
Rhodes TrussellTrussell Technologies · Executive
Rhodes Trussell
Ph.D., P.E., BCEE, MASCE
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Publications (134)
Constituents in the feed of reverse osmosis (RO) processes pass into the product by two mechanisms: diffusion through the membrane and advection through defects in the system. While minerals and tracers pass via both mechanisms, pathogens pass only via advection. Using mass and flow balances, a rigorous model is developed to characterize the respon...
Measurement of dissolved ozone (O3) residual is critical for accurately determining O3 concentration-contact time product (CT) in order to establish pathogen removal credit. Higher concentrations of metals and organics in wastewater present more challenging conditions for on-line meters, requiring more frequent calibration and maintenance. This stu...
Robustness of a demonstration potable reuse facility was evaluated through a series of system-wide chemical challenge tests spiking neutral low-molecular weight compounds (acetone, formaldehyde, N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), and 1,4-dioxane), which are known to be challenging for removal through advanced treatment. Two advanced treatment train arr...
Brackish water desalination has become increasingly important in arid inland regions for reliable water supplies, but the management of desalination brine waste is costly. In particular, the presence of oversaturated calcium as scale-forming compounds in the brine is challenging to disposal. This study investigated the effects of three widely used...
An evaluation of surface water augmentation offers insights that can be used in developing public health recommendations for direct potable reuse.
Comparing groundwater recharge and surface water augmentation provides insight into public health protection in indirect potable reuse.
Two column pairs filled with 3.05-m of a sandy soil from the Upper San Gabriel Valley were operated for a period of four and ½ years on municipal effluent from the San Jose Creek Water Reclamation Plant operated by the Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County (LACSD). One column pair was fed filtered, chlorinated effluent (tertiary effluent) for...
The mechanical reliability of a direct potable reuse (DPR) treatment train—consisting of ozone, biological activated carbon, microfiltration/ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and ultraviolet light with advanced oxidation—was evaluated using critical component analysis at the Demonstration Pure Water Facility in San Diego, Calif. Operators maintaine...
An updated open-source spreadsheet tool was used to study calcium carbonate saturation after the addition of several water treatment chemicals.
To safely progress toward direct potable reuse (DPR), it is essential to ensure that DPR systems can provide public health protection equivalent to or greater than that of conventional drinking water sources. This study collected data over a one-year period from a full-scale DPR demonstration facility, and used both performance distribution functio...
The US water supply is in crisis because of factors such as population growth, climate change, limited high‐quality water sources, and increasing water demand. Potable reuse is one component of an integrated water management approach many utilities are exploring.
Calcium carbonate saturation is influenced by temperature. Error is introduced when calcium carbonate saturation is estimated for a temperature other than the temperature at which the pH was measured, unless temperature effects are taken into account. Calcium carbonate saturation is frequently of interest at temperatures other than the temperature...
UV photolysis and UV based advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are gaining more and more attention for drinking water treatment. Quantum yield (ϕ) and molar absorption coefficient (ɛ) are the two critical parameters measuring the effectiveness of photolysis of a compound. The product of the two was proposed as a fundamental measure of a constituent...
This article offers a framework for developing potable reuse systems that provide consistent protection of public health. The proposed framework places consistent public health protection as its main goal and is supported by concepts that prevent failures and respond to those that occur. The four Rs of the framework, namely reliability, redundancy,...
While calculating the Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) for calcium carbonate for a low-alkalinity mountain supply, the authors discovered that Method 2330 B for calculating the LSI for calcium carbonate includes an incorrect equation for calculating the concentration of bicarbonate ion.
Analytical technology can detect synthetic organic chemicals at increasingly smaller concentrations in our environment. Water utilities must understand the significance and potential health implications of these compounds.
As interest in direct potable reuse (DPR) grows, equivalency criteria for comparing water quality after indirect potable reuse (IPR) and DPR must be developed. An expert panel convened by the National Water Research Institute for a WateReuse Research Foundation project has developed public health criteria for pathogens, such as enteric viruses and...
Potable reuse is becoming an increasingly common strategy for bolstering water resource portfolios in water-scarce regions. Each application poses unique challenges, whether related to treatment goals, regulatory requirements, or political and public acceptance, and these issues have a significant impact on the final treatment train selection. This...
