as defined by memory and attention offers little in the way of new treatment insights, but reinforces the underlying rationale for current treatment approaches for depression. Attention and memory are among numerous cognitive factors that may play a role in the risk process. They are the basic building blocks of co...

While most abnormal psychology texts seem to aim solely for breadth, the acclaimed Oxford Textbook of Psychopathology aims for depth, with a focus on adult disorders and special attention given to the personality disorders. Almost a decade has passed since the first edition was published, establishing itself as an unparalleled guide for professiona...

A central theoretical principle guiding cognitive therapy is that mediation by cognitive processes is linked to the successful treatment of depression. The most recent review of the literature on this question is over a decade old and was suggestive of cognitive mediation for cognitive therapy, but was not conclusive. Since this review, a number of...

Theoretical models featuring cognitive processes have played a fundamental role in advancing knowledge of psychopathology and its treatment and have emphasized the importance of cognition in psychotherapy. Recognition of the importance of cognition in psychotherapy has led to a number of questions that are addressed by the articles in this special...

As a way to better understand the effects of treatment for depression, comparative data on measures of cognition have been compiled previously for adults. Such data should be able to aid the evaluation of cognition and cognitive change, and may provide valuable information for clinicians and researchers alike. In this article, analogous comparative...

Without Abstract

Although some research has assessed cognitive variables in individuals at risk for depression, few studies have specifically assessed the role of automatic thinking, and virtually no studies have assessed anger and coping in this group. The current study compared measures of these variables in a high-risk group that was defined on the basis of a pr...

The purpose of the present study was to examine whether individuals at risk for depression would be more uncertain of their future event predictions and if doubts about their self-worth might contribute to this uncertainty. At-risk (defined on the basis of a previous episode of depression), currently dysphoric, and never depressed individuals compl...

The deficit model in clinical psychology is important, but has missed critical opportunities that have been brought to light by the emergence of positive psychology. By focusing on sources of strength and resilience, positive psychology can add new perspectives to ideas about dysfunctional behavior, and has important implications for the theory and...

IN MEMORIAM This special issue of the Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy is dedicated to the memory of Rick Snyder. I am honored and humbled to have the opportunity to write this dedication to Rick, my graduate school mentor, colleague, and friend. Rick was one of the first pioneers of positive psychology. Although positive psychology did not exist...

Several issues regarding the matrix model (C.R. Snyder & T.R. Elliott, this issue, pp. 1033-1054) are addressed. First is the role that positive psychology can play in therapy and prevention training. Next, assumptions of the medical model are discussed concerning training students to be competent therapists in an,era of managed care. Finally, ques...

Cognitive vulnerability is a central concept in cognitive theories of unipolar depression. This idea suggests that negative cognitive factors emerge during stressful situations, and that this cognitive reactivity is critical for the onset, relapse, and recurrence of depression. The number of empirical investigations that model the diathesis-stress...

Vulnerability-stress models Early models of psychopathology typically identified processes operating during the course of the disorder as reflecting the key determinants of the onset of psychopathology (e.g., irrational beliefs; Ellis, 1962). Such models have led to important advances in understanding important features of psychopathology. For exam...

Although the Beck Depression Inventory and Beck Anxiety Inventory are two of the most widely used instruments for assessing depressive and anxious symptoms in both clinical and nonclinical populations, their cross-cultural reliability and validity have yet to be fully established. In this study, 2,703 Caucasian American and 1,110 Latino college stu...

Explores secondary prevention of depression, beginning with a discussion of what constitutes secondary prevention and then examining the idea of risk and differentiating it from ideas about vulnerability. We next note various risk factors for depression and examine studies that have documented efforts toward the secondary prevention of the disorder...

Although studies have assessed the association between affective dysfunction and parental bonding, little research has assessed the information processing characteristics of individuals with disrupted parental bonding. The current study investigated differences in attentional processing between individuals with relatively poor versus secure parenta...

Excessive self‐preoccupation is frequently associated with dysfunctional information processing in social situations. Although a number of studies have used interpersonally evaluative stimuli to examine the effect of self‐preoccupation on cognitive processes, few have examined the effect of noninterpersonal self‐focusing stimuli. This article repor...

The prototypical affective symptom in depression is sadness. However, depressed individuals also report elevated levels of hostile moods. In the present study, we investigated whether hostile and sad moods in dysphoric individuals were associated with distinctive attribution profiles for actual negative life events. In correlational analyses of dyp...

Vulnerability has increasingly become the organizing construct around which much research in psychopathology is organized. This is particularly the case for depression, where researchers have begun to focus considerable attention on the variables that may predispose some individuals to this disorder. Much of this attention has been directed toward...

With this issue, Cognitive Therapy and Research has just passed its 25th birthday. In the 25 years since its inception, the journal has been on the leading edge of cognitively-oriented clinical research. To commemorate this anniversary, a brief history of the journal, and of cognitive research, is presented. Some possible directions for the future...