Brief History of Filtration Principal Features of Rapid Filtration Properties of Granular Filter Media Hydraulics of Flow through Granular Media Particle Removal in Rapid Filtration Rapid Filter Design Rapid Filter Design Example Other Filtration Technologies and Options Problems and Discussion Topics References
Classification of Membrane Processes History of Membrane Filtration in Water Treatment Principal Features of Membrane Filtration Equipment and Operation Properties of Membrane Materials Particle Capture in Membrane Filtration Hydraulics of Flow through Membrane Filters Membrane Fouling Process Design Problems and Discussion Topics References
Overview of the Microbial World Pathogens in Drinking Water Bacteria of Concern in Drinking Water Viruses of Concern in Drinking Water Protozoa of Concern in Drinking Water Helminths of Concern in Drinking Water Algae of Concern in Drinking Water Assessing the Presence of Pathogens in Source Water Problems and Discussion Topics References
This First Edition of Statistics moves the curriculum in innovative ways while still looking relatively familiar. Statistics utilizes intuitive methods to introduce the fundamental idea of statistical inference. These intuitive methods are enabled through statistical software and are accessible at very early stages of a course. The text also includ...
Classification of Membrane Processes Applications for Reverse Osmosis History of Reverse Osmosis in Water Treatment Reverse Osmosis Process Description Reverse Osmosis Fundamentals Fouling and Scaling Reverse Osmosis Process Design Problems and Discussion Topics References
History of the Development of Water Treatment Health and Environmental Concerns Constituents of Emerging Concern Evolution of Water Treatment Technology Selection of Water Treatment Processes References
Fundamental and Engineering Properties of Water Units of Expression for Chemical Concentrations Physical Aggregate Characteristics of Water Inorganic Chemical Constituents Organic Chemical Constituents Taste and Odor Gases in Water Radionuclides in Water Problems and Discussion Topics References
North Cape Coral Water Treatment Plant, Florida, United States Lostock Water Treatment Works, Manchester, United Kingdom River Mountains Water Treatment Facility, Nevada, United States Gibson Island Advanced Water Treatment Plant, Queensland, Australia Sunol Valley Water Treatment Plant, California, United States North Clackamas County Water Commis...
Introduction to Adsorption Phenomena Manufacture, Regeneration, and Reactivation of Activated Carbon Fundamentals of Adsorption Development of Isotherms and Equations Used to Describe Adsorption Equilibrium Powdered Activated Carbon Granular Activated Carbon Problems and Discussion Topics References
Types of Reactors Used in Water Treatment Mass Balance Analysis Hydraulic Characteristics of Ideal Reactors Modeling Reactions in Completely Mixed Batch Reactors Modeling Reactions in Ideal Continuous-Flow Reactors Using Tracers to Characterize Hydraulic Performance of Nonideal Reactors Modeling Hydraulic Performance of Nonideal Reactors Modeling R...
Introduction Free-Chlorine By-products Chloramine By-products Chlorine Dioxide By-products Ozone By-products Problems and Discussion Topics References
Classification of Particles for Settling Principles of Discrete (Type I) Particle Settling Discrete Settling in Ideal Sedimentation Basins Principles of Flocculant (Type II) Settling Principles of Hindered (Type III) Settling Conventional Sedimentation Basin Design High-Rate Sedimentation Processes Physical Factors Affecting Sedimentation Dissolved...
Introduction to Use of Oxidation Processes in Water Treatment Fundamentals of Chemical Oxidation and Reduction Conventional Chemical Oxidants Photolysis Problems and Discussion Topics References
Introduction to Advanced Oxidation Ozonation as an Advanced Oxidation Process Hydrogen Peroxide/Ozone Process for Potable Water Hydrogen Peroxide/UV Light Process Other Advanced Oxidation Processes Problems and Discussion Topics References
Materials Used to Transport, Distribute, and Store Water Thermodynamics of Metallic Corrosion Electrokinetics of Metallic Corrosion Application of Electrokinetics Microbiologically Induced Corrosion Surface Films and Surface Scales Common Forms of Corrosion Metals of Interest in Domestic Drinking Water Systems Release of Contaminants Formation of T...
Defining the Problem Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Residuals Alum and Iron Coagulation Sludges Lime Precipitation Sludges Diatomaceous Earth Sludges Granular and Membrane Filter Waste Washwater Reverse Osmosis Concentrate Ion Exchange Brine Solid Sorbent Brines and Washwater Management of Residual Liquid Streams Management of Mem...
Traditional, Nontraditional, and Emerging Constituents Arsenic Iron and Manganese Removal Softening Nitrate Radionuclides Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products Problems and Discussion Topics References
Introduction to Air Stripping and Aeration Gas–Liquid Equilibrium Classification of Air-Stripping and Aeration Systems Fundamentals of Packed-Tower Air Stripping Analysis and Design of Packed-Tower Air Stripping Analysis of Low-Profile Air Strippers Analysis of Spray Aerators Other Air-Stripping and Aeration Processes Problems and Discussion Topics...
Evolution of Ion Exchange Technology Synthetic Ion Exchange Media Properties of Ion Exchange Media Ion Exchange Equilibrium Ion Exchange Kinetics Ion Exchange Process Configurations Engineering Considerations in Ion Exchange Process Design Ion Exchange Process Design Case Study Problems and Discussion Topics References
Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry Equilibrium Reactions Thermodynamics of Chemical Reactions Reaction Kinetics Determination of Reaction Rate Laws Reactions Used in Water Treatment Problems and Discussion Topics References
Introduction to Mass Transfer Molecular Diffusion Sources for Diffusion Coefficients Models for Mass Transfer at an Interface Correlations for Mass Transfer Coefficients at an Interface Design of Treatment Systems Controlled by Mass Transfer Evaluating the Concentration Gradient with Operating Diagrams Mass Transfer across a Gas–Liquid Interface En...
Previous studies have shown that the un-ionized ammonia molecule and not the ammonium ion is the form of the toxicant harmful to fish. Prior attempts to quantify the amount of un-ionized ammonia in an aqueous solution have been confusing. Data given here provide ready access to the amount of un-ionized ammonia over a range of temperature and pH tha...
Diminishing reliability of imported water supplies has motivated the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) to adopt the City of Los Angeles's Water Supply Action Plan, “Securing L.A.'s Water Supply.” The City's vision calls for a substantial increase in the use of recycled water to reduce L.A.'s reliance on imported water. To meet this...
The experience of the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC) demonstrates that maintaining high pH (target pH 9.4 for Hetch Hetchy water and pH 8.6 and 8.9 for other water supplies) is an appropriate corrosion control treatment to comply with the Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) and to control metals release in low-alkalinity water and is more...
The experience of the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC) demonstrates that maintaining high pH (target pH 9.4 for Hetch Hetchy water and pH 8.6 and 8.9 for other water supplies) is an appropriate corrosion control treatment to comply with the Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) and to control metals release in low-alkalinity water and is more...
In this paper, we evaluate the efficiency of UV/H2O2 process to remove methyl tert-butyl ether (MtBE) and tertiary butyl alcohol (tBA) from a drinking water source. Kinetic models were used to evaluate the removal efficiency of the UV/H2O2 technologies with different pretreatment options and light sources. Two commercial UV light sources, i.e. low...
The drinking water field has been a dynamic sector for the last 30 years with rapid and significant advances in every area. The water industry had been successful in employing the treatment techniques of filtration and disinfections that had served well in making water safe during the first half of the 20th century. The time-line for the developmen...
Emerging constituents of concern have been with us from the beginning of the environmental era 45 years ago. They were behind the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act. They are behind our struggle with disinfection byproducts. They were behind the development of the 129 (126) priority pollutants. They were behind RCRA and the Superfund. Now they are "emerg...
At a time when population growth, changing regulations, and decaying infrastructure are combining to create a greater demand for qualified environmental engineering professionals, fewer students are choosing to obtain advanced degrees in the field. Statistics collected in 2003 and 2005 via a survey of universities across the U.S. show an alarming d...
The submerged membrane, bioreactor (SMBR) is a promising technology for wastewater treatment and water reclamation. This paper presents results from two pilot scale SMBR systems operating in parallel on municipal wastewater in San Diego, Calif. The SMBRs were operated to address the limitations and advantages of the SMBR process compared to convent...
N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is a member of a family of extremely potent carcinogens, the N-ni-trosamines. Until recently, concerns about NDMA mainly focused on the presence of NDMA in food, consumer products, and polluted air. However, current concern focuses on NDMA as a drinking water contaminant resulting from reactions occurring during chlori...
The prevention of waterborne diseases since the early part of this century can be attributed, in great part, to routine disinfection of water and wastewater. Issues surrounding disinfection differ from country to country. The objective of this paper is to provide an international report on water and wastewater disinfection practices. A background a...