The goal was to develop a retrospective inventory of parental threatening behavior to facilitate a better understanding of such behavior's role in the etiology of psychological distress. Inventory items were developed based on theory and 135 students' responses to a question eliciting examples of threatening parental behavior. Following item develo...

Research suggests that individuals with features of depression pay excessive attention to negative information. Yet, it is unclear what aspects of negative information are attended to by these individuals. Different answers to this question suggest different roles for attention in the onset and maintenance of depressive states. This study investiga...

Focuses on several major issues that are especially relevant to efforts to adequately conduct research on depression. The authors address questions about the definition of depression and about how different definitions may affect methodological decisions. The authors also describe some common methodological problems in depression research and about...

Depression means different things to different people. For some, depression means feelings of unhappiness that are uncomfortable but do not seem to hinder daily activities. For others, the depression connotes a sickness characterized by severely depressed mood, loss of appetite, lack of concentration, and an inability to function on one's own. The...

Theory and empirical research assessing the developmental precursors of depression is examined. This theory and research tends to emphasize three sets of variables that may guide the eventual development of depression. The first focuses on the role of interpersonal factors, which tend to revolve around parenting. Although parenting is important, re...

Disruptions of emotional information processing (i.e., attention to, memory for, and interpretation of emotional information) have been implicated in the onset and maintenance of depression. The research presented here investigated cognitive and psychophysiological features of a particularly promising correlate of depression: sustained processing o...

This title provides theory and research that show us how to cope adaptively with the big and small challenges of life. It presents a cutting-edge theory and research about the coping process, taking an interdisciplinary approach and utilizing concepts and methods from social, personality, clinical, cognitive, lifespan, and cross-cultural psychology...

Background: Disruptions of emotional information processing (i.e., attention to, memory for, and interpretation of emotional information) have been implicated in the onset and maintenance of depression. The research presented here investigated cognitive and psychophysiological features of a particularly promising correlate of depression: sustained...

Although research has assessed the relationship between variables such as attachment and dysfunctional beliefs, little research has addressed the link between individual differences in parental bonding and automatic thinking. To address this question, analyses were conducted with two subject samples who had completed measures of parental bonding, p...

Although various conceptual proposals have suggested that disruptions in childhood bonding processes may be linked to the origins of these cognitive structures, little research has tested these proposals. This study assessed the information processing of vulnerable individuals and its relationship to childhood bonding. Formerly depressed (vulnerabl...

Although various conceptual proposals have suggested that disruptions in childhood bonding processes may be linked to the origins of these cognitive structures, little research has tested these proposals. This study assessed the information processing of vulnerable individuals and its relationship to childhood bonding. Formerly depressed (vulnerabl...

Efforts to understand the correlates of psychological distress in children frequently examine possible correlates in samples of children who are selected for high levels of distress. The propose of this study was to compare distress correlates in a sample with depressed mothers, and thus at high-risk for distress, to a low-risk sample. Examining da...

Although research has shown that heightenedself-focused attention characterizes dysphoria, fewstudies have examined what factors are linked toincreases in this process. The current study examinedwhether mood states affect the elevation of selffocused attention among dysphoric individuals. A sampleof individuals with elevated dysphoria was compared...

Although social psychological studies of depression may have much to contribute to understanding this problem, a number of factors limit the potential of this research. Previous evaluations of research strategies used in social psychological research have tended to focus on questions concerning clinically significant states. While understanding the...

Although high-risk research suggests that children of depressed mothers are at increased risk for psychological disorders, the mechanisms of this risk are not well understood. In the current study, the information processing of children of depressed mothers was compared with that of children whose mothers were not depressed. Half of each group rece...

There are two facts about depression that are inescapable. The first is that depression is an extremely widespread problem. In a large-scale project that interviewed approximately 19,000 people in five U.S. cities, the National Institute of Mental Health Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study found a lifetime prevalence rate of 6.3% and a 1-year preval...

The chapter illustrates various ways in which personality factors might help to explain variation in information processing in dysphoric and depressed individuals. A number of proposed roles for personality and individual differences in explaining vulnerability to depression are introduced in the chapter. The chapter describes a framework for evalu...

The relationship between affective distress and chronic illnesses is well recognized. Recent research has focused on depressive symptomatology among patients with chronic pain. The present study was conducted to (a) examine depressive information processing in osteoarthritis patients and (b) assess whether the presence of somatic items on a depress...

this paper to provide any concrete empirical demonstrations of the role these factors may play in depression. Rather, the following simulations serve as hopeful "might be's" and avenues for empirical confirmation. By simulating personality variables on a computer, theories about them can be rigorously specified. Hidden ambiguities may corresponding...