Experiments were conducted to characterise the clean bed headloss of commercial sand and anthracite filter media over sizes ranging from 0.5 to 1.7 mm and over filter rates ranging from 1 to 20 gpm/sf (2.45–49 m/h). Limited tests were also conducted with glass beads. For an equivalent size, the glass beads showed the highest headloss, followed by t...
Literature on ozone inactivation of Cryptosporidium was critically reviewed and analyzed. A set of criteria was established for selecting data from diverse sources and experimental protocols with the objective of compiling comparable data. Several kinetic models were evaluated ranging from the 4-parameter Hom “Power Law model to the single paramete...
The City of San Diego was awarded a grant from the Bureau of Reclamation to investigate the feasibility of using Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs) for water reclamation. Based on the findings of the first phase of the project (Adham et al., 1998), the project team concluded that a parallel comparison of commercially available MBR systems needed to be eva...
The feasibility of the membrane bioreactor (MBR) process for water reclamation was studied. Process evaluation was based on the following: literature review of MBRs, worldwide survey of MBRs, and preliminary costs estimates. The literature review and the survey have shown that the MBR process offers several benefits over the conventional activated...
An integrated membrane system was evaluated for water repurification. Performance evaluation of the membrane system was based on three criteria: flux and fouling, disinfection capability, and rejection of pollutants. Minimal membrane fouling was observed for all of the membranes employed in the study. Significant contaminant rejection was also achi...
The endocrine system is a system of hormones that regulate an organism's development, growth, reproduction, and behavior. The concern about endocrine disruption is rooted in the knowledge that certain synthetic chemicals can mimic the natural hormones that serve as the messengers regulating the endocrine system. This concern is representative of th...
N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is a carcinogen known to be present in various foods and industrial products. The US Environmental Protection Agency has established a 10 -6 cancer risk level for NDMA of 0.7 ng/L. NDMA has been found in the effluents of various water and wastewater plants, but its formation mechanism is not yet understood. This study...
As a part of the Bureau of Reclamation funded project, “Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs) for Water Reclamation-Phase II”, a cost analysis was performed to determine the feasibility of fullscale applications of the MBR process compared to current wastewater technologies. Cost analyses were performed for 1 and 5-MGD (3,785 and 18,927 m3/d) installations p...
Evidence is cited in support of a reversible upper limit to the concentration of mixed liquor suspended solids that can be maintained in a submerged membrane bioreactor. It is hypothesized that this upper limit is due to the rheological properties of the suspension. It is also demonstrated that the form of a model, developed to describe the viscosi...
Towards the twenty-first century, there will be more changes in water treatment practice than that which have occurred during the entire twentieth century. The change will be likely driven by continuing development of technology, public concern, and tougher regulations.
One of the most promising and innovative technologies in water reclamation today is the membrane bioreactor (MBR) process. (Adham et al., 1998) However, the limits of the MBR process for wastewater treatment are not very well understood to date. With funding provided by WERF and in-kind contributions provided by the City of San Diego, the project t...
The City of San Diego is developing new water sources to serve its arid region. In addition, water reclamation is being seriously evaluated by the City to reduce the region's reliance on less dependable imported water. The City adopted the reverse osmosis (RO) process as the foundation of the advanced water treatment of many of their reclamation pr...
The City of San Diego was awarded a grant in October 1998 from the Bureau of Reclamation to investigate the feasibility of using Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs) for water reclamation. Based on the findings of the first phase of the project (Adham et al., 1998), the project team concluded that a parallel comparison of commercially available MBR systems...
A procedure to monitor virus removal at an advanced water treatment (AWT) system for water repurification was developed. The procedure is based on enumerating indigenous coliphages native to waste water throughout the AWT system. Two different methods were evaluated for enumerating the indigenous coliphage, the Membrane Filtration Method (MFM) and...
Typical pilot studies may slightly underestimate clean‐bed head loss in full‐scale filter beds.
The weight of media per unit of filter area cannot be directly measured in a full‐scale filter bed as it can be in a pilot‐scale filter column. Thus the porosity of a full‐scale bed of filter media cannot be readily calculated, and determinations of the...
This article reviews the development of our understanding of flow through porous media with a focus on understanding the clean-bed head loss in water filters. A model of the Forchheimer form is developed by typing existing empirical models to current hydrodynamic theory, and constants are developed for three filter media: glass beads, crushed silic...
Indirect potable reuse is a viable application of reclaimed water if indicated by site‐specific assessments that include contaminant monitoring, health and safety testing, and system reliability evaluation.
The National Research Council released a report in 1998 that evaluated the feasibility of augmenting drinking water supplies with highly treate...
Interest in water reuse for potable purposes has heightened the significance of evaluating the potential presence of microbial agents in treated water. Evaluating the public health risk from microbial agents in water after advanced water treatment (AWT) requires an estimate of the effectiveness and reliability of the treatment system in removing mi...
When water utilities began using chlorine for primary disinfection, a chlorine residual in the distribution system came with this change in method. Since that time, water supply regulations have developed that have rendered such a distribution system residual an increasingly important requirement in many parts of the world. At the same time, water...
Keeping a residual is important, but it is only one of many actions needed to safeguard the integrity of the distribution system.
When water utilities began using chlorine for primary disinfection, a residual in the distribution system came with it. Regulations have made the distribution system residual an increasingly important requirement in many...
European and American experts agree that more research is needed to understand how maintaining a residual affects public health, biological stability, treatment practices, and, ultimately, the consumer.
The development of potable water reuse systems (systems for the treatment of wastewater to quality adequate to augment other surface water supplies) requires careful attention to the consistent production of product water which has low levels of contaminants, such as infectious pathogens, capable of causing human health effects from acute exposure....
Several methods for monitoring the reverse osmosis (RO) membrane integrity were evaluated at a pilot-scale. These methods were classified as direct or indirect monitoring methods. The vacuum test was found to be a very promising direct monitoring method as it correlated well with virus rejection by the RO membranes. From the indirect real-time moni...
The City of San Diego in California, United States, (City) is developing new water sources to serve its arid region. Water repurification, in which reclaimed water receives additional advanced water treatment (AWT) prior to its discharge to a potable water supply reservoir, is one of the encouraging alternatives being implemented by the City to red...
If reverse osmosis is to be used for pathogen removal, quality control measures are necessary.
A bench‐scale study was conducted to evaluate MS‐2 virus rejection by reverse osmosis membranes. Viruses were recovered in permeate passing through some of the membrane structures. Thus, if reverse osmosis is to be used for pathogen removal, quality contr...
The development of membrane treatment processes (microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis) for water treatment is outlined. The design of membrane plant is discussed with reference to membrane selection, process configuration and pretreatment methods. The importance of pilot testing in successful membrane plant design and t...
The development of potable water reuse systems (systems for the treatment of wastewater to quality adequate to augment other surface water supplies) requires careful attention to the consistent production of product water which has low levels of contaminants, such as infectious pathogens, capable of causing human health effects from acute exposure....
Spreadsheets are a powerful tool for solving water chemistry problems.
Procedures for solving problems of equilibrium chemistry are demonstrated through the use of spreadsheet calculations. For most simple problems, these calculations are less costly and more reliable than bench‐scale testing. Once such a spreadsheet has been constructed, it can be...
Removal of micro-organisms by membrane processes was investigated for the San Diego Water Repurification Project. The microfiltration (MF) and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes rejected Giardia cysts and Cryptosporid/um oocysts to below the detection limits of the assay (1 cyst/oocyst/1001). achieving more than 5 logs removal. The log removals of viru...
With the increase in water quality regulations and decrease in available fresh water supplies in the US, pressure-driven membrane processes are playing an increasingly important role in drinking water treatment. They are being employed to remove a wide range of contaminants, and depending on their use, can be operated with minimal or no chemical pr...
Water treatment technologies which allow wastewater re-use for potable water supply are reviewed. The distinction between water and wastewater treatment technologies is now blurring, however, historically different approaches adopted have resulted in separate infrastructures and institutions which hinder integration. In San Diego, USA, water supply...
In wastewater systems across the US, extensive use is made of pump stations and force mains for the transport of raw wastewater to treatment facilities, and treated effluent to disposal locations. The capacity of these systems can be prematurely exceeded for a variety of reasons, including unanticipated service area growth, unusual wet-weather even...
The water industry in the United States is undergoing substantial changes as a result of focused attention on water quality and water management and treatment strategies. This is reflected in USA regulations and the World Health Organization guidelines as well. This is expected to continue as more data on waterborne contaminants are gathered and th...
Explicit analytical mathematical models for use in water-quality simulation studies and management of distribution-system storage are developed, The proposed models can be used effectively for investigating the mixing characteristics of tanks and subsequent effects on water quality, and can directly supplement any of the existing distribution-syste...