Reviews the book "Depression-Theories and Treatments: Psychological, Biological, and Social Perspectives" by Arthur and Ruth Schwartz (see record 1993-97872-000 ). To appreciate the intended breadth of coverage of depression by this volume it is illustrative to examine the organization of the book. The book consists of 21 chapters divided into five...

Although several studies have assessed the affective characteristics of individuals high in negative affectivity, less research has examined cognitive aspects such as self-statements. The states-of-mind (SOM) model specifies ratios of positive and negative self-statements for varying severity levels of psychological dysfunction. Participants comple...

The Positive Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ-P) was designed to assess the frequency of positive self-statements. This article reports original data and reviews other studies that have used the ATQ-P. These data show that the reliability and the norms of the ATQ-P appear stable and that the ATQ-P is inversely associated with negative affectiv...

The Positive Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ–P) was designed to assess the frequency of positive self-statements. This article reports original data and reviews other studies that have used the ATQ–P. These data show that the reliability and the norms of the ATQ–P appear stable and that the ATQ–P is inversely associated with negative affectiv...

Although some research has assessed both the content and mode of information processing in subclinical depressive states, studies have yet to address these issues in clinical depression. In particular, research has not examined whether there is evidence of content specificity in the processing of state and trait depressive information, and whether...

Cognitive models of depression have nominated specific risk factors for symptom onset or recurrence of affective disorder. The variables identified in these accounts are largely psychological in nature and reflect attitudinal-, attributional-, or expectancy-based predispositions for interpreting the meaning of events in a patient 's life. This diat...

Cognitive models of depression typically emphasize cognitive schemas as important variables in the depression process. To date, evidence of these schemas is difficult to detect in remitted depressed individuals unless they have specifically been activated by factors such as negative moods. The present study tested one aspect of schema activation, a...

Previous research examining information processing in subclinical depression has typically not sought to differentiate between depressive information processing structures. To examine this issue, an incidental recall paradigm was used to assess whether subclinically depressed individuals have self-schemas that facilitate the diffuse processing of a...

Cognitive approaches to the conceptualization, empirical investigation, assessment, and treatment of behavioral dysfunction are both widespread and abundant (Ingram, Kendall, & Chen, 1991). Once considered a radical departure from empirical psychological science, the necessity of the “cognitive revolution” in clinical psychology currently only meri...

We compared a cognitive-behavior modification and a traditional education intervention for adults with osteoarthritis (OA). Forty OA patients were randomly assigned to one of two groups: cognitive-behavior modification or didactic lectures. During ten weekly sessions, the cognitive-behavior group learned methods for coping with pain and the disabil...

Self-focused attention has been related to a number of both normal and dysfunctional processes. Several recent studies have suggested that the dispositional equivalent of self-focused attention, private self-consciousness, may serve as a vulnerability factor for emotional distress. To test this proposition, two studies were conducted. In the first,...

We compared a cognitive-behavior modification and a traditional education intervention for adults with osteoarthritis (OA). Forty OA patients were randomly assigned to one of two groups: cognitive-behavior modification or didactic lectures. During ten weekly sessions, the cognitive-behavior group learned methods for coping with pain and the disabil...

Although different perspectives can encourage a productive dialog on the relationship between psychopathology and self-focused attention, the response of T. Pyszczynski et al (see record 1992-05576-001) to R. E. Ingram (1990) confuses important issues, offers a variety of peculiar interpretations, and takes issue with points never raised. Pyszczyn...

Although different perspectives can encourage a productive dialogue on the relationship between psychopathology and self-focused attention, Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Hamilton, and Nix's (1991) response to Ingram (1990) confuses important issues, offers a variety of peculiar interpretations, and takes issue with points never raised. Pyszczynski, Green...

This article reports 2 studies assessing the clinical validity of the Positive Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ–P). In the 1st study, clinically depressed inpatients showed reliably lower ATQ–P scores than a nondepressed control group. In the 2nd study, the specificity of the ATQ–P to emotional distress was evaluated by examining responses in...

Working largely independently, numerous investigators have explored the role of self-focused attention in various clinical disorders. This article reviews research examining increased self-focused attention in these disorders. Results indicate that regardless of the particular disorder under investigation, a heightened degree of self-focused attent...

Working largely independently, numerous investigators have explored the role of self-focused attention in various clinical disorders. This article reviews research examining increased self-focused attention in these disorders. Using information processing constructs, a model of self-focused attention is proposed, and it is suggested that certain de...

Several studies have suggested that depressed pain patients evidence more cognitive distortion than nondepressed pain patients and healthy controls. Although these studies have generally supported notions relating cognitive distortion to depressive functioning, other aspects of dysfunctional cognition have not been assessed in the chronic-pain popu...

Separate but parallel lines of theory and research have suggested that heightened self-focused attention is an important factor in both depression and anxiety. While studies have shown increased self-focusing in both of these dysfunctional states, adequate conclusions cannot be drawn because of the high cooccurrence of depressive and anxious affect